Ore genesis

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The various theories of ore genesis explain how the various types of mineral deposits
form within the Earth's crust !re genesis theories are very dependent on the mineral or
commodity
!re genesis theories generally involve three components: source, transport or conduit,
and trap This also applies to the petroleum industry, which was first to use this
methodology
"ource is re#uired $ecause metal must come from somewhere, and $e li$erated $y
some process
Transport is re#uired first to move the metal $earing fluids or solid minerals into
the right position, and refers to the act of physically moving the metal, as well as
chemical or physical phenomenon which encourage movement
Trapping is re#uired to concentrate the metal via some physical, chemical or
geological mechanism into a concentration which forms minea$le ore
The $iggest deposits are formed when the source is large, the transport mechanism is
efficient, and the trap is active and ready at the right time
Contents
%hide&
' !re genesis processes
o '' (nternal processes
o ') *ydrothermal processes
o '+ ,etamorphic processes
o '- "urficial processes
) .lassification of ore deposits
o )' .ommon classification groupings
+ /enesis of common ores
- (ron
0 1ead 2inc silver
3 /old
4 5latinum
6 7ickel
8 .opper
'9 :ranium
'' Titanium
') ,ineral sands
'+ Tin, tungsten, and moly$denum
'- ;are earth elements, nio$ium, tantalum, lithium
'0 5hosphate
'3 "ee also
'4 ;eferences
'6 External links
[edit] Ore genesis processes
Evans <'88+= divides ore genesis into the following main categories $ased on physical
process These are internal processes, hydrothermal processes, metamorphic processes
and surficial processes
[edit] Internal processes
These processes are integral physical phenomena and chemical reactions internal to
magmas, generally in plutonic or volcanic rocks These include>
Fractional crystalli2ation , either creating monominerallic cumulate ores or
contri$uting to the enrichment of ore minerals and metals
1i#uation, or liquid immiscibility $etween melts of differing composition, usually
sulfide segregations of nickel?copper?platinoid sulfides and silicates
[edit] Hydrothermal processes
These processes are the physico?chemical phenomena and reactions caused $y movement
of hydrothermal waters within the crust, often as a conse#uence of magmatic intrusion or
tectonic upheavals The foundations of hydrothermal processes are the source?transport?
trap mechanism
"ources of hydrothermal solutions include seawater, formational $rines <water trapped
within sediments at deposition= and metamorphic fluids created $y dehydration of
hydrous minerals during metamorphism
,etal sources may include a plethora of rocks *owever most metals of economic
importance are carried as trace elements within rock?forming minerals, and so may $e
li$erated $y hydrothermal processes This happens $ecause of
incompati$ility of the metal with its host mineral, for example 2inc in calcite,
which favours a#ueous fluids in contact with the host mineral under diagenesis
solu$ility of the host mineral within nascent hydrothermal solutions in the source
rocks, for example mineral salts <halite=, car$onates <cerussite=, phosphates
<mona2ite and thorianite= and sulfates <$arite=
elevated temperatures causing decomposition reactions of minerals
Transport $y hydrothermal solutons usually re#uires a salt or other solu$le species which
can form a metal?$earing complex These metal?$earing complexes facilitate transport of
metals within a#ueous solutions, generally as hydroxides, $ut also $y processes similar to
chelation
This process is especially well understood in gold metallogeny where various thiosulfate,
chloride and other gold?carrying chemical complexes <nota$ly tellurium?chloride@sulfate
or antimony?chloride@sulfate= The maAority of metal deposits formed $y hydrothermal
processes include sulfide minerals, indicating sulfur is an important metal?carrying
complex
"ulfide deposition:
"ulfide deposition within the trap 2one occurs when metal?carrying sulfate, sulfide or
other complexes $ecome chemically unsta$le due to one or more of the following
processes>
falling temperature, which renders the complex unsta$le or metal insolu$le
loss of pressure, which has the same effect
reaction with chemically reactive wall rocks, usually of reduced oxidation state,
such as iron $earing rocks, mafic or ultramafic rocks or car$onate rocks
degassing of the hydrothermal fluid into a gas and water system, or $oiling, which
alters the metal carrying capacity of the solution and even destroys metal?carrying
chemical complexes
,etal can also $ecome precipitated when temperature and pressure or oxidation state
favour different ionic complexes in the water, for instance the change from sulfide to
sulfate, oxygen fugacity, exchange of metals $etween sulfide and chloride complexes,
etcetera
[edit] Metamorphic processes
1ateral secretion:
!re deposits formed $y lateral secretion are formed $y metamorphic reactions during
shearing, which li$erate mineral constituents such as #uart2, sulfides, gold, car$onates
and oxides from deforming rocks and focus these constituents into 2ones of reduced
pressure or dilation such as faults This may occur without much hydrothermal fluid flow,
and this is typical of podiform chromite deposits
,etamorphic processes also control many physical processes which form the source of
hydrothermal fluids, outlined a$ove
[edit] Surficial processes
"urficial processes are the physical and chemical phenomena which cause concentration
of ore material within the regolith, generally $y the action of the environment This
includes placer deposits, laterite deposits and residual or eluvial deposits The physical
processes of ore deposit formation in the surficial realm include>
erosion
deposition $y sedimentary processes, including winnowing, density separation
<eg> gold placers=
weathering via oxidation or chemical attack of a rock, either li$erating rock
fragments or creating chemically deposited clays, laterites or manto ore deposits
Beposition in low?energy environments in $each environments
[edit] Classification of ore deposits
!re deposits are usually classified $y ore formation processes and geological setting For
example, "EBEC deposits, literally meaning Dsedimentary exhalativeD are a class of ore
deposit formed on the sea floor <sedimentary= $y exhalation of $rines into seawater
<exhalative=, causing chemical precipitation of ore minerals when the $rine cools, mixes
with sea water and loses its metal carrying capacity
!re deposits rarely fit snugly into the $oxes in which geologists wish to place them
,any may $e formed $y one or more of the $asic genesis processes a$ove, creating
am$iguous classifications and much argument and conAecture !ften ore deposits are
classified after examples of their type, for instance Eroken *ill Type lead?2inc?silver
deposits or .arlin?type /old deposits
.lassification of hydrothermal ore deposits is also achieved $y classifying according to
the temperature of formation, which roughly also correlates with particular mineralising
fluids, mneral associations and structural styles This scheme, proposed $y 1indgren
<'8++= classified hydrothermal deposits as hypothermal, mesothermal, epithermal and
telethermal
[edit] Common classification groupings
(!./ or iron?oxide copper?gold, typified $y the supergiant !lympic Bam .u?
Fu?: deposit
,esothermal lode gold deposits, typified $y the /olden ,ile, Galgoorlie
Frchaean conglomerate hosted gold?uranium deposits, typified $y Elliot 1ake,
.anada and Witwatersrand, "outh Ffrica
.arlin type gold deposits, including>
o Bolomite?hosted Aasperoid replacement su$type
Epithermal stockwork vein deposits
5orphyry copper gold
(ntrusive?related copper?gold H@? <tin?tungsten=, typified $y the Tom$stone,
Flaska deposits
Eroken *ill type 5$?In?Fg
"EBEC
o 1ead ?2inc?silver, typified $y ;ed Bog, ,acFrthur ;iver, ,t (sa, etc
o "tratiform tungsten, typified $y the Er2ge$irge deposits, .2echoslovakia
o Exhalative spilite?chert hosted gold deposits
,ississippi Jalley type <,JT= 2inc?lead deposits
Fndean type silver?lead?2inc deposits
,agmatic nickel?copper?iron?5/E deposits including
o .umulate vanadiferous or platinum?$earing magnetite or chromite
o .umulate hard?rock titanium <ilmenite= deposits
o Gomatiite hosted 7i?.u?5/E deposits
o "u$volcanic feeder su$type, typified $y 7oril'sk?Talnakh and the
Thompson Eelt, .anada
o (ntrusive?related 7i?.u?5/E, typified $y "ud$ury Easin, !ntario and
Jinchuan, .hina
1aterite nickel
Jolcanic hosted massive sulfide <J*,"= .u?5$?In including>
o Eesshi type
o Guroko type
5odiform serpentinite?hosted paramagmatic iron oxide?chromite deposits, typified
$y "avage ;iver, Tasmania iron ore, .oo$ina chromite deposit
Eanded iron formation iron ore deposits, including
o .hannel iron or pisolite type
.ar$onatite ? alkaline igneous related deposits including,
o 5hosphorus?tantalite?vermiculite <5hala$orwa "outh Ffrica=
o ;are earth elements ? ,ount Weld, Fustralia and ,ongolia
Biatreme hosted diamond in kim$erlite, lamproite or lamprophyre
5lacer deposits
*eavy mineral sands ore deposits and other sand dune hosted deposits
Flluvial gold, diamond, tin, platinum or $lack sand deposits
[edit] Genesis of common ores
This page has $een organised $y metal commodity> it is also possi$le to organise theories
according to geological criteria of formation, as well as $y metal association !ften ores
of the same metal can $e formed $y multiple processes, and this is descri$ed $y
commodity
[edit] Iron
(ron ores are overwhelmingly derived from ancient sediments known as banded iron
formations <E(Fs= These sediments are composed of iron oxide minerals deposited on
the sea floor 5articular environmental conditions are needed to transport enough iron in
sea water to form these deposits, such as acidic and oxygen?poor atmospheres within the
5rotero2oic Era
!ften, more recent weathering during the Tertiary or Eocene is re#uired to convert the
usual magnetite minerals into more easily processed hematite "ome iron deposits within
the 5il$ara of West Fustralia are placer deposits, formed $y accumulation of hematite
gravels called pisolites These are preferred $ecause they are cheap to mine
[edit] Lead zinc silver
Main article: Sedimentary exhalative deposits
1ead?2inc deposits are generally accompanied $y silver, hosted within the lead sulfide
galena or within the 2inc sulfide sphalerite
1ead and 2inc deposits are formed $y discharge of deep sedimentary $rine onto the sea
floor <termed sedimentary exhalative or "EBEC=, or $y replacement of limestone, in
skarn deposits, some associated with su$marine volcanoes <called volcanic?hosted
massive sulfide or J*,"= or in the aureole of su$volcanic intrusions of granite The vast
maAority of lead and 2inc deposits are 5rotero2oic in age
The limestone replacement type of deposit exemplifies the ,ississippi Jalley Type
,JT "ome of these occur $y replacement and degradation of hydrocar$ons, which are
thought important for transporting lead
The su$volcanic intrusion type of deposit is renowned for high silver grades, and typifies
the deposits of Frgentina, Eolivia and 5eru These deposits are essentially .eno2oic in
age and are known as the Fndean silver $elt, the most recent example $eing "an
.risto$al with -09 million ounces of silver These deposits form $y discharge of fluids
$earing incompati$le elements from the cooling granite mass, and have low lead grades
$ut exceptional silver enrichment
[edit] Gold
/old deposits are formed via a very wide variety of geological processes Beposits are
classified as primary, alluvial or placer deposits, or residual or laterite deposits !ften a
deposit will contain a mixture of all three types of ore
5late tectonics is the underlying mechanism for generating gold deposits The maAority of
primary gold deposits fall into two main categories: lode gold deposits or intrusion?
related deposits
Lode gold deposits are generally high?grade, thin, vein and fault hosted They are
comprised primarily of #uart2 veins also known as lodes or reefs, which contain either
native gold or gold sulfides and tellurides 1ode gold deposits are usually hosted in $asalt
or in sediments known as tur$idite, although when in faults, they may occupy intrusive
igneous rocks such as granite
1ode?gold deposits are intimately associated with orogeny and other plate collision
events within geologic history ,ost lode gold deposits sourced from metamorphic rocks
$ecause it is thought that the maAority are formed $y dehydration of $asalt during
metamorphism The gold is transported up faults $y hydrothermal waters and deposited
when the water cools too much to retain gold in solution
Intrusive related gold <1ang K Eaker, )99'= is generally hosted in granites, porphyry or
rarely dikes (ntrusive related gold usually also contains copper, and is often associated
with tin and tungsten, and rarely moly$denum, antimony and uranium (ntrusive?related
gold deposits rely on gold existing in the fluids associated with the magma <White, )99'=,
and the inevita$le discharge of these hydrothermal fluids into the wall?rocks
<1owenstern, )99'= "karn deposits are another manifestation of intrusive?related
deposits
Placer deposits are sourced from pre?existing gold deposits and are secondary deposits
5lacer deposits are formed $y alluvial processes within rivers, streams and on $eaches
5lacer gold deposits form via gravity, with the density of gold causing it to sink into trap
sites within the river $ed, or where water velocity drops, such as $ends in rivers and
$ehind $oulders !ften placer deposits are found within sedimentary rocks and can $e
$illions of years old, for instance the Witwatersrand deposits in "outh Ffrica
"edimentary placer deposits are known as 'leads' or 'deep leads'
5lacer deposits are often worked $y fossicking, and panning for gold is a popular
pastime
1aterite gold deposits are formed from pre?existing gold deposits <including some placer
deposits= during prolonged weathering of the $edrock /old is deposited within iron
oxides in the weathered rock or regolith, and may $e further enriched $y reworking $y
erosion "ome laterite deposits are formed $y wind erosion of the $edrock leaving a
residuum of native gold metal at surface
[edit] latinum
5latinum and palladium are precious metals generally found in ultramafic rocks The
source of platinum and palladium deposits is ultramafic rocks which have enough sulfur
to form a sulfide mineral while the magma is still li#uid This sulfide mineral <usually
pentlandite, pyrite, chalcopyrite or pyrrhotite= gains platinum $y mixing with the $ulk of
the magma $ecause platinum is chalcophile and is concentrated in sulfides Flternatively,
platinum occurs in association with chromite either within the chromite mineral itself or
within sulfides associated with it
"ulfide phases only form in ultramafic magmas when the magma reaches sulfur
saturation This is generally thought to $e nearly impossi$le $y pure fractional
crystallisation, so other processes are usually re#uired in ore genesis models to explain
sulfur saturation These include contamination of the magma with crustal material,
especially sulfur?rich wall?rocks or sediments> magma mixing> volatile gain or loss
!ften platinum is associated with nickel, copper, chromium, and co$alt deposits
[edit] !ic"el
Main article: Gam$alda type komatiitic nickel ore deposits
7ickel deposits are generally found in two forms, either as sulfide or laterite
"ulfide type nickel deposits are formed in essentially the same manner as platinum
deposits 7ickel is a chalcophile element which prefers sulfides, so an ultramafic or mafic
rock which has a sulfide phase in the magma may form nickel deposits The $est nickel
deposits are formed where sulfide accumulates, much like in a placer gold deposit, in the
$ase of lava tu$es or volcanic flows L especially komatiite lavas
Gomatiitic nikel?copper sulfide deposits are considered to $e formed $y a mixture of
sulfide segregation, immisci$ility, and thermal erosion of sulfidic sediments The
sediments are considered to $e necessary to promote sulfur saturation
"ome su$volcanic sills in the Thompson Eelt of .anada host nickel sulfide deposits
formed $y deposition of sulfides near the feeder vent "ulfide was accumulated near the
vent due to the loss of magma velocity at the vent interface The massive Joisey's Eay
nickel deposit is considered to have formed via a similar process
The process of forming nickel laterite deposits is essentially similar to the formation of
gold laterite deposits, except that ultramafic or mafic rocks are re#uired /enerally nickel
laterites re#uire very large olivine?$earing ultramafic intrusions ,inerals formed in
laterite nickel deposits include gi$$site
[edit] Copper
Main article: Porphyry copper
.opper is found in association with many other metals and deposit styles .ommonly,
copper is either formed within sedimentary rocks, or associated with igneous rocks
The world's maAor copper deposits are formed within the granitic porphyry copper style
The source of the copper is generally considered to $e the lower crust or mantle where
the granite melt forms The copper is enriched $y processes during crystallisation of the
granite and forms as chalcopyrite L a sulfide mineral, which is carried up with the
granite
"ometimes granites erupt to suface as volcanoes, and copper mineralisation forms during
this phase when the granite and volcanic rocks cool via hydrothermal circulation
"edimentary copper forms within ocean $asins in sedimentary rocks /enerally this
forms $y $rine from deeply $uried sediments discharging into the deep sea, and
precipitating copper and often lead and 2inc sulfides directly onto the sea floor This is
then $uried $y further sediment
!ften copper is associated with gold, lead, 2inc and nickel deposits
[edit] #ranium
:ranium deposits are usually sourced from radioactive granites, where certain minerals
such as mona2ite are leached during hydrothermal activity or during circulation of
groundwater The uranium is $rought into solution $y acidic conditions and is deposited
when this acidity is neutralised /enerally this occurs in certain car$on?$earing
sediments, within an unconformity in sedimentary strata The maAority of the world's
nuclear power is sourced from uranium in such deposits
:ranium is also found in nearly all coal at several parts per million, and in all granites
;adon is a common pro$lem during mining of uranium as it is a radioactive gas
:ranium is also found associated with certain igenous rocks, such as granite and
porphyry The !lympic Bam deposit in Fustralia is an example of this type of uranium
deposit (t contains 49M of Fustralia's share of -9M of the known glo$al low?cost
recovera$le uranium inventory
/eoscience Fustralia :ranium (nfosheet
[edit] $itanium
Main article: Heavy mineral sands ore deposits
Titanium ore is formed as placer deposits ? literally 'mineral sands' ? or as layers within
ultramafic layered intrusions Titanium within layered intrusions forms as ilmenite, a
titanium oxide mineral, via the process of crystallisation as the intrusion cools
"ufficiently thick ilmenite layers will form ore These layers can form considera$le
tonnages and lengths This type of ore is known as 'hard rock titanium' *ard rock
titanium mineralisation may contain vanadium as a second ore metal, as a contaminant
within the ilmenite
[edit] Mineral sands
,ineral sands are the predominant type of titanium, 2irconium and thorium deposit They
are formed $y accumulation of such heavy minerals within $each systems, and are a type
of placer deposits The minerals which contain titanium are ilmenite and leucoxene,
2irconium is contained within 2ircon, and thorium is generally contained within
mona2ite These minerals are sourced from primarily granite $edrock $y erosion and
transported to the sea $y rivers where they accumulate within $each sands ;arely, $ut
importantly, gold, tin and platinum deposits can form in $each placer deposits
[edit] $in% tungsten% and moly&denum
These three metals generally form in a certain type of granite, via a similar mechanism to
intrusive?related gold and copper They are considered together $ecause the process of
forming these deposits is essentially the same "karn type mineralisation related to these
granites is a very important type of tin, tungsten and moly$denum deposit "karn deposits
form $y reaction of mineralised fluids from the granite reacting with wall rocks such as
limestone "karn mineralisation is also important in lead, 2inc, copper, gold and
occasionally uranium mineralisation
/reisen granite is another related tin?moly$denum and topa2 mineralisation style
[edit] 'are earth elements% nio&ium% tantalum% lithium
The overwhelming maAority of rare earth elements, tantalum and lithium are found within
pegmatite !re genesis theories for these ores are wide and varied, $ut most involve
metamorphism and igneous activity 1ithium is present as spodumene or lepidolite within
pegmatite
.ar$onatite intrusions are an important source of these elements !re minerals are
essentially part of the unusual car$onatite mineralogy
[edit] hosphate
5hosphate is used in fertilisers (mmense #uantities of phosphate rock occur in older
sedimentary $asin, generally formed in the 5rotero2oic 5hosphate deposits are thought to
$e sourced from the skeletons of dead sea creatures which accumulated on the seafloor
"imilar to iron ore deposits and oil, particular conditions in the ocean and environment
are thought to have contri$uted to these deposits within the geological past
5hosphate deposits are also formed from alkaline igneous rocks such as nepheline
syenites, car$onatites and associated rock types The phosphate is, in this case, contained
within magmatic apatite, mona2ite or other rare?earth phosphates
[edit] See also
,ineral exploration
.opper extraction
*ydrothermal circulation
Economic geology
,ineral redox $uffer
,etasomatism
(gneous differentiation
[edit] 'eferences
Frne, B.> Eierlein, F5> ,organ, JW K "tein, *J, )99' e!"s #ating of Sulfides
$ssociated %ith &old Mineralisation in 'entral (ictoria) $ustralia* Economic /eology,
83, pp'-00?'-08, )99'
Elder, B K .ashman, " +ectonic 'ontrol and ,luid -volution in the .uart/ Hill)
'alifornia) Lode!gold #eposits* Economic /eology, 64, pp'480?'6'), '88)
Evans, F,, '88+ Ore Geology and Industrial Minerals% (n Introduction),
Elackwell "cience, ("E7 9?3+)?9)80+?3
/roves, B( '88+ +he 'rustal 'ontinuum Model for late!$rchaean lode!gold deposits
of the 0ilgran 1lock) %estern $ustralia* ,ineralium Beposita )6, pp+33?+4-, '88+
1ang, J; K Eaker, T, )99' Intrusion!related gold systems: the present level of
understanding* ,ineralium Beposita, +3, pp-44?-68, )99'
1ind$erg, W, '8)) $ suggestion for the terminology of certain mineral deposits*
Economic /eology, '23, pp )8)?)8-
1owenstern, JE, )99' 'arbon dioxide in magmas and implications for hydrothermal
systems* ,ineralium Beposita, +3, pp-89?09), )99'
5ettke, T> Frei, ;> Gramers JB K Jilla, ( , '884 Isotope systematics in vein gold
from 1russon) (al d4$yas 56% Italy78 59:+h7;He and <;$r in native $u and its flid
inclusions* .hemical /eology, '+0, pp'4+?'64, '884
White, FJ;, )99' Water, restite and granite mineralisation Fustralian Journal of Earth
"ciences, -6, pp00'?000 )99'