Hyperinsulinism - Peds

Disorders of Fuel Metabolism
PART 2
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IN THIS PART
Chapter 4 Hyperinsulinism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 5 Mitochondrial Fatty Acid Oxidation Defects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 6 Glycogen Storage Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 7 Organic Acidurias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 8 Ketone Synthesis and Utilization Defects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 9 The Galactosemias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 10 Disorders of Fructose Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 11 Urea Cycle Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 12 Creatine Deficiency Syndromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 13 Phenylketonuria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 14 Hyperphenylalaninemias: Disorders of Tetrahydrobiopterin
Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 15 Tyrosinemia and Other Disorders of Tyrosine Degradation. . . .
Chapter 16 Disorders of Transsulfuration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 17 Inborn Errors of Folate and Cobalamin Transport
and Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 18 Oxidative Phosphorylation Diseases and Mitochondrial DNA
Depletion Syndrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 19 Disorders of Pyruvate Metabolism and the
Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 20 Diabetes Mellitus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 21 Overweight and Obesity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 22 Lipids and Lipoprotein Abnormalities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 23 Defects of Cholesterol Biosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 24 Inborn Errors of Peroxisme Biogenesis and Function . . . . . . . .
Chapter 25 Congenital Disorders of Glycosylation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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39
C HA P T E R
4
Glucose homeostasis is critical for meeting
the metabolic demands of the brain, and an
inadequate supply of glucose can cause sei-
zures and permanent brain damage. Because
of the larger size of the infant brain relative
to the rest of the body, an infants glucose
requirement of 68 mg/kg/minute exceeds
that of an adult (2 mg/kg/minute). Since the
infant brain is undergoing rapid growth and
development, it is extremely vulnerable to hy-
poglycemia, which is dened in infants as in
older children and adults as a blood glucose
(BG) concentration of less than 50 mg/dL,
whereas concentrations of less than 60 mg/dL
are considered abnormal.
A failure of fasting adaptation generally is
responsible for hypoglycemia in children.
The elements of fasting include 1) glycoge-
nolysis, 2) gluconeogenesis, 3) lipolysis, and
4) fatty acid oxidation and ketogenesis. These
pathways are strictly regulated by hormones.
Insulin suppresses the fasting adaptation sys-
tems, whereas counterregulatory hormones
(e.g., glucagon, growth hormone, cortisol, and
epinephrine) stimulate these pathways. Hyper-
insulinism is the most common cause of recur-
rent hypoglycemia in infancy.
Etiology/Pathophysiology Congenital hyper-
insulinism refers to inherited disorders in the
pathways of insulin secretion that cause hypo-
glycemia. This group of disorders was referred
to previously as nesidioblastosis. This term is
considered a misnomer because nesidioblas-
tosis is not specific for hyperinsulinism and is
a common histological finding in pancreatic
tissue from normal infants. With the identifi-
cation of specific genetic defects responsible
for congenital hyperinsulinism, a more com-
plete description of the clinical manifesta-
tions of these disorders has become possible.
In addition, the roles of these various pathways
in normal insulin secretion are becoming
better understood. As shown in Figure 4-1,
glucose is the primary stimulant for insulin
secretion. After glucose enters the -cell via
the GLUT-2 transporter, it is phosphorylated
by glucokinase, the rate-limiting glucosen-
sor of the -cell. Subsequent metabolism
of glucose generates adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), leading to an increase in the ATP:ade-
nosine diphosphate (ADP) ratio of the -cell.
This increase closes the ATP-sensitive potas-
sium (K
ATP
) channel, which is composed of
the sulfonylurea receptor regulatory subunit
(SUR1) and the inwardly rectifying potas-
sium pore (KIR6.2). Depolarization of the
-cell membrane ensues. Voltage- dependent
calcium channels (VDCCs) open, and cal-
cium enters the -cell, leading to insulin re-
lease (3). A K
ATP
channelindependent path-
way for amplification of glucose-stimulated
insulin secretion also exists that may depend
on glutamine (4).
Amino acids stimulate insulin secretion
through glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH)
(see Figure 4-1), a mitochondrial enzyme
responsible for the oxidative deamination of
glutamate to -ketoglutarate (59). GDH is
allosterically activated by leucine and inhib-
ited by guanosine triphosphate (GTP) and
ATP. As with glucose, further metabolism of
-ketoglutarate generates ATP and triggers
the K
ATP
channeldependent pathway of in-
sulin secretion. The mechanisms by which
fatty acids stimulate insulin secretion are not
well understood.
In congenital hyperinsulinism, defects in
any of the preceding pathways lead to dysregu-
lated insulin secretion (1024). Inappropriate
Hyperinsulinism
Andrea Kelly, MD
Charles A. Stanley, MD
FIGURE 4-1. K
ATP
channeldependent pathways of insulin secretion. Glucose enters the -cell through the GLUT-2
transporter and is phosphorylated by GK. Further metabolism of glucose generates ATP, leading to an increase in the -cell
ATP: ADP ratio. This increase closes the ATP-sensitive potassium (K
ATP
) channel, and -cell membrane depolarization ensues.
VDCCs open, allowing calcium entry into the -cell and, ultimately, insulin release. Amino acids stimulate insulin secretion
through GDH, which deaminates glutamate to -ketoglutarate. GDH is allosterically activated by leucine and ADP and is
inhibited by GTP. As with glucose, further metabolism of -ketoglutarate generates ATP and triggers the K
ATP
channel
dependent pathway of insulin secretion. Diazoxide inhibits insulin secretion by maintaining the K
ATP
channel open via SUR1.
Octreotide inhibits insulin secretion downstream of the VDCC. GLUT-2 glucose transporter 2; GK glucokinase;
K
ATP
channel is composed of SUR1 sulfonylurea receptor 1 and Kir6.2 inwardly rectifying potassium pore;
VDCC voltage-dependent calcium channel; GDH glutamate dehydrogenase.
40
Hyperinsulinism
CONGENITAL HI GENE LOCUS INHERITANCE OMIM
K
ATP
HI 11p15.1 256450
Diffuse ABCC8 Recessive and dominant
Focal KCNJ11 Paternal K
ATP
mutation with loss of
heterozygosity of maternal allele
GDH HI (HI/HA) GLUD-1 10q23.3 Dominant/sporadic 606762
GK HI GCK 7p15-13 Dominant/sporadic 602485
SCHAD deficiency HADH 4q22-q26 Recessive 601609
CDG type 1B* MPI 15q22-qter Recessive 602579
BeckwithWiedemann Epigenetic 11p15.5 Sporadic Epigenetic: 130650
Loss of methylation of maternal differentially
methylated region 2 (DMR2)
Gain of methylation of maternal DMR1 or H19
CDKN1C Paternal uniparental disomy Dominant:
CDKN1C, maternal DMR1
ACQUIRED HI GENE LOCUS INHERITANCE OMIM
Transient
Infant of diabetic mother N/A N/A N/A N/A
Peripartum stress HI N/A N/A N/A N/A
Insulinoma MEN1 11q13 131100
Sporadic N/A
MEN-1 Dominant90% of MEN-1; Sporadic10% of MEN-1
FORM FINDINGS CLINICAL PRESENTATION
K
ATP
HI
(diffuse and focal) Fasting and protein-induced hypoglycemia Typically present shortly after birth; often are LGA
GDH HI Fasting and protein-induced hypoglycemia; Presents later in infancy; not usually LGA;
leucine sensitivity; hyperammonemia asymptomatic hyperammonemia
GK HI Fasting hypoglycemia; lowering of
-cell glucosensor
SCHAD Fasting hypoglycemia;
c Plasma 3-hydroxylbutyryl carnitine
c Urine 3-hydroxyglutaric acid
CDG Hypoglycosylation, as determined by Protein-losing enteropathy; coagulation disorders;
type 1b isoelectric focusing of serum transferrin hepatic fibrosis
Transient neonatal HI
Peripartum stress HI Fasting hypoglycemia Present shortly after birth; typically SGA, birth asphyxiated,
or other stressed neonates
Infant of diabetic mother Present shortly after birth; LGA
Insulinoma Fasting hypoglycemia leucine sensitivity Rare in childhood; 2nd most common pancreatic tumor in MEN-1
BeckwithWiedemann Fasting hypoglycemia Hypoglycemia shortly after birth; typical features include macrosomia,
macroglossia, abdominal wall defect; additional features include
hemihypertrphy, embryonal tumors, adrenocortical cytomegaly,
ear anomalies, visceromegaly, renal abnormalities
LGA large for gestational age; AGA appropriate for gestational age; CDG carbohydrate-deficient glycoprotein syndrome.
* single cases of hyperinsulinism associated with CDG-1d and CDG-1a have been described.
Hyperinsulinism (HI) refers to the group of con-
genital and acquired disorders of hypoglycemia
that arise from dysregulated insulin secretion.
Hyperinsulinism is the most common cause of per-
sistent neonatal hypoglycemia. In the congenital
AT-A-GLANCE
forms, specific genetic defects in the pathways of
insulin secretion are responsible for excess insu-
lin secretion. Treatment of both congenital and
acquired forms is intended to normalize blood
glucose and hence prevent short- and long-term
neurocognitive sequelae of recurrent hypoglyce-
mia. Treatment modalities include: 1) medications
that suppress endogenous insulin secretion such as
diazoxide and octreotide; and, 2) pancreatectomy.
41 Hyperinsulinism
insulin secretion leads to recurrent hypogly-
cemia. The triggers for hypoglycemia depend
on the underlying genetic defect and will be
described in further detail below.
CONGENITAL HYPERINSULINISM
DUE TO K
ATP
(SUR1 AND KIR6.2)
CHANNEL MUTATIONS
Etiology/Pathophysiology Mutations of the
ABCC8 gene encoding SUR1 and of the
KCNJ11 gene encoding Kir6.2, the subunits
of the -cell K
ATP
channel, are responsible for
the most common form of congenital hyperin-
sulinsm (HI). More than 100 mutations of the
ABCC8 and 20 mutations of the KCNJ11
have been described. The SUR1 subunit is
sensitive to changes in the energy state of the
-cell and regulates the opening and closing of
the potassium channel pore. Diffuse disease,
in which all -cells in the pancreas have defec-
tive channels, is inherited in recessive and, less
commonly, dominant fashion. The extent of
K
ATP
channel dysfunction depends on the na-
ture of the genetic defect. For instance, the
common, recessive Ashkenazi SUR1 muta-
tions delF1388 and 3992-9G
A cause com-
plete loss of potassium channel function.
Dominantly expressed K
ATP
mutations have
been identified in only a few families and tend
to produce milder disease due partial loss of
K
ATP
channel function (15,25,26).
Because the open state of the K
ATP
channel
maintains the -cell membrane potential in
a hyperpolarized state until it senses an in-
crease in -cell phosphate energy charge, loss
of K
ATP
function leads to -cell membrane
depolarization (Figure 4-2). In this energy
state, the -cell no longer strictly regulates
insulin secretion; insulin secretion cannot be
down regulated appropriately at low blood
glucose concentrations and also cannot be
activated appropriately at increased blood
glucose concentrations. In addition, exposure
to fuels such as amino acids, which normally
only stimulate insulin secretion in the pres-
ence of glucose (27), may be sufcient to
trigger -cell membrane depolarization and
insulin secretion (28,29).
Focal K
ATP
HI suffers from the same -cell
membrane depolarization issues and hence
dysregulated insulin secretion, but only a sub-
set of pancreatic -cells is affected. This form
of congenital HI arises from inheritance of a
paternal K
ATP
channel mutation (ABCC8 or
KCNJ11) and a specic loss of maternal al-
leles of the imprinted chromosome region
11p15. The loss of the normal maternal allele
occurs in a subset of pancreatic -cells and is
the result of second hit (3032). This com-
bination of an inherited K
ATP
germline muta-
tion and the postzygotic loss of heterozygosity
for the maternal allele leads to expression of
the abnormal paternal allele in a clone of -
cells. Loss of normal tumor-suppressor genes
on the maternal allele allows for focal expan-
sion of these abnormal -cells and hence the
development of a focal pancreatic lesion. Be-
cause these lesions arise during fetal develop-
ment, they do not disrupt the normal architec-
ture of the pancreas and are not encapsulated,
features typical of insulinomas.
In northern Europe, the incidence of se-
vere congenital HI is approximately 1 in
40,000 (33,34), but in Saudi Arabia, where
consanguinity is common, the incidence is
approximately 1 in 3000 births (35).
Clinical Presentation Infants with diffuse
or focal K
ATP
HI tend to be born large for
gestational age and to present shortly af-
ter birth with symptomatic hypoglycemia.
A typical-appearing patient is shown in
Figure 4-3. The majority present within the
rst month of life, although in some children
the diagnosis is delayed until later in infancy.
Hypoglycemia may manifest as a seizure,
lethargy, or cyanosis or may be asymptom-
atic. The hypoglycemia frequently is so se-
vere that glucose infusion rates (GIR) up to
30 mg/kg/minute (four to ve times normal)
are required to prevent hypoglycemia. The
volumes necessary to maintain the GIR may
be so great as to cause uid overload. Focal
K
ATP
HI and recessive K
ATP
HI generally are
resistant to diazoxide, a medication that ac-
tivates SUR1 to maintain the K
ATP
channel
in the open state. This diazoxide resistance
likely reects the underlying genetic defects
that lead to complete or near-complete loss
of channel function. Clinically, focal K
ATP

HI is indistinguishable from diffuse K
ATP
HI.
On the other hand, children with dominant
K
ATP
HI, a form identied only recently, may
respond to diazoxide. This diazoxide respon-
siveness likely reects partial preservation of
K
ATP
channel function (25,36).
In addition to fasting hypoglycemia, some
children with K
ATP
HI have postprandial hypo-
glycemia. Studies of this form of congenital HI
reveal the presence of protein-induced
hypoglycemia (Figure 4-4) (28,29). This pro-
tein sensitivity occurs in the absence of leu-
cine sensitivity (Figure 4-5), suggesting that a
FIGURE 4-2. K
ATP
channel HI. In this form of congenital HI, recessive and dominant mutations of SUR1 and Kir6.2 lead
to loss of K
ATP
channel function. The -cell membrane is no longer hyperpolarized by the outwardly rectifying potassium
current, allowing calcium influx through the VDCC. Excess insulin secretion results.
FIGURE 4-3. Typical neonate with congenital
hyperinsulinism. This infant was born large for gesta-
tional age. Within the first hour of life, the infant was found
with a blood glucose concentration of 19 mg/dL.
42 Part 2 | Disorders of Fuel Metabolism
GDH- and K
ATP
channelindependent path-
way for amino acidstimulated insulin secre-
tion exists. Studies of glucose- and amino
acidstimulated insulin secretion in isolated
islets from normal and SUR1 knockout mice
are consistent with the ability of glutamine to
amplify insulin secretion downstream of K
ATP

channel closure (4,37). In these studies, amino
acids or glutamine alone stimulated insulin
secretion in SUR1 knockout islets but not in
normal islets. In the SUR1 knockout islets, this
insulin secretion in response to an amino acid
mixture was reduced by more than 50% in the
absence of glutamine. On the other hand, in-
hibition of glutamine production in normal
islets led to signicant reduction in glucose-
stimulated insulin secretion that was reversed
with the addition of glutamine or a nonme-
tabolizable glutamine analogue. Glutamine-
stimulated insulin secretion likely requires
-cell depolarization and subsequent intracel-
lular calcium elevation, conditions found in
K
ATP
HI islets. This exaggerated glutamine-
stimulated insulin secretion provides a mech-
anism for protein-induced hypoglycemia in
K
ATP
HI.
Diagnosis Clues to the
diagnosis of congenital
HI include large for ges-
tational age (LGA) birth
weight and increased
glucose use in a neonate
with recurrent hypoglyce-
mia. When glucose re-
quirements exceed 10 mg/
kg/min, the differential
diagnosis is limited es-
sentially to HI and hypo-
pituitarism. The diagno-
sis of HI is conrmed by
identifying inappropriate
insulin secretion at the
time of hypoglycemia.
Conrmation may re-
quire a formal fasting study, which evalu-
ates whether the normal mechanisms for
fasting adaptation are intact. Measurements
of plasma insulin are not always reliable in
making the diagnosis of HI; insulin concen-
trations may be lower than the assay limit of
detection yet sufciently elevated to cause
hypoglycemia. Other markers of insulin ac-
tion are more sensitive in conrming the
diagnosis of HI. At blood glucose concen-
trations of less than 50 mg/dL, free fatty ac-
ids and ketones (-hydroxybutyrate and ace-
toacetate) are inappropriately suppressed,
and blood glucose concentration increases
by more than 30 mg/ dL in response to an
injection of glucagon (1 mg). Insulin-like
growth factorbinding protein 1 (IGFBP-1),
a marker of insulin action at the liver, is also
inappropriately suppressed in infants with
HI in contrast to normal children, in whom
IGFBP-1 rises tenfold in response to fasting
(38). Regulation of IGFBP-1 by insulin
is considered an adaptation to fasting:
Suppression of IGFBP-1 increases insulin-
like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) bioavailabilty,
allowing IGF-1 to have insulin-like effects,
whereas an increase in IGFBP-1 with fast-
ing limits free IGF-1, thereby minimizing
the insulin-like effects of IGF-1. Frequently,
cortisol and growth hormone are not ele-
vated enough at the time of hypoglycemia
to rule out deciencies of these counterreg-
ulatory hormones (39,40). To exclude hypo-
pituitarism as an etiology for neonatal hypo-
glycemia, provocative studies (e.g., growth
hormone or low adrenocorticotropin hor-
mone [ACTH] stimulation test) of these
axes may be required.
Once the diagnosis of HI is made, treat-
ment is initiated. Treatment responses pro-
vide clues to the underlying genetic defect.
Diazoxide resistance suggests the presence
of K
ATP
HI, either focal or diffuse. To differ-
entiate between focal and diffuse forms pre-
operatively, acute insulin-response studies
(AIRs) to various secretagogues have been
developed (see Figure 4-5). These also have
attempted to distinguish K
ATP
HI from other
forms of HI. As a result of the presence of -
cells with unstable cell membrane potential,
children with K
ATP
HI have inappropriate
insulin secretion in response to an intrave-
nous bolus of calcium (41). Children with
diffuse K
ATP
HI, however, do not secrete insu-
lin in response to tolbutamide (41) and have
subnormal insulin responses to intravenous
glucose (42). In contrast, children with focal
lesions respond normally to intravenous tol-
butamide and glucose (42,43), evidence that
only a subpopulation of their -cells is abnor-
mal. Some K
ATP
HI mutations maintain par-
tial channel function, and thus AIRs cannot
distinguish between focal and diffuse disease
reliably (44,45). In addition, tolbutamide is
no longer available from the manufacturer.
As a result, AIRs are no longer performed
routinely in the diagnostic workup of surgical
HI. For children requiring surgical treatment
of HI, localization of a focal lesion prior to
surgery may circumvent the need for a near-
total pancreatectomy. Routine imaging stud-
ies (i.e., ultrasound, computed tomographic
[CT] scanning, and magnetic resonance
imaging [MRI]) have not been useful in local-
izing these lesions because focal lesions arise
during fetal development and do not disrupt
normal pancreatic architecture. On the other
hand, arterial stimulation venous sampling
(ASVS) has been useful (45). During ASVS,
calcium is injected into the three main pan-
creatic arteriesthe gastroduodenal (GDA),
which primarily serves the pancreatic head;
the superior mesenteric artery (SMA), which
primarily supplies the pancreatic body; and
the splenic artery, which supplies the pancre-
atic tail. Insulin is measured at the hepatic
vein. A step-up in insulin secretion follow-
ing stimulation of one of the arteries suggests
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
B
l
o
o
d

G
l
u
c
o
s
e

(
m
g
/
d
L
)
GDH-HI K
ATP
-H I controls
Post-oral
amino acids
Post-oral
amino acids
Post-oral
amino acids
FIGURE 4-4. Protein sensitivity in congenital HI. Following an oral protein load
of an amino acid hydrosylate (1.5 g/kg), patients with recessive K
ATP
HI and GDH HI
become hypoglycemic, unlike normal controls, in whom blood glucose changes little.
0
20
40
60
80
0 60 120 180
Time (min)
P
l
a
s
m
a

I
n
s
u
l
i
n

(
U
/
m
L
)
leucine
calcium
glucose
tolbutamide
FIGURE 4-5. Acute insulin response tests in recessive K
ATP
HI. Children with recessive K
ATP
HI have exaggerated
insulin secretion at 1 and 3 minutes in response to an intravenous bolus of calcium (0.1 mEq/kg), no insulin secretion in
response to intravenous leucine (15 mg/kg) or tolbutamide (25 mg/kg), and a blunted response to intravenous glucose
(0.5 g/kg). In contrast, normal individuals do not secrete insulin in response to calcium or leucine but have significant insulin
secretion in response to tolbutamide and, of course, glucose.
43 Hyperinsulinism
that if a focal lesion is present, it is likely to
be found in the distribution of that particular
pancreatic artery. During the procedure, BG
is maintained in the 6070 mg/dL range. A
potential complication of this procedure is de-
creased perfusion of the lower extremity due
to femoral artery spasm or the dislodging of
a clot following removal of the femoral artery
catheter. Following the procedure, perfusion
of the right lower extremity is assessed.
Transhepatic portal venous sampling
(THPVS) is an alternative method of localiz-
ing a pancreatic lesion (46,47). With this pro-
cedure, BG is maintained at approximately
50 mg/dL. Venous drainage of the pancreas is
accessed through the liver. Blood is collected
along the length of venous drainage of the
pancreas. A step-up in insulin secretion sug-
gests the presence of a focal lesion in the area
drained by that vein.
Limitations of these procedures include
abnormal anatomy, normal variations in
blood supply to the pancreas, and size of the
patient. In addition, they are neither 100%
sensitive nor specic. For these reasons, biop-
sies obtained intraoperatively and examined
by pathologists with an expertise in HI are
vital. Multiple biopsies are obtained. If all
the biopsies have -cells with enlarged nu-
clei, diffuse HI is most likely. If normal tissue
is found, a focal lesion is suspected, and the
surgeon continues to biopsy until the focal
lesion is found, as shown in Figure 4-6, and
completely resected (48). Complications
associated with these repeated biopsies are
uncommon and are similar to those occur-
ring with routine pancreatectomy. Prelimi-
nary reports suggest that [
18
F]dopa positron-
emission tomographic (PET) scans may be
able to visualize lesions in focal HI (49).
Mutational analysis of the SUR1 and
Kir6.2 genes can conrm the presence of K
ATP

channel mutations. If the likely mutation(s)
is known based on an affected family member
or ethnic background, mutational analysis
can be directed toward these mutations pre-
operatively. The nding of two mutations is
consistent with diffuse disease. The nding of
a maternal mutation would suggest that the
child has diffuse disease (either recessive or
dominant) because focal lesions are associ-
ated with paternal mutations. In the setting
of a paternal mutation, the affected child
may have diffuse or focal disease. Mutational
analysis of these HI-causing gene defects is
available through research laboratories and
more recently through a commercial labora-
tory (Table 4-1).
Treatment The goal of treatment is to main-
tain BG above 70 mg/dL in a safe manner
that permits normal childhood development
and is manageable for caretakers. Affected
patients should be able to fast without becom-
ing hypoglycemic and should demonstrate
normal fasting adaptation, that is, appropri-
ately increased free fatty acids and ketones
with fasting and no glycemic response to glu-
cagon if BG is less than 50 mg/dL. Infants
should be able to fast for 1824 hours before
becoming hypoglycemic; children 23 years
of age should tolerate 2436 hours of fasting,
whereas older children should be able to fast
at least 36 hours. Because medical treatment
is unlikely to completely normalize fasting
adaptation, fasting tolerances that are safe are
sought. An infant/child should be able to fast
1012 hours (i.e., sleep overnight) without
becoming hypoglycemic.
Medical treatment is rst directed at sup-
pressing insulin secretion. Diazoxide sup-
presses insulin secretion by maintaining the
K
ATP
channel in the open position. Doses of
515 mg/kg/day orally generally are needed.
Side effects of medication are primarily
cosmetichypertrichosis and coarsening of
the face. Fluid retention can occur, particu-
larly in preterm infants and in infants receiv-
ing large uid volumes. Fluid retention may
be signicant enough to require institution
of a diuretic. Rarely, leukopenia and throm-
bocytopenia have been reported. If a child
continues to have hypoglycemia following
5 days of maximum doses of diazoxide, he or
she is considered diazoxide-unresponsive,
and octreotide is initiatated.
Octreotide is a somatostatin analogue and
is thought to suppress insulin secretion down-
stream of the voltage-dependent calcium
channel. Octreotide is delivered by subcuta-
neous injection either at 6- to 8-hour intervals
or continuously through a pump at doses of
520 g/kg/day. Doses larger than 20 g/kg/
day generally are no more efcacious. An effect
is seen frequently with the rst octreotide dose,
even if the child ultimately will be declared
octreotide-unresponsive. This failure arises
because tachyphylaxis often occurs within 34
days of octreotide initiation or dose increase de-
spite an initial hyperglycemic effect. Potential
side effects include biliary sludging and altered
gut motility. Growth suppression generally is
not seen with prolonged octreotide use.
Glucagon antagonizes insulin action by
mobilizing hepatic glycogen stores. It is de-
livered continuously at a dose of 1 mg/day,
although some centers titrate the dose to be-
tween 5 and 10 g/kg/hour. Glucagon is used
as a temporizing measure prior to pancreatec-
tomy. Experience with long-term outpatient
use is limited; on rare occasions (i.e., when
hypoglycemia persists following complete
pancreatectomy, maximum octreotide doses,
and continuous dextrose), continuous gluca-
gon delivered by insulin pump has prevented
hypoglycemia successfully. Side effects in-
clude vomiting and inhibition of pancreatic
enzyme and gastric acid secretion.
If medical therapy fails, pancreatectomy is
indicated. Focal lesions account for 30% to
70% of K
ATP
HI cases and may be cured with
focal resection. Unfortunately, focal lesions
are not readily identied grossly and frequently
are found in the pancreatic head, a difcult re-
gion to resect without causing damage to the
bile ducts and duodenum. Multiple biopsies
of the pancreas are obtained by the surgeon
and examined by the pathologist intraopera-
tively. The identication of normal pancreas
suggests the presence of a focal lesion, and
the surgeon continues to biopsy until the focal
lesion is isolated. The surgeon may be guided
by preoperative localizing procedures such as
ASVS or THPVS. An experienced surgeon
and pathologist are vital to identication and
complete resection of a focal lesion.
Focal lesion Normal pancreas
FIGURE 4-6. Pancreatic Lesion in Focal K
ATP

channel-HI. This surgical specimen from an infant with
congenital hyperinsulinism due to focal K
ATP
channel-HI
is stained for insulin. On the right is normal pancreatic
tissue with islets dispersed throughout exocrine tissue. On
the left is an area of adenomatosis, the site of the focal
HI-causing lesion.
TABLE 4-1 Laboratory Findings: K
ATP
HI
Decreased Increased
Blood glucose Free fatty acids (1.5 mmol/L) BG response to glucagon (30 mg/dL)
50 mg/dL -Hydroxybutyrate (1.5 mmol/L) GH (10 ng/mL)
IGFBP-1 (120 ng/mL) Cortisol (18 g/dL)
Insulin (2 U/mL)
In the setting of diffuse HI, a 95% to 99%
pancreatectomy is performed. With less than
95% pancreatectomy, sufcient -cell mass
remains to cause continued hypoglycemia.
With 95% to 98% pancreatectomy, a third of
patients will have persistent hypoglycemia, a
third will have improved glycemic control,
and a third will have diabetes. Although pan-
createctomy may not cure diffuse HI, suf-
cient reduction in -cell mass may occur to
allow more effective medical treatment.
Immediate complications of pancreatec-
tomy include pancreatitis, duodenal hema-
toma, pseudocyst formation, and injury to the
bile ducts. Postoperatively, hyperglycemia is
common, related to the stress of surgery, and
frequently requires insulin. Only when the
child is taking full feeds can a determina-
tion be made as to whether long-term insulin
therapy is required. Moreover, despite the
presence of hyperglycemia postoperatively,
some children will have persistent hypoglyce-
mia that is only evident when the child is on
full feeds or fasts. Additional complications
of pancreatectomy include obstruction of
the gastrointestinal tract due adhesions and
pancreatic insufciency; the latter usually is
subclinical but should be sought in the child
with chronic diarrhea or poor growth. Late-
onset diabetes can occur years after pancre-
atectomy, frequently during puberty. In the
setting of pancreatectomy, diabetes has been
attributed to deceased -cell mass. However,
the ndings of 1) decreased insulin secretion
in response to an acute glucose challenge
(see Figure 4-5) and 2) hyperglycemia in
three teenagers who were treated medically
for recessive SUR1 HI suggest that dysregu-
lated insulin secretion has a role in the devel-
opment of late-onset diabetes (50).
Some centers do not use pancreatectomy
routinely to treat HI that has failed pharmaco-
logical therapy. Instead, continuous dextrose
delivered through intragastric tube is used
to prevent hypoglycemia. At our center, we
prefer more denitive therapy through sur-
gery and use continuous intragastric dextrose
as a last resort (i.e., signicant hypoglycemia
despite pancreatectomy and octreotide) be-
cause such interventions may limit normal
social interaction, suppress appetite, create
feeding aversions, and place the child at risk
for signicant hypoglycemia should the tube
become disconnected.
CONGENITAL HYPERINSULINISM
DUE TO GDH GAIN-OF-
FUNCTION MUTATIONS
Etiology/Pathophysiology Gain-of-function
mutations of the GLUD-1 gene that en-
codes the mitochondrial enzyme glutamate
dehydrogenase (GDH) cause a form of hy-
perinsulinism associated with hyperammo-
nemia (HI/HA, also known as GDH HI)
(17,20,5154). Inheritance of GDH HI is
autosomal dominant, although up to 80%
of cases represent de novo mutations. GDH
is responsible for the oxidative deamina-
tion of glutamate to -ketoglutarate (see
Figure 4-1). It is allosterically activated by
leucine and ADP and inhibited by GTP. It
effects insulin secretion by generating -
ketoglutarate, which enters the Krebs cycle
to generate ATP. The increase in ATP closes
the K
ATP
channel, -cell membrane depo-
larization ensues, and insulin is secreted.
GDH HIcausing mutations impair normal
inhibition of GDH by GTP and allow
unchecked allosteric activation of GDH by
leucine (Figures 4-7 and 4-8) (55). Enhanced
leucine-stimulated in sulin secretion results
and manifests clinically as protein-induced
hypoglycemia (56) (Figure 4-9), a hallmark
of GDH HI.
Hyperammonemia, the other hallmark
of and a consistent nding in GDH HI, is
thought to arise from up regulated hepatic
GDH activity (see Figure 4-7) (57). Up regu-
lated GDH activity depletes the hepatocyte
of glutamate, which is needed to produce N-
acetylglutamate (NAG), a necessary cofactor
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
P
l
a
s
m
a

I
n
s
u
l
i
n

(
U
/
m
L
)
Time (min)
GDH-HI
-5 0 5
0
20
40
60
80
100
B
l
o
o
d

G
l
u
c
o
s
e

(
m
g
/
d
L
)
-5 0 5
Time (min)
Normal Control
leucine leucine
FIGURE 4-8. Acute insulin responses to leucine in a patient with GDH HI and a normal control. Exaggerated
insulin secretion occurs at 1 and 3 minutes in GDH HI in response to a bolus of leucine (15 mg/kg), whereas normal controls
do not respond. Blood glucose remains stable during this procedure, unlike in previous tests that required the development of
hypoglycemia to identify leucine sensitivity. Insulin is shown in circles and blood glucose concentrations along the dotted line.
FIGURE 4-7. GDH-HI. This form of congenital HI arises as a result of dominant mutations in the mitochondrial enzyme,
GDH, that cause loss of normal allosteric inhibition of GDH by GTP. These gain of function mutations lead to excess oxida-
tion of glutamate to a-ketoglutarate, an increase in the ATP to ADP ratio, closure of the KATP-channel, and ultimately excess
insulin secreation. Patients with GDH-HI have protein-induced hypoglycemia as a result of unbridled leucine activation of
GDH. Hyperammonemia is thought to arise from upregulated oxidative deamination of glutamate to a-ketoglutarate in the
hepatocyte. In addition, clearance of excess ammonia via ureagenesis is limited by increased conversion of glutamate to
a-ketoglutarate; the glutamate pool that is necessary for the synthesis of N-acetyglutamate, a co-factor in the urea cycle,
is depleted.
45 Hyperinsulinism
for the rst step of ureagenesis. In addition,
enhanced GDH activity leads to excess pro-
duction of ammonium, disposal of which is
hindered by the limited availability of NAG.
Clinical Presentation Affected newborns are
of normal birth weight, and their hypoglyce-
mia often does not manifest until later in in-
fancy. This delayed presentation likely arises
because 1) GDH HI is often associated with
subtle defects in fasting, and not until later in
infancy when overnight feeds are skipped is
the ability to fast challenged, and because 2)
protein-rich foods such as yogurt, cows milk,
and meat are not introduced into the diet un-
til later in infancy, allowing the characteristic
protein-induced hypoglycemia to be avoided
until this time (see Figure 4-9). Differences in
these environmental exposures likely contrib-
ute to the clinical severity. For instance, some
GDH HI individuals, although having hypo-
glycemic symptoms, have not been diagnosed
until an affected family has been identied.
GDH HI individuals appear to be asymp-
tomatic from their hyperammonemia de-
spite plasma concentrations two to ve times
normal. Protein intake, fasting, and blood
glucose concentration do not affect plasma
ammonia (21,22,52). Unlike with urea
cycle defects, plasma amino acids and uri-
nary amino acids are normal. In addition,
hyperammonemia is not improved with
benzoate, an alternate-pathway treatment
used to lower plasma ammonium in urea
cycle defects and liver failure (21,53,54).
N- Carbamylglutamate, a NAG analogue,
has been used to lower plasma ammonium
by 50% (22,53), but the clinical benet
remains to be determined.
Diagnosis As with other forms of HI, the di-
agnosis depends on the nding of inappro-
priate insulin action at the time of hypogly-
cemia (i.e., suppressed
free fatty acids, ketones,
and IGFBP-1 and an
inappropriate glycemic
response to glucagon).
As mentioned previ-
ously, the fasting toler-
ance of GDH HI may
be 612 hours or lon-
ger. Postprandial hypo-
glycemia, particularly
following high-protein
food intake, suggests
GDH HI.
Further confirming
the diagnosis of GDH
HI is hyperammonemia,
usually in the range of
80150 mol/L (nor-
mal 35 mol/L). Spu-
rious hyperammonemia
may occur if the sample is not obtained appro-
priately using a free-owing specimen that is
transported on ice and assayed immediately. To
exclude laboratory error, multiple plasma am-
monium concentrations should be obtained
appropriately.
The acute insulin response to a leucine test
is particularly useful in securing the diagnosis
of GDH HI (see Figure 4-8). In response to
an intravenous bolus of leucine (15 mg/kg),
exaggerated insulin secretion occurs. In con-
trast, normal controls and children with other
forms of HI show little to no response to leu-
cine (see Figures 4-5 and 4-8). In addition,
following a protein meal (11.5 g/kg Resource
protein), children with GDH HI become hy-
poglycemic (see Figure 4-9).
Mutational analysis for GLUD1, the gene
encoding GDH, conrms the diagnosis. Mu-
tations have been found in exons 6, 7, 10, 11,
and 12 (Table 4-2).
Treatment The goal of treatment is to prevent
both postprandial and fasting hypoglycemia.
Patients with GDH HI respond to well to
diazoxide (515 mg/kg/day). To monitor the
efcacy of the diazoxide dose, fasting and oral
protein tests are performed (Figure 4-10).
If a child is not able to fast for more than
12 hours, or if signicant protein-induced
hypoglycemia occurs, the diazoxide dose is
0
20
40
60
80
100
B
l
o
o
d

g
l
u
c
o
s
e

(
m
g
/
d
L
)
0 6 12 18 24
Time (hr)
Protein meal
Fasting
FIGURE 4-9. BG during fasting and following an oral protein challenge. In
this teenager with GDH HI, fasting tolerance is shortened to 1617 hours, as shown by
blood glucose concentrations in squares. More strikingly, however, she rapidly becomes
hypoglycemic following consumption of protein (1.5 g/kg). Blood glucose concentrations
for the protein meal are shown in diamonds.
TABLE 4-2 Laboratory Findings: GDH HI
Decreased Increased
Blood glucose Free fatty acids (1.5 mmol/L) BG response to glucagon (30 mg/dL)
50 mg/dL -Hydroxybutyrate (1.5 mmol/L) GH (10 ng/mL)
Acetoacetate Cortisol (18 g/dL)
IGFBP-1 (120 ng/mL) Plasma ammonia
BG response to oral protein load Leucine-AIR
Glucose-AIR
Female carriers of ornithine carbamoyltrans-
ferase deficiency, an X-linked disorder, may
have asymptomatic hyperammonemia. In-
creased orotic acid in urine will identify such
patients.
Unlike with urea cycle defects, plasma ammo-
nia does not increase with a protein load.
Most mutations arise sporadically
The hyperammonemia of GDH-HI appears
to be asymptomatic. Recently, generalized
seizures and behavior issues have been noted
in children with GDH-HI in the absence of
hypoglycemic brain damage (2). The role of
chronic hyperammonemia in these seizures is
not known.
increased. Patients are also instructed to avoid
pure protein meals and to eat carbohydrates
before protein to reduce the risk of protein-
induced hypoglycemia.
CONGENITAL HYPERINSULINSM
DUE TO GK GAIN-OF-
FUNCTION MUTATIONS
Etiology/Pathophysiology Glucokinase
(GK) catalyzes the phosphorylation of glu-
cose, the rst step in glycolysis. GK is ex-
pressed exclusively in liver and pancreatic
islet -cells, where it regulates the rate of
glucose metabolism. Because of its important
regulatory role in glucose metabolism, GK is
considered the -cell glucosensor.
Because GK HI is rare, limited information
is available regarding this form of HI. GK HI
arises as a result of dominant gain-of-function
Heterozygous loss of function mutations of
GK increase the BG threshold for insulin se-
cretion and lead to maturity onset diabetes of
the young (MODY-2), a dominantly inherited
form of diabetes (1). Homozygous loss of
function mutations of GK lead to permanent
neonatal diabetes
mutations of the GCK gene encoding GK
(14,5860) (Figure 4-11). The mutations in-
crease enzyme afnity for glucose, thereby
lowering the threshold for insulin secretion.
Clinical Presentation A few reports of GK HI
are available in the literature (14,5860). In the
rst family, children presented late in infancy
with mild hyperinsulinism and insulin secre-
tion that was not suppressed until a BG of ap-
proximately 40 mg/dL (14). In this family and a
similar family (14,58), the HI was responsive to
diazoxide. More recently, a case with a de novo
mutation of GK was reported (59). The GK HI
was severe, unresponsive to diazoxide, and per-
sistent despite subtotal pancreatectomy. The
threshold for glucose-stimulated insulin secre-
tion was reduced to approximately 15 mg/dL.
Diagnosis The diagnosis of GK HI depends
on conrmation of HI and identication of
a gain-of-function mutation in GK. Other
clues suggestive of GK HI are evidence of a
lowered glucose threshold.
Treatment Treatment with diazoxide has
been effective in most reported cases.
Some children with severe defects may not
respond to diazoxide and may require pan-
createctomy.
DUE TO SCHAD DEFICIENCY
Etiology/Pathophysiology SCHAD HI is rare,
with just two reports in the literature at the
time of this writing (61,62). It is inherited in
an autosomal recessive fashion and arises from
a defect in enzymatic activity of short-chain
3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase (SCHAD).
SCHAD is a mitochondrial enzyme that cata-
lyzes the conversion

of 3- hydroxyacyl-CoA to
3-ketoacyl-CoA, the third step in the fatty acid
-oxidation cycle. How the defect in fatty acid
oxidation causes HI is not known.
Clinical Presentation Two reports are avail-
able in the literature. Both cases were infants
who presented in the neonatal period or early
infancy with episodes of hypoketotic hypogly-
cemia. These patients did not experience the
typical clinical ndings associated with most
fatty acid oxidation defects (i.e., episodes of
Reye-like illness, hepatic dysfunction, cardio-
myopathy, and/or skeletal muscle weakness).
Diagnosis The diagnosis of SCHAD de-
ciency is based on conrming the presence of
HI, that is, hypoglycemia in the setting of ex-
cessive insulin action. To specically diagnose
SCHAD HI, elevated 3-hydroxybutyryl(C
4
)-
carnitine should be identied by tandem
mass spectrometry on a plasma acylcarnitine
prole. In addition, gas chromatography
mass spectrometry of urine reveals elevated
3-hydroxyglutaric acid.
Treatment The cases in the literature were
diazoxide-responsive, suggesting that diazox-
ide is appropriate as a rst-line agent for
treating SCHAD HI.
DUE TO CARBOHYDRATE-
DEFICIENT GLYCOPROTEIN
SYNDROME TYPE 1B
Etiology/Pathophysiology Carbohydrate-
decient glycoprotein syndromes (CDGs) are
a heterogeneous group of disorders character-
ized by psychomotor and mental retardation,
blood coagulation abnormalities, and hypo-
glycosylation of glycoproteins. CDG type 1b
is unique in that a few affected children have
had hypoglycemia due to hyperinsulinism
(63,64). Other features of CDG-1b include
protein-losing enteropathy and congenital
hepatic brosis, but psychomotor retardation
and mental retardation are absent. Mutations
in phosphomannose isomerase are respon-
sible for CDG-1b (65), but how such a defect
causes hyperinsulinism is not known.
Clinical Presentation In the few cases that
have been described, infants present in early
infancy with protein-losing enteropathy and
hypoglycemia.
Diagnosis Missing or truncated sugar chains
cause hypoglycosylation of extracellular
proteins that can be identied by isoelectric
focusing of serum transferrin.
FIGURE 4-10. Diazoxide responsiveness of protein sensitivity in GDH HI. Prior to initiation of diazoxide, this patient
has significant protein-induced hypoglycemia (small open circles) using an protein drink (1.5 g/kg). Treatment with diazoxide
(10 mg/kg/day) prevented protein-induced hypoglycemia (squares). A year later she has outgrown her diazoxide dose
(7.5 mg/kg/day), and her protein sensitivity is no longer treated adequately (large open squares).
0
20
40
60
80
100
B
l
o
o
d

G
l
u
c
o
s
e

(
m
g
/
d
L
)
0 25 50 75 100
Time (min)
Pre-diazoxide
Diazoxide (10 mg/kg/day)
Diazoxide (7.5 mg/kg/day)
a
m
i
n
o

a
c
i
d

d
r
i
n
k
FIGURE 4-11. GK HI. Activating mutations of GK cause more avid binding of glucose to GK. Enhanced phosphorylation
of glucose results, stimulating ATP production, closure of the K
ATP
channel, -cell membrane depolarization, opening of
VDCCs, entry of calcium into the -cell, and insulin secretion at lower blood glucose concentrations than normal.
47 Hyperinsulinism
Treatment Mannose has been used suc-
cessfully to reverse the hypoglycosylation of
serum glycoproteins, as well as the vomiting,
diarrhea, congenital hepatic brosis, and
hyperinsulinism of CDG-1b (64).
INFANT OF THE
DIABETIC MOTHER
Etiology/Pathophysiology Because the
fetus is exposed to maternal blood glucose
concentrations, the infant of a mother
with poorly controlled diabetes is exposed
to hyperglycemia in utero. In response to
this hyperglycemia, the fetus appropriately
up regulates insulin secretion. Enhanced
insulin secretion by the fetus manifests as
macrosomia: Glycogen, protein, and fat
stores are increased. At birth, the excessive
glucose supply is abruptly interrupted. If
insulin secretion is not down regulated suf-
ciently, hypoglycemia results. Glucagon
deciency may contribute to the develop-
ment of hypoglycemia in the infant of a
diabetic mother.
Clinical Presentation Infants typically present
at birth with hypoglycemia. Maternal his-
tory of diabetes and low for gestational age
(LGA) birth weight are clues to the etiology
of the hypoglycemia. Hypoglycemia related
to maternal diabetes generally resolves within
2 days. If hypoglycemia is prolonged, other
etiologies for the hypoglycemia should be
considered.
Diagnosis The diagnosis is based on ma-
ternal history. For the mother with little or
no prenatal care, the diagnosis of diabetes
should be entertained. In the infant, studies
performed at the time of hypoglycemia (BG
50 mg/dL) will be consistent with hyperin-
sulinism: suppressed free fatty acids, ketones,
and IGFBP-1 and normal bicarbonate, a gly-
cemic response to glucagon, plus or minus
elevated plasma insulin.
Treatment Because the hyperinsulinemia is
short-lived, the infant of the diabetic mother
usually can be treated expectantly with intra-
venous dextrose (510 mg/kg/minute). Less
commonly, the hyperinsulinemia is more pro-
longed, in which case other etiologies should
be sought. If studies remain consistent with
hyperinsulinemia, diazoxide can be initiated.
If the preprandial BG is normal on diazoxide,
a safety fast is undertaken to ensure efcacy
of the diazoxide dose. The infant then can be
allowed to outgrow the diazoxide dose, and
BG regulation is reassessed in 34 months to
conrm that the hyperinsulinemia was indeed
transient in nature.
PERIPARTUM STRESS
HYPERINSULINISM
Etiology/Pathophysiology Infants born small
for gestational age (SGA), preterm, or follow-
ing intrauterine/peripartum stress, such as
birth asphyxia, are at risk of hypoglycemia.
Excess insulin secretion, which can last for
weeks to months, is the culprit (66,67). The
mechanisms for dysregulated insulin secre-
tion are not understood. Not all infants with
transient neonatal HI have the typical risks
for peripartum stress hyperinsulinism; some
are of normal birth weight and have had no
known stressors (68).
Clinical Presentation Affected infants tend to
present shortly after birth with hypoglycemia.
In some, prolonged intravenous dextrose or
continuous feeds obligated by underlying ill-
ness can mask the hyperinsulinism for weeks.
Only when intermittent bolus feeds are intro-
duced is the hypoglycemia detected.
Diagnosis As with other forms of HI, peri-
partum stress HI is diagnosed by demonstrat-
ing suppressed free fatty acids, ketones, and
IGFBP-1 and a glycemic response to gluca-
gon at the time of hypoglycemia. The specic
diagnosis of peripartum stress HI is suspected
based on the birth history. Only when the dis-
order resolves weeks to months later is one
assured of the transient nature of the HI.
Treatment Peripartum stress HI usually re-
sponds to diazoxide. On rare occasions, oc-
treotide is required. Diazoxide-induced uid
retention can be a limiting factor in the use
of this medication in severely ill neonates.
For this reason, diuretics should be initiated
empirically with diazoxide in infants who are
SGA or who have lung disease. Occasionally,
diazoxide causes sufcient uid overload to
compromise lung function. These patients
may respond to octreotide. If octreotide is not
effective, continuous feeds are introduced
to maintain BG. The infants BG regula-
tion can be reassessed in 34 months to con-
rm that the hyperinsulinism has resolved.
Uncommonly, the HI can last as long as a
year (68).
INSULINOMA
Etiology/Pathophysiology Insulinomas are
the most common functioning neuroendo-
crine tumor of the pancreas in adults, with an
incidence of approximately 4 per 1 million
per year (69). In the pediatric population, in-
sulinomas are exceedingly rare. Insulinomas
may arise sporadically or, less commonly, as
part of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1
(MEN-1), a disorder that causes neuroendo-
crine tumors of the pituitary, parathyroid, and
pancreas.
Insulinomas are the second most com-
mon pancreatic tumor in MEN-1. The
majority of cases of MEN-1 result from
familial and sporadic dominant mutations
in the coding region of the MEN1 gene lo-
cated on 11q13 (70). MENIN, the protein
product of the MEN1 gene, is thought to
be a tumor- suppressor protein. Mutations
of MEN1 alone are not sufcient to cause
tumor formation. As with K
ATP
HI, somatic
loss of heterozygosity of 11q13 occurs in
the lesion, unmasking the germline defect
in MEN1. Mutations of MEN1 and, more
commonly, loss of heterozygosity for 11q13,
also have been identied in sporadically oc-
curring insulinomas.
The mechanisms for excess insulin secre-
tion by insulinomas are not well delineated.
Gene expression studies have found increased
expression of a variety of genes, including is-
let amyloid peptide, proprotein convertase
subtilisin, -subunit of stimulating G protein,
and a large cluster of genes in the insulin se-
cretory pathway (7173).
Clinical Presentation Children with insu-
linomas present with acquired hypoglyce-
mic symptoms beyond the rst year of life.
Symptoms include seizures, abnormal behav-
ior, lethargy, and increased food consumption
and weight gain in the absence of exogenous
insulin or insulin secretagogues.
Diagnosis The diagnosis of insulinoma de-
pends on identication of excess endogenous
insulin secretion at the time of hypoglycemia
and frequently requires a prolonged fast, up
to 72 hours in older children and adults (74).
As with other forms of HI, free fatty acids
and ketones are suppressed, and a glycemic
response to glucagon occurs at the time of
hypoglycemia. Care should be taken to ex-
clude surreptitious insulin administration
by measuring C-peptide, proinsulin, and
insulin antibodies, as well as insulin, at a
time of hypoglycemia. Increased C-peptide
(0.2 nmol/L) and proinsulin (5 pmol/L)
at hypoglycemia conrm endogenous in-
sulin secretion (7577) but do not rule out
administration of oral hypoglycemic agents
such as sulfonylureas. When indicated clini-
cally, plasma can be assayed for the presence
of sulfonylureas; unfortunately, the second-
generation sulfonylureas are more difcult to
measure (76).
Once the diagnosis of HI is secured, lo-
calization procedures are performed. Endo-
scopic ultrasound is sensitive in experienced
hands but is limited when the lesion occurs
in the tail of the pancreas or is small (8
mm); intraoperative ultrasound in combina-
tion with palpation also has been useful but,
again, is limited by the experience of the
staff (78). Spiral CT scanning appears to be
sensitive in the detection of pancreatic neu-
roendocrine masses; success with MRI also
has been reported. When typical imaging
modalities fail to identify small lesions, ASVS
and THPVS have been used successfully to
localize insulinomas (78).
Treatment Surgical removal of the insuli-
noma is denitive treatment. Rarely, medical
therapy with diazoxide is required for children
in whom surgery is a high-risk procedure.
BECKWITHWIEDEMANN
Et i ol ogy/Pat hophysi ol ogy Beckwi t h
Wiedemann syndrome is caused by mosaic
paternal isodisomy of chromosome 11p15.5.
This syndrome also may arise from mutations
in the p57 gene (79) or in the NSD1 gene (80)
and from microdeletions in the H19 differen-
tially methylated region (81) or in the LIT1
gene (82). Mutations in these genes disrupt
normal imprinting of genes on 11p15.5. This
phenomenon is similar to that found in focal
HI, in which loss of heterozygosity for the ma-
ternal 11p15 causes unbalanced expression
of imprinted genes that control cell growth
(32,46). Hyperinsulinism has been attributed
to overexpression of IGF-2 causing organ
overgrowth, including -cell hyperplasia (83).
More recently, overexpression of IGF-2 has
been proposed as the specic mechanism for
hypoglycemia in BeckwithWiedeman syn-
drome. Overproduction of pro-IGF-2, IGF-
2, or big IGF-2 is well described in adults
with nonislet cell tumors (8490). Increased
circulation of this growth factor is thought to
stimulate the insulin receptor and thus have
insulin-like effects. Hence the hypoglycemia
of BeckwithWiedemann syndrome may, at
least in some cases, be a mimicker of hyper-
insulinism.
Clinical Presentation Typical features of
BeckwithWiedemann syndrome include
neonatal macrosomia, macroglossia, hemi-
hypertrophy, and abdominal wall defects
(Figure 4-12) Hypoglycemia within the rst
few days of life is not uncommon (91,92).
More persistent hypoglycemia is less common
and has been attributed to hyperinsulinism
(93) that is variably diazoxide-responsive and
may require pancretatectomy.
Diagnosis The diagnosis of Beckwith-
Wiedemann syndrome depends on the
presence of clinical manifestations and
paternal isodisomy of 11p15.5 or other
relevant mutations. The diagnosis of HI is
similar to that for other HI disorders: at the
time of hypoglycemia, suppressed free fatty
acids, ketones, and IGFBP-1 and a glycemic
response to glucagon. Since IGF-2-related
hypoglycemia will mimic HI, additional
studies specically for IGF-2, big IGF-
2, and pro-IGF-2 should be sought in the
case of BeckwithWiedemann syndrome.
Overexpression of IGF-2 may suppress the
growth hormone axis, leading to suppres-
sion of IGF-1 and IGFBP-3. Therefore,
determination of these growth factors also
should be done to aid in the diagnosis.
Treatment Treatment depends on the under-
lying etiology of the hypoglycemia. Diazoxide
administration should be attempted for HI. If
diazoxide fails and excess IGF-2 has not been
considered previously, or if IGF-2 is known
to be elevated, a trial with growth hormone
may increase growth factorbinding proteins
sufciently to limit IGF-2 bioavailability and
prevent hypoglycemia.
REFERENCES
1. Vionnet N, Stoffel M, Takeda J, et al.
Nonsense mutation in the glucokinase
gene causes early-onset non-insulin-
dependent diabetes mellitus. Nature
1992;356:721722.
2. Raizen DM, Brooks-Kayal A, Steinkrauss
L, et al. Central nervous system hyperexcit-
ability associated with glutamate dehydro-
genase gain of function mutations. J Pediatr
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A
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(B,C) indented ear lesions and linear groove on earlobe in a child; (D) omphalocele in a newborn. (Photos courtesy of
Dr. Robert Gorlin, University of Minnesota Medical School.)
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