DATA ANALYSIS 1

When processing data especially quantitative data, you should decide whether to process
and analyse the data from questionnaires:
manually, using data master sheets or manual compilation of the questionnaires,
or
by computer, for example, using a micro-computer and existing software or self-
written programmes for data analysis.
Data collected from the field through questionnaire, interviews, observation or through
secondary sources, need to edited. It must be cleaned, coded, ey-punched into a
computer and analysed
Editing Data:
Data has to be edited especially when they relate to responses to open-ended questions of
interviews and questionnaires or unstructured observations. !his information must be
clearly deciphered so that it may be coded systematically in its entirety. "diting should
be done preferably the very same day the data are collected so that respondents may be
contacted for any further information or clarification needed. #ny inconsistence resulting
from the data collected especially by members of research staff should be edited.
Coding:
!he next step is to code responses. $ere data is converted to numerical codes
representing attributes%measurements of variables. &onversion of data into these
numerical codes is referred to as coding. It is important to include as much information
as is possible because once the coded data is entered into the computer, it is impossible to
recover any details which were initially omitted. !he coding scheme should be clearly
understood by those who are coding so that there is consitency in coding code.
If the data will be entered in a computer for subsequent processing and analysis, it is
essential to develop a &'DI() *+*!",.
-or computer analysis, each category of a variable can be coded with a letter, group of
letters or word, or be given a number. -or example, the answer .yes/ may be coded as .+/
or 01 .no/ as .(/ or 2 and .no response/ or .unnown/ as .3/ or 4.
!he codes should be entered on the questionnaires 5or checlists6 themselves. When
finalising your questionnaire, for each question you should insert a box for the code in the
right margin of the page. !hese boxes should not be used by the interviewer. !hey are
only filled in afterwards during data processing. !ae care that you have as many boxes
as the number of digits in each code.
If analysis is done by hand using data master sheets, it is useful to code your data as well
Coding conventions
&ommon responses should have the same code in each question, as this minimises
mistaes by coders.
For example:
+es 5or positive response6 code - + or 0
(o 5or negative response6 code - ( or 2
Don/t now code - D or 7
(o response%unnown code - 3 or 4
Codes for openended !"estions 5in questionnaires6 can be done only after examining a
sample of 5say 286 questionnaires. +ou may group similar types of responses into single
categories, so as to limit their number to at most 9 or :. If there are too many categories it
is difficult to analyse the data.
Categorising
Decisions have to be made concerning how to categorise responses. It is useful to set up
a scheme for categori;ing the variables such that the several items measuring a concept
are all grouped together. <esponses to some negatively worded questions have also to be
reversed so that all answers are in the same direction.
-or categorical varia#les that are investigated through closed questions or observation,
the categories have been decided upon beforehand. #nswers to open-ended questions 5for
example$ .Why do you visit the health centre=/6 can be pre-categorised to a certain extent,
depending on the nowledge of possible answers that may be given. $owever, there
should always be a category called .'thers, specify . . ./, which can only be categorised
afterwards.
-or n"merical varia#les$ the data are often better collected without any pre-
categorisation. If you do not exactly now the range and the dispersion of the different
values of these variables when you collect your sample, decisions concerning how to
categorise and code the data at the time you develop your tools may be premature. If you
notice during data analysis that your categories had been wrongly chosen you cannot
reclassify the data anymore.
Entering data
When the sample is small 5say less than >86 and the collected data is limited, it might be
more efficient to do the compilation manually.
?efore you decide to use a computer, you have to be sure that it will save time or that the
quality of the analysis will benefit from it. (ote that feeding data into a computer costs
time and money. !he computer should not be used if your sample is small and the data is
mainly generated by open questions 5qualitative data6. !he larger the sample, the more
beneficial in general the use of a computer will be.
# number of computer programs are available on the maret that can be used to process
and analyse research data. !he most widely used programs are:
"pi Info 5version 96, a very consumer friendly program for data entry and
analysis, which also has a word processing function for creating questionnaires
5developed by the &entre for Disease &ontrol, #tlanta, 3*# and World $ealth
'rgani;ation, )eneva6,
@'!3* 0-2->, a spreadsheet program 5from the @otus Development &orporation6,
d?ase 5version III plus or IA6, a data-management program 5from #shton-!ate6,
and
*B**, which s a quite advanced statistical pacage for social sciences 5*B** Inc.6
!o enter data into the computer you have to develop a data entry format, depending on
the program you are using. #fter deciding on a data entry format, the information on the
data collection instrument will have to be coded 5e.g., ,ale: , or 0, -emale: - or 26.
During data entry, the information relating to each subCect in the study is eyed into the
computer in the form of the relevant code 5e.g., if the first subCect 5identified as 8806 is a
male 5code 06 aged 2D, the data could be eyed in as 88002D6. During data entry,
mistaes will definitely creep in. !hese should be checed and verified.