Bridge Design

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BUKU PANDUAN REKABENTUK JAMBATAN

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L
FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY
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CONTENTS
.Preface.
Chapter-1STANDARD JKR PRACTICES IN
BRIDGE DESIGN
Organisation Objective-Function-
Scope of Work. Standard Design
Practices-Design ProcedureBridge
Furnishings-Standard Prestressed
Beams
Chapter 2 - HYDROLOGY 20,
Factors Affecting Florid Runoff
Flood History Rational Method-Unit
Hydrograph Method-Regional Flood
Frequency Method-Determination of
the Flood Water Level and velocity-
Computation of Back Water Curve-
Presentation of Sketch Proposal .
Chapter 3 - BRIDGE LOADING 65
Loads Acting On A Bridge
Superstructure-Procedure For
Determination Of Loads
Chapter 4 - DECK SLAB 104
Pigeaud's Method-Westergaards
Method-Application
Chapter 5 - BEARING, DOWEL BARS,
EXPANSION JOINTS 114
Bearing: Functions-Types-
Elastomeric BearingsProperties of
Elastomer-Basic Assumptions
in Design' Dowel Bar: Design of
Dowel Bar Expansion Joint:
Functional Requirements-
ClassificationSelection of Joint Type-
Design Consideration-Design Load
Anchorage System. Installation-
Provision for DrainageMaintenance
Chapter 6 - PIER 146
Design Consideration-Pier Components-
LoadingPile Layout and Stability-
Design of Pier Base and Stem-Detailing
Chapter 7 - ABUTMENT 168
Types of Abutment-Modes of Failure-
Scouring Protection and Drainage-
Design LoadingsCantilever Type
Retaining Wall Abutment Counterfort
Retaining wall-Joints in Retaining Wall
Abutments-Abutment For The widening
of Bridge.
Chapter 8- FOUNDATION 322
Part I: Design of Bridge Foundations
.323
Shallow Foundations-Piled
Foundations-Lateral Load Capacity
of.Piles Analysis of Global Pile Group-
Unc6rtainities of the Analytical Methods
Good Design Practice _
Part II: Design of Piled Foundation
332
Classification-Common Types of Piles
Used in JKR Projects-Selection of Pile
Type-Design of Single Pile-Factor of
Safety-Pile Bearing on Rock-pile
Bearing capacity-Negative skin Friction-
Design of pile Group
Chapter 9- DESIGN CODES AND TRAFFIC
LOADING FOR HIGHWAY
BRIDGES 364
Current and Future Design Standards-
Limit state Design-Standard Highway
HAAnd HB Loadings-Secondary
Highway Loading
Appendices: Philosophy of Limit State
DesignDefinitions of Some Bridge
Terms-A.storical Development of BS
5400-Terms of Reference for the Design
And Supervision of Bridges.
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Chapter 10 - WORKED EXAMPLE OF
JAMBATAN DI ATAS SG.
ALOR PASIR KELANTAN
Data: Proforma, location plan,
cross section of river at
bridge site, general layout
i - vi
Hydrological Calculation
Calc.Sheet 1 - 10
Loadings on Bridge
Superstructure 11 - 20
Design of Rubber bearing and
Dowel Bar 21 - 32
Design of Deck Slab 33 - 38
Pier 39 - 60
Abutment 61 - 92
EXAMPLE OF WORKING
DRAWINGS
APPENDIX 1-8
METRIC CONVERSATION
TABLE
SEKALUNG BUNGA
'Setinggi*-tinggi terima kasih dan penghargaan
hendaklah dirakamkan'bagi mereka yang telah
banyak menyumbang dan berusaha untuk men-
jayakan penerbitan Buku Panduan Rekabentuk
Jambatan ini:
Sebelum 1984
Ir. Omar bin Ibzafrim.
Ir. Kassim Junid
Ir. Hon Too Fang
Ir. Dzulkifli b. Abdullah
Ir.-Mariyam bt. Ismail
Ir. Will'iam Tan Chee Keong
Ir. Ng See King
Ir. Abu Hanifah b. Abdullah
Ir. Lim Cheng Hock
Ir. Lee Chee Hai
Ir. Yap Huat Hoe
Ir. Yu Hain Teck
Selepas 1984
Ir. Tham Kum Weng
Ir. Nasaruddin b.Meor Abu Bakar
Ir. Rohani bt. Abd. Razak
Ir. Mohd. Murshid b. Omar
Ir. Dang Anom bt. Md. Zin
Ir. Wan Abdul Aziz b.Hj. Ariffin
Ir. Baharanuddin b. Che Zain
Ir. Sabariah bt. Bachik
Ir. Ng See King J
Ir. Mohd. Hakim b. Mohd. Amin
Ir. Dzulkifli'b. Abdullah
Ir. Abdul Halim b. Marzuki
Ir. Abu Bakar b. Mohd. Said
Ir. Ku Mohd.Sani b.Ku Mohamad .
Ir. Shamlan b. Hashim
Ir. Lim Char Ching
Ir. Md. Razali b. Hj. Yusak
Ir. Othman b. Ibrahim
Ir. Ahmeed Tarmizi b. Ramli
Ir. Mohd. Hisham b.Mohd. Yassin
Ir. Zainuddin b. Jasmani
Ir. Shamsuddin b. Sabri.
Ir. Mustaffa Kamal b. Abu Bakar
Ir. Mohd. Zamri b. Shaari
Ir. Sohaimi b. Mohd. Yassin
Ir. Abd. Latif b. Mokhtar
Ir. Tengku Hishamuddin b.Tengku Abdullah.
Penyediaan Pelan-pelan
Puan Salmah bt. Wahab
Encik Kamaruzamau b. Osman.
Encik Abdul Aziz b. Sabda
Encik A. Kamal b. A. Rahim
Encik Arshad Marzuni
Encik Abd. Hadi b. Mohd. Sharif
Encik Johari b. Yahya
Encik Mohd. Nor b. Zainuddin
Encik Ghazali b. Jantan
Puan Siti Hafsah bt.Kusni
Puan Hayati bt. Mohd. Nayan
Puan Ooi Kooi Kee
Encik Zainal Akmar b. Yaacob
Puan Salasiah bt. Othman
Puan Yeo Seok Kin
Encik Zailan b. Jumani
Encik Teoh Jit Liang
Encik Omar b. Munam
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Jurutaip
Puan Normah bt. Md. Noor
Puan Ruhani bt. Hamat
Puan Sally Wong
Kakitangan-kakitangan Lain Yang Turut Sama
Menjayakan Penyediaan Buku Panduan ini.
Puan Rodiah bt.'Mat Saman
Encik Abd.Hazim b. Ibrahim
Encik Mohd. Aziz b. Shamsuddin
Encik Onn b. Sulaiman
Encik Tajuddin b. Hamzah
Cik Endon bt.Mansor
Encik Rosli b. Talib
Encik Mat Yusof b. Hashim
Puan Jaswir Kaur
Puan Shaharah bt. M. Shariff
Encik Ishaik b. Indon
Puan Hawa bt. Mohd. Said
Encik Md. Shamri b. Hj. Amin.
C H A P T E R 1
STANDARD JKR PRACTICES IN
BRIDGE DESIGN
1. INTRODUCTION
1.l Organisation Objective
To plan and improve the development of
the infrastructure and public services in the
transportation system such as bridges, fly
overs & culverts for roads so that they will
be safe, of high quality and economical so
as to fulfill the country's social and
economic development.
1.2 Function
1. To plan and design new structures or
suggest remedial works for existing
structures of river,bridges/flyovers/
foot bridges/culverts for federal, state
and regional scheme roads.
2. To co-ordinate the design activities
of bridge projects for federal roads
designed by the Consulting
Engineers.
3. To plan and implement projects of
major bridges for federal roads.
4. To give technical advice to the JKR
States/Projects/ Road brcmcK in the
structural design of bridges, bridge
construction activities and on the
transportation of heavy vehicles on
JKR bridges.
5. To plan and implement research
program to improve the design
construction and maintenance bridge
in JKR.
6. To participate in training activities by
giving lectures and talks in courses
organised by the JKR Training
Centre and other units/sections.
1.3 Scope of Work .
The design works in the Bridge Section
involve the preparation of design
calculations, presentation ahd checking of
working drawings, preparation of
specification and bill of quantities. The
time taken to fully complete a project will
depend on the availability of the necessary
imformation, plans, etc. forwarded to this
section. The procedure in carrying out A.
design project is shown in the flow chart of
the Bridge . Design Section (Appendix I).
2. Standard Design Practices:
2.1 Types of Bridges
The types of bridges designed by the
Section are road bridges over high
ways, railway line, river and some
times pedestrian bridges. All bridges
designed are of reinforced and pre
stressed concrete based on the length of
the standard beams available in the
Section. See (Appendix II) Attempts are
now underway to.design continuous box
girder bridges.
Page 9
2.2 Design Codes
The design of concrete bridges in the
section has been based on British
Standards such as the BS 153 Part 3A
(loading), CP'114 (reinforced concrete)
and CP115 (prestressed concrete).
In addition, technical memoranda pub
lished by the British Department of
Transport are also used. These
memoranda. are essential reference
material because firstly, they lay down
principles of design for bridges based
on their distinct features as compared to
other structures and secondly, they keep
abreast of current design
recommendation based on research.
The code of practice on Limit State
Design (CP110) is not applicable to
design of bridges because it is not
compatible to the loading requirements
of BS 153 Part 3A. A new bridge
design code incorporating the Limit
State Design and various technical
memoranda embodied in BS 5400 has
been available since 1978. However,
controversial parts of the code are still
under review in Britain and not yet
implemented in full.
A list of design codes related to the
design of bridges as practised by this
section is shown in Appendix III. 11 It
is a practice in the section that all road
bridges are designed to HA loading and
checked for 45 units of HB loading
guided along the centre line of the
carriageway. The procedure of
computing the designed live loads and
dead loads is dealt with in the chapter
on loading. For a skew angle of less
than 200, the beams can be used and if
the skew angle is greater than 200, the
beams should be analysed using the
GRIDP/STRU analysis computer
programme that is available in the
computer section.
3. Design Procedure:
3.1 Proforma
With reference to the flow chart in the
implementation of the bridge designs,
the proforma is very important to the
designer to decide the arrangement of
the bridge for the preparation of a
sketch proposal .When there is a request
to design a bridge from other sections,
the proforma form will be sent to the
particular section to fill in their
requirements e.g. location, t9pe of road,
services and longitudinal cross section
of the river at a distance of 100 ft.
upstream and 100 ft. downstream if it is
over a river. Roads are classified by their
JKR standard types (Appendix IV)
The selection of the type of parapet for a
bridge is of fundamental importance to
its appearance.It is a practice in the
section, to have either a solid concrete
parapet or a steel railing (Appendix VI).
Each can have visual merits depending
on the general configuration of the
bridge structure. In the case of a bridge
over a highway, it would be appropriate
to have.a steel railing so that the bridge
deck will appear slender. For remote
areas, since maintenance is difficult, the
use of concrete parapet is preferable.
4.2 Services
The service that are usually required by
the client.to be placed on the bridge
structure are watermains, telephone and
electrical ducts. Brackets for the water
main are provided in the form of 'J' or 'L'
shape as in Appendix VI. The telephone
and electrical ducts are usually placed in
the concrete kerb and if there are more
ducts, they are hung by the side of the
beam.
Page 10
5. Standard Prestressed Beams
As mentioned earlier the arrangements of
the bridge are based on the available
standard pretressed beams as shown in
Appendix II. These comprise of post-
tensioned I beams and pre-tensioned
inverted T beams. The choice between
these two types of prestressed beams
depends on the span and locality of the
project. Pre-tensioned beams have the
advantage of being cast in the factory
under good quality control. But they can
only be in short length probably not more
than 20 m because of the difficulty in
transporting them to the work site.
Post-tensioned I-beams can span greater
lengths and are best used when the bridge
site is not easily accessible or remote.
Casting and prestressing on site will solve
the problem of transportation of the
finished beams.
6. References
Apart from the design codes mentioned
earlier, the following are popular references
used in the section:
1. Concrete Bridge Design - R.E. Rowe.
2. Introduction to Structural Design
(Concrete Bridges - Derrick Beckett.
3. C & CA/CIREA
Recommendation on the use of inverted T-
Beams and pseudo-box construction -
Wilson & Manton.
4. The Analysis''of Right Bridge Decks
subject to Abnormal Loading - Morrice &
Little.
5. Design of Prestressed Concrete Structure -
T.Y. Lin.
6. Standard Bridge Beams for spans from
7m-to 36m - Sommerville. 7. Foundation
& Pile Design - Tomlinson.
PETUNJUK:
PPK - Penolong Pengarah Kanan
K - Kerani
JKK - Jurutera Kerja Kanan
PB - Perekabentuk
Py - Penyemak
KP - Ketua Pelukis
PL - Pelukis
OK - Operator Kamera
JT - Jurutaip
Pel.Pej. - Pelayan Pejabat
P/TP - Pengarah/Timbalan Pengarah
J/PP - Juruteknik/Pelukis Pelan
Page 11
PPK
K
J KK
PB
PB
PY
PB
PY
PPK
MULA
KP
PL
KP
PB
Terima permohonan, buat keputusan untuk direkabentuk oleh
Unit J ambatan
Buka fail, kandungkan surat
Kaji dan lantik perekabentuk dan penyemak
Kumpul maklumat struktur melintasi sungai
Minta bridge proforma Buat perkiraan haiderologi
Semak Perkiraan haiderologi
Rangka Pelan Cadangan
Semak Pelan Cadangan
Luluskan Pelan Cadangan?
Lantik Pelukis
Lukis Pelan Cadangan
Semak dan tandatangan pelan cadangan
Semak dan tandatangan pelan cadangan
Ya Tidak
Tidak
Ya
A. CARTA ALIRAN KERJ A REKABENTUK PERMULAAN
STRUKTUR J AMBATAN
APPENDIX 1 A
* Bersambung dimuka surat sebelah
Page 12
CARTA ALIRAN KERJ A REKABENTUK PERMULAAN
STRUKTUR J AMBATAN
APPENDIX 1 A
PPK
OK
PB
J T
PB
PPK
K
Pel. Pej.
TAMAT
* Sambungan dimuka surat sebelah
Tidak
Ya
Luluskan Pelan Cadangan?
Buat salinan pelan cadangan
Tulis surat
Taip Surat
Semak dan tandatangan ringkas
Tandatangan surat
Semak dan failkan surat / lukisan
Hantar surat / lukisan
Proses kerja rekabentuk terperinci struktur baru
Page 13
PB
PY
J KK
KP
PL
KP
MULA
PB
PY
J KK
P/J P
Cadangkan konsep struktur / rekabentuk piawai
Luluskan ?
Siapkan rekabentuk terperinci
Semak perkiraan
Luluskan?
Atur kerja dan lantik pelukis
Siapkan lukisan terperinci
Semak dan luluskan
Semak dan tandatangani
Luluskan
Tandatangani Lukisan
Serah pada O.K
Ya
Tidak
Ya
B. CARTA ALIRAN KERJ A REKABENTUK TERPERINCI BARU UNIT J AMBATAN
APPENDIX 1 B
Terima ulasan dan kelulusan cadangan
PPK
PPK/J KK
O.K
TAMAT
Dari Proses Kerja Rekabentuk Permulaan
Buat Salinan
Proses Kerja Penyediaan Dokumen Meja Tawaran
J KK/
PPK
PB
PPK/J KK
Tidak
Ya
Tidak
Ya
Tidak
Page 14
KP
J /PP
KP
PB
PPK
MULA
J T
PB
Deraf/pinda penentuan dan jadual bahan
Luluskan format penentuan dan jadual bahan ?
Arah bagi kerja
Buat taking off, abstracting dan billing
Semak taking off, abstracting dan billing
Semak dokumen meja tawaran
Semak dokumen meja tawaran
Luluskan?
Taip dokumen
Luluskan
Ya
C. CARTA ALIRAN KERJ A PENYEDIAAN DOKUMEN MEJ A TAWARAN UNIT J AMBATAN
APPENDIX 1 C
Terima salinan lukisan
J KK
Dari Proses Kerja Rekabentuk Terperinci
Semak
J KK/
PPK
PB
J KK
Tidak
Ya
Tidak
Ya
Tidak
PY
J KK
Susun dokumen meja tawaran
Page 15
PPK
TAMAT
K
Pel.Pej
Tulis surat
Tulis surat
Semak surat dan tandatangan ringkas
Tandatangan surat
Failkan surat
Susun semula data rekabentuk dan jilid dokumen untuk rekod
C. CARTA ALIRAN KERJ A PENYEDIAAN DOKUMEN MEJ A TAWARAN UNIT J AMBATAN
APPENDIX 1 C
* Sambungan dari muka surat sebelah
PB
Tidak
Ya
J T
Hantar surat/dokumen
PB
Pb/kp
NO. NO.BEAM OVERALL
LENGTH-(m)
EFFECTIVE
LENGTH-(m)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
I-BEAM
1 - BEAM
INVERTED T
INVERTED T
INVERTED T
INVERTED T
31.24
25.00
18.90
16.76
12.50
9.45
30.33
24.23
18.59
16.53
12.34
9:29
STANDARD PRESTRESSED BEAMS AVAILABLE IN THE BRIDGE UNIT
LIST Of RELEVENT B.S CODES & B.E TECHNICAL MEMO FOR BRIDGE DESIGN:
B.S B. E
1. LOADING B.S 153 : Pt3A ' 1972. 1/77.
2. R.C DESIGN CP114 1/73
3. P.C DESIGN C P 115 " 2/73
4. PRECAST BEAM C P 116 -
5. COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION CP117: Pt 11
6. FOUNDATIONS C P 2004 -
7,, ILASTOMETRIC BEARING - 1/76 r
8. NEW BRIDGE CODE B .S 5400 -
9. EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURE - 3/78
10. PARAPET - 5
11. DESIGN CRITERIA FOR
FOOTBRIDGES - 1/78
12: EXPANSION J OIKTS - 3/72
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LIST OF 0. I.0 HYDROLOGICAL PRO-
CEDURES FOR HYDROLOGICAL
CALCULATION:-
1. HP1 - ESTIMATION OF THE DESIGN
STORM
2. HP5 - RATIONAL Mtd.
3. HP11 - UNIT HYDROGRAPH Mtd.
4. URBAN DRAINAGE DESIGN
Stds AND PROCEDURES FOR
PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
5. HP4 - REGIONAL FLOOD FREQUEN
CY Mtd.
PROFORMA FOR BRIDGE DESIGN
Federal:.................... State:.................... Bridge
No: ................ S7ungai: ..........*........
State:.,................... Route or
Road:............................ at. Milestone:................
1. STREAM:
(a) FLOOD LEVEL
Normal R.L. ........................
Exceptional R.L.................... . Date:
..................
(b) NORMAL WATER LEVEL
- R.L............... ...........
(c) POSSIBILITY OF DEBRIS DURING
FLOODS:........................................
(d) NORMAL VELOCITY .......................
h/Sec . ................ .......
2. PLANS FORWARDED:
(a) Site Plan ........................... Drg.
No:.............................
(b) Longitudinal Section on:
(i) Centre line of Bridge
(ii)' 15 m. on either side of centre line of
bridge to a distance of 150 m. on either
bank of stream.
Drg. No. ..........................
(c) Cross-section through road embankment
near abutments. Drg. No....................................
(d) Plan Showing:
(i) Stream course for 100 m. on either side
of bridge
(ii) road approaches within 100 m.
of bot ends of bridge.
Drg. Not ..........................
(e) Plan showing details of existing
piers and abutments and other
obstructions, Drg. No:.......................
3 BRIDGE:
Proposed deck level. R.L.....................
Foot paths:
Carriageway: clear distance between kerbs.
4. CONSTRUCTION:
State whether:
(a) Divided deck type is required:
.............................. or
(b) Alternative arrangemcnt will be made
for traffic di viation during construc-
tion:.........................................
............................................................
5.. SERVICES:
Accommodation required for:
(a) water mains.
Size:........................
(b) Electricity cab1c ducts.
Size:.........................................
(c) Telephone ducts.
Size:..........................................
(d) Lighting standards:..................................
6. GROUND CONDITIONS:
(Preliminary information, if available)
Whether
(a) Open type foundations feasible ............... (b)
Good bearing strata. likely at
R.L......................... ........
(c) Extremely poor ground ............................ (d)
Mackintosh probes details 1n Drg. No:
..................... .........
7.STIPULATIONS BY OTHER AliiHGR'.k
IES I IF ANY:
...................
.............................................................. ..
............................................. ..........................
..............................
Page 18
Page 19
Page 20
Page 21
NOTES ON HYDROLOGICAL CALCU-
LATIONS FOW- BRIDGE DESIGN
1. INTRODUCTION
In the design of a hydraulic structure, hydrolog-
ical calculation is necessary to determine the
rate of flow or discharge that the hydraulic
structure will be required to accomodate.
The design discharge is a 'hydraulic load' anal-
ogous to the structural load in a structural
design.
In a bridge design, we need to determine the
design flood discharge for a certain Return
Period so we can propose a bridge with the
deck level well above the flood level.
Besides this, we have to calculate the flood
velocity to determine if the river bed is suscep-
tible to scouring.
2. FACTORS AFFECTING FLOOD
RUNOFF
2.1 SIZE
The size of a catchment area has an important
bearing on the response of the catchment to
rainfall, and consequently on the methods used
to predict flood runoff.
Topographic maps are valuable aids in obtain-
ing the size of -cafchrnent areas.
In the Rational method (HPNo.5) the size of
catchment area is limited to 0.5 - 40 sq. miles.
Return Period is the average interval of time (in
years) between the years that contain an event,
greater than or equal to the one under consider-
ation. It is a statistical measure of the probabili-
ty of occurence of a.flood under consideration.
2.2 SLOPE
Many investigations have found that next to
catchment area size, some index representing
the slope of the catchment area is a very
important catchment area characteristic in .
comparing f18od magnitudes.
Main channel slope can be determined by sim-
ple measurement from topographic maps. For
non-uniform slope, 'weighted mean slope' can
be used though it can be argued that in the
preparation of H.P. No. 5 the 'rough' slope had
been used~so it would be more appropriate to
use the 'rough' slope in the calculation.
2.3 LAND USE
The effect of urbanization and land develop-
ment on peak flow depend upon the percent of
the area made impervious and the changes
made in the drainage pattern through the instal-
lation of storm sewers and modification of sur-
face channels:
DID HPNo.5 has recommended as a general
guide, factors to allow for varying amounts of
change from undeveloped vegetation to agri-
cultural crop. (Table 3)
2.4 SOIL TYPE & SURFACE
INFILTRATION
The type of soil and its surface infiltration
capacity affect the amount of runoff in the
catchment area. These factors are taken into
consideration by the Runoff Coefficient (C).
2.5 STORAGE
Storage within a catchment area may be deten-
tion storage, which is the rainfall lost in filling
small depressions in the ground surface; stor-
age in transit in overland channel flow, or
storage in ponds, lakes or swamps. Storage
may also occur in flood control structures like
reservoirs.
The effect of storage on peak flows can be
quite large. However, this effect has not been
taken into account in DID HP. No. 5, such that
catchment areas where storage effect
is expected to be serve as in the case of reser-
voirs, DID HPNo.5 should not be used.
Page 22
Helpful data can then be obtained from the
controlling public agencies.
For urban drainage modified rational method
can be used
in which storage coefficient.(Cs) shall be multi-
plied by basic Rational Method formula
Q = C
S
CiA
Where Cs = 2 tc
__________
2tc +td
and tc is the time of concentration
td is the time of flow in the drain but, C is the
composite runoff coefficient and shall be deter-
mined as follows
C =A
1
C
1
+A
2
C
2
......An Cn
_______________________
' A
A
l
, A
2
etc. are n areas, each of relatively uni-
form land use or Furface character, comprising
the total area A.
And C
1
, C
2
etc. are the corresponding runoff
coefficients obtained from table below.
2.6 RAINFALL
The total amount of rainfall is most important
in producing peak flows from large areas,
while the intensity of rainfall is . most impor-
tant in producing peak flows from small areas.
Catchment area characteristics and antecedent
conditions have a major effect on the propor-
tion of rainfall which becomes runoff.
3. BLOOD HISTORY
HISTORICAL FLOODS
The history of past floods and their effect on
existing structures are useful in making flood
hazard evaluation studies, including needed
information for sizing our structures.
Records of the past floods that are useful to a
designer are:
(a) Photographs of structures during flood
(b) Maximum flood level
(c) Distribution of flow and approximate
velocities in different sections of the
stream
(d) Duration of flood
(e) Magnitude of flood
(f) Scour, erosion & sediment deposits
(g) Damage to structures & adjacent
property
These information may be obtained from the
local residents and.the related local public
agencies like the D.I.D.
4. STATISTICAL METHODS IN THE
ESTIMATION OF FLOOD
MAGNITUDES
Where actual records of runoff from historical
floods extending over long periods are avail-
able, such records may be analysed to furnish
the basic design data.
Unfortunately, in the majority of cases ade-
quate runoff records are not available and esti-
mated of storm runoff by statistical method has
to be used.
3 methods have been established by the DID,
Malaysia:
(a) Rational Method (Hp No.5)
(b) Unit Hydrograph Method (Hp No.11)
(c) Regional Flood Frequency Method (Hp
No.4)
Page 23
5. RATIONALMETHOD (HPNo. 5)
5.1 ASSUMPTIONS
5.1.1 Homogeniety of rainfall in terms of
time and space
5.1.2 The maximum rate of runoff for a
particular rainfall intensity occurs if the
duration of rainfall is equal to or
greater than Tc:
*'Tc =Time of concentration is defined as
being the time taken for the most remote
part of the catchment to contribute to
flow at the design point.
N.B. Minimum Tc recommended in HP
No. 5 is 30 minutes.
5.1.3 The maximum rate of runoff from a
specific rainfall intensity whose
duration is equal to or greater than TC
is directly proportional to the rainfall
intensity.
5.1.4 The frequency of occurence of the
peak discharge is the same as that of
the sample intensity from which it was
calculated.
5.1.5 The coefficient of runoff C remains
constant for all storms on a given
watershed. (Catchment area)
5.2 ANALYSIS OF POINT RAINFALL
Point rainfall is the rainfall records taken at a
single gauging station.
The DID Malaysia had collected rainfall
records for the peninsular and produced iso-
pleths after statistical analysis
These isopleths can be made use of to calculate
the storm intensity for various return period
and duration.
Land Use Runoff Coefficient
Business:-
City Areas Fully built-up and shophouses
Industrial:-
Fully built-up
Residential:-
4 houses/acre
4-8 houses/acre
8-12 houses/acre
12 houses/acre
Pavement
Parks (normally flat in Urban Areas)
Rubber
Jungle (normally steep in urban areas)
Mining Land
Bare Earth
0.90
0.80
0.55
0.65
0.75
0.85
0.95
0.30
0.45
0.35
0.10
0.75
Table 1 Rational Method Runoff Coefficients for urban centres
Page 24
It is customary in engineering practice to
assume that, point . rainfall values are applica-
ble to areas up to 1sq mile and for larger areas
reduced values are to be used (Areal Reduction
Factor - Table 2).
5.3 PROCEDURE
5.3.1 INFORMATION
(a) Cross-sectional drawings and
other site plans
(b) Topographic maps
(c) Design Profoma:
(i) History Flood
(ii) Channel characteristic
(iii) Client's requirements
(d) DID Hydrological procedures
(Hp No. 1 & Hp No. 5)
5.3.2 HYDROLOGICAL CALCULATION
5.3.2.1 Estimation of the design rain
storm (use of Hp.. N0.1)
(a) Adopt Return Period T =100
years
(b) Determine Time of
Concentration
T
C =
0.434
A
0.117
L
____________
S
0.467
NB
Note that A is in sq. miles
L is in miles
S is weighted .mean slope
(in percent)
(c) Obtain values of X(T,t) from figs
1-8 for T =2, 20; and t to
envelope value of TC.
(i.e. t
1
, <t
C
<t
2
)
(d) Plot values in graph fig.9(fig 10
of Hp No. 1)
(e) Draw straight lines between
points representing the same
duration.
(f) Read off values of:
X(10, ) )
X(10,2 ) ) if Tc is between
X(100, ) ) hr. & 2 hrs.
X(100,2 ) )
X(10,2 ) )
X(10,24 )) if T c is between
2 hrs. & 24 hrs.
. X(100,2 ) )
X(100,24 ) )
AND SO FORTH............
(g) Plot the above values in
graphFig. 10 (Fig. 9 of Hp. No.1)
(h) Read off values of X(2, T
C
)
X(10, T
C
)
X (20, T
C
)
X(100, T
C
)
(i) Compute confidence Limit
D =X(20) - X(2)
Limit =0.43 D
(j) Max X(100) =X(100) +0.43D
* T can be calculated from Hp. No. 8 but it is
the JKR practice to adopt T =100 years.
5.3.2.2 Flood Estimation
Use of HPNo. 5
(a) obtain values of X(10) & Max
X(100)
(b) Compute 1
10
= X
(10)
______
T
C
and reduce the intensity accordingly
by the appropriate Areal Reduction
Factor
Table 2 - (Table 8 of Hp No.1)
(c) Evaluate C from fig. 11 &.,12
(d) Compute i
100
= X(100)
_______
T
C
- again applying the appropriate
Areal Reduction Factor
Page 25
(e) Compute Peak discharge
Q
100
- F (C x i
100
x Ac),
value of F from table 3 being
Land-use Factor. Note that Ac in
Acres (1 sq mile =640 acres)
5.4 RELIABILITY OF THE RATIONAL
METHOD
5.4.1 It cannot be over. emphasised to
state that the results obtained from
the Rational Method should not be
adopted indiscriminately because of
the following uncertainties in the
method:
1. There is a degree of uncertainty
Jinvolved in the initial
computation of the qT & iT
frequency distributions in the
preparation of fig. 12 for values
of Runoff coefficient (C)
2. In developing the components of
the procedure, the TG
relationship and the selection
chart for C, averaging is carried
out in semi quantitative fashion
only.
Lastly, it must be emphasised again that the
use of any flood estimation procedures must
be complemented by sound engineering
judgement and experience. Flood
information collected from the local
residents in the vicinity can be very useful.
5.4.2 CONFIDENCE LIMITS
The computed value of an event for a certain
return period by Hp. No.1 is not the 'real'
value, and has a certain statistical uncertainty
attached to it.
The standard error can be computed based
on the work by Robertson: This standard
error can be used to construct two control
curves such that 2/3 of the estimate would
be expected to fall within this range.
D =X(20) - x(2)
Standard error =0.43D based on 20
years record and return period of 100 years.
Page 26
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Page 38
TABLE 2: AREAL REDUCTION FACTOR FA
(FROM TABLE 8 OF HP 1)
CATCHMENT
AREAAc
(sq miles)
STORM DURATION t (hrs)
1/2 1 3 6 24
0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
50 0.69 0.80 0.90 0.93 0.95
100 0.61 0.72 0.84 0.89 0.93
150 0.58 0.68 0.82 0.86 0.92
200 0.67 0.80 0.84 0.92
250 0.66 0.80 0.84 0.92
300 0.65 0.80 0.84 0.92
350 0.80 0.84 0.92
400 0.80 0.83 0.92
TABLE 3: LANDUSE FACTOR F
(FROM TABLE 2 OF HP 5)
DEVELOPMENT TO AGRICULTURE
FROM J UNGLE IN PERCENT
F
0-25 1.00
25-50 1.05
50-75 1.15
75-100 1.20
Page 39
6. UNIT HYDROGRAPH METHOD
(HP. No. 11)
This method estimate total flood hydrograph
for ungauged rural. catchments: This
procedure is not applicable to urban catch
ments. one advantage of this method is that
it can be used to distribute runoff from
storms of varying temporal pattern. The
disadvantage is that.it is fairly tedious to
apply.
6.1 REQUIREMENTS
1. It should estimates:
(i) The peak flow
(ii) The volume and time distribution of
runoff for various recurrence
intervals.
2. Account for significant differences in
the catchment characteristics that effect
floods.
3. Utilize catchment data that can be
readily determined from topographical
maps.
4. Should be simple and relatively fast to
apply.
6.2 PROCEDURE
1. Determine the catchment group (From
table 4)
2. Compute:
(i) L - Length of stream from the out
let to the catchment boundary (mile)
it
(ii)Lc - Length of stream from outlet to
the. catchment centroid (See fig. 13)
(iii) A - catchment area
(iv) S - Stream slope (Formula is as in
egn.(1)
3. Calculate catchment lag, Lg is the time
from half the duration of rainfall excess
to half the volume of direct runoff.
Lg=- C
t
x [ LL
S
] n . . . . . . (2) .
---------
S
4. Calculate design storm using HP. 1 (P
in)X
T
t
N.B. }
for 3 hrs. storm } T is any design
return
P
in
=X
T
3 } period say 50 or
for 4 hrs. storm } 100 yrs.
P
in
=X
T
,4 }
5. Calculate direct runoff volume, Q
(i) Design storm <3 ins.
Q =0.33 Pins.
(ii) Design storm >3 ins.
=P
2
ins.
---------
(P+6)
6. Calculate Peak Discharge,.gp
=Dp x A 640 x Q
----------------------- ft
3
/Sec.
(Lg +D/2)
Where Dp =peak ordinate of the
dimensionless hydrograph
i.e. charateristics of the catchment -
(table 5)
D =Duration of storm
7. Add baseflow component of 5 cusecs
per sq. mile. Table 4: Values Ct and n
For Equation
Page 40
Table 4: Values C
t and n for Equation
Catchment Type C
t
n
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Whole catchment very steep and
covered in virgin jungle
Upper catchment very steep and
jungle covered, lower catchment
reaches hilly and covered pre-
dominantly with rubber
Whole carchment undulating with
variable vegetation including jun-
gle, rubber and agricultural devel-
opment
2.0
4.0
8.0
0.35
0.35
0.35
Table 5 : Values of Dp, Tb and Tp
Catchment Type Dp Tb Tp Tp/Tb
Group 1 1.06 1.89 C 0.94C * 0.50 *
Group 2 0.89 2.24 C 0.87C 0.39
Group 3 0.75 2.67 C 0.58C. 0.22
* Adapted for design flood estimation
Page 41
Page 42
7. Regional Flood Frequency Method
(Hp No.4)
A total of 11 regions (F1 to F11) have
been defined in Peninsular Malaysia,
within which reasonably consistent
regional flood frequency relationship
have been established. Thes regions are
shown on plate 1, together with location
of the gauging stations used in analysis.
location of the gauging stations used in
It has not been possible to provide
rational flood frequency coverage for
the whole of Peninsular Malaysia. This is
especially so for the areas between the
coastline and the foothills of the central
and western mountain range. On such
areas data in respects of flood peaks are
very difficult to obtain because of large
flood plain storage and tidal effects.
7.1 Use of Procedure
This procedure may be used for
estimating the flood frequency
distribution within any of the regions
shown on Plate 1. There are two
situations, for which different methods
are used-to make the flood estimate:
Case 1 : Stations with sufficient data to
define the mean annual flood
Case 2 : Stations with zero or very little
streamflow data. '
Example of Case 1
Station No. 4442 Station Name : Sg. Langat
at Kajang
Catchment Area : 148 sq. miles (from Plate
1) Flood frequency Region: F4
Mean Annual flood: 4503 cusecs (From
Appendix A)
From Figure 14, using the region F4 flood fre-
quency line,
prepare Table 6 shown on page 47.
Example of Case 2
Station: Unnamed point on Sg. Seminyih Flood
Frequency Region: F4 (from Plate 1)
Catchment area: 148 sq. miles (NB. same as
for 4442) .
Mean annual flood (from Figure 16): 3600
cusecs
From Figure 14, using the region F4 flood fre-
quency line, prepareTable 7 shown below:
Example of Case 3 (67% confidence limit)
Take the same station as for case 1
'Q20 = 6260 )
Q2 = 4360 ) From Fig.18
R =1900 )
R = 1900 = 425 V
n f 20
Standard error of the estimate of
Q2 = 0.54 x 425 = 230
Q5 = 0.86 x 425 = 366
Q10 = 1.23 x 425 = 522
Q20 = 1.73 x 425 = 736
Q25 = 0.43 x 1900 = 820
Q50 = 0.43 x 1900 = 820
Control curves are plotted on the estimated
flood frequency curve for case 1 shown on
Fig.18. The control curves indicate that two-
thirds of the (say) Q25 estimate made from
data samples of length 20 yrs. would lie in the
range 6439 t 820,cusecs, i.e. from 5619 to 7259
cusecs.
7.3 Limitation
1. This procedure applies only to the catchment
areas indicated by the position of the mean
annual flood - catchment area lines on figures
15, 16, 17 and reproduced in Table 8 below:
Page 43
Table 6: Reconstituded flood frequency estimates
(Region F4, Case 1)
T (yrs) QT/Q2.33 QT(Cusecs)
2.33 1.00 4503
5 1.16 5223
10 1.27 5719
25 1.43 6439
50 1.54 6934
100 1.64 7385
The Flood frequency curve reconstituted for station
No. 4442 using the data from Table 6 is shown
on Figure 18.
Table 7: Reconstituded flood frequency estimates
(Region F4, Case 2)
T (yrs) QT/Q2.33 QT(Cusecs)
2.33 1.00 4503
5 1.16 5223
10 1.27 5719
25 1.43 6439
50 1.54 6934
The Flood frequency curve reconstituted for the unnamed
location on Sg. Semenyih using the data fromTable 7 is shown
on Figure 18.
Page 44
Table 8: Range of Catchment Area applicability for each region
Flood Frequency Range of Catchment Area for which
Region procedure is suitable (sq. mile)
F1 30 - 1500
F2 30 - 300
F3 100 - 450
F4 45 - 600
F5 30 - 200
F6 45 - 1200
F7 80 - 400
F8 20 -1000
F9 40 - 2000
F10 40 - 3000
F11 2000-- 10,000
Page 45
Page 46
Page 47

Page 48

Page 49

Page 50

Page 51
8 DETERMINATION OF THE
FLOOD WATER LEVEL
FLOOD WATER LEVEL AND
VELOCITY
8.1. Manning's Formula:
8.1.1 Manning's Formula is used to
calculate the flood Velocity of the
main stream
v = 1.49 (R) 2/3 (S o)1/2
n
8.1.2 The formula is strictly valid for
cross-sections shaped like wide
rectangles having approximately
level bottoms
8.1.3 The hydraulic gradient is assumed
to run parallel to the energy
gradient
(i.e. uniform flow)
8.2. Procedures
1. Draw out the cross-section of river
at bridge site to scale on a graph
paper.
2. Assume a flood level based on the
past flood records (from Proforma)
3. Subdivide the cross-section
according to marked changes in
roughness.
4. Assign values of Mannings
Roughness coefficienct to each'sub
section (Table 9)."
5. Further divide the subsections
according to marked changes in depth
of flow and work out the areas (A) and
wetted perimeter (P) for each
sebsection Work out the Hydraulic radii
for each subsection:
R
i
= A
i
--------
P
i
i =no of subsections.
6. Compute the velocity of each
subsection by Manning's Formula.
APPENDIX A
Region F4
MEAN ANNUAL FLOOD DATA MAXIMUM RECORDED FLOOD DATA
Maxi mum di scharge data
STATION PERIOD OF Stati on Regi onal Date Gauge Hei ght cusecs cusecs Regi onal Rati o to
NO RECORD Q.33(cusecs) Q.33(cusecs) (ft.above m.s.t) per Return Regi onal
sq.ml Peri od (yrs) Q50
3413 1947-1970 3650 2900 24.4.54 128.3 3950 31.8 41 0.98
4411 1949-1970 8110 6800 30.10.55 67.8 10800 25.6 80 1.05
4412 1947-1970 2130 2010 4.6.66 134.7 2530 35.1 10 0.83
4421 1950-1970 8820 8250 1.11.55 26.8 10900 19.5 14 0.87
4422 1961-1970 4000 2900 26.11.67 118.5 5000 40.3 >100 1.13
4431 1948-1970 4000 5010 27.10.57 33.6 5600 20.4 4 0.74
4432 1948-1970 5220 3920 28.4.52 93.5 7450 39.4 >100 1.25
4433 1948-1970 1180 1500 14.9.64 103.2 1600 34 3 0.7
4434 1948-1970 1460 1700 2.2.51 107.8 1680 30 2 0.65
4441 1949-1970 4800 7450 11.6.54 27.2 6915 14.5 2 0.61
4442 1948-1970 4500 3350 27.10.57 89.5 7500 50.7 >100 1.47
4443 2170 2175 4.3.64 109.8 3190 38.9 36 0.97
(FROM APPENDIX B HP" 4)
Page 52
Maximum Permissible velocity or
nonerrodible velocity is the greatest
mean velocity that will not cause
erosion of the channel body (Table 7).
Vm is not to exceed this velocity.
The discharge capacity should be able
to accomodate the peak discharge
Q100.
If Qc <. Q100
Repeat steps 2-8 by a ew trial flood
level until Qc is slightly higher than
Q 100 ,
* If the mean velocity is ' her than the
maximum permissible velocity this.can be
rediced by using a longer span bridge. Should
this turnout to uneconomical, bed protection
should s be provided.
9 Computation of Back Water Curve
When the crossing at the bridge Bite is
constricted dire to the construction of a
new bridgb, back water will be resulted
causing a rise in water level above the
calculated water level.
This rise in water level (if it occurs) has
to be taken into account in considering
the deck level of the proposed bridge.
This computation may not be necessary
if there is no constriction causes by the
new bridge.
Steps for. such computation are
available in the DID manual for 'Urban
drainage design standard and procedures
for Peninsular Malaysia'.
10. PRESENTATION OF SKETCH
PROPOSAL
At this juncture, we could have arrived
at:-'
10.1 Proposed deck level (Having
taken into account the depth off
standard beams to be used;
thickness of deck slab; premix;
bearing and amount~of-freeboard)
It is JKR practice to allow for a
free board of 0.3-1.0m to cater for
the debris brought along by the
flood water.
10.2 Number of-spans-required-and the
length of.each span.
10.3 .Whether .or not-bed protection is
required. with these infomation.
we should be able to put up a .
sketch proposal. This sketch
proposal is to be submitted to the
client and the D.I.D for approval.
Page 53
Page 54
TABLE 10. PERMISSIBLE VELOCITIES FOR DIFFERENT
BEDMATERIALS
NATURE OF BED PERMISSIBLE VELOCITY(ft/s)
CLAY 7
SANDY CLAY 5
VERY FINE SAND 2 TO 3
FINE SAND 3 TO 5
FINE GRAVEL 5 TO 6
ROCKY SOIL 10
ROCK 14 TO 20
GRASS - LINED 7.5
* EXTRACTED FROM DID URBAN DRAINAGE DESIGN STANDARD
PROCEDURE FOR PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
Page 55
APPENDIX
NOTATIONS AS USED IN THE
HYDROLOGICAL CALCULATION .
A =Area of cross section of river
Ac =Area of supplying catchment
C = Runoff coefficient
D =X (20).- X (2) .
F =Land-use Factor
FA =Areal Reduction Factor
A h=Difference in level
iT =Average intensity of the design rain
storm of return period T years
li =Incremental stream length
L =Length of the main stream
/n =Roughness coefficient
p =Wetted Perimeter
QC =Discharge capacity of a
river cross section
Q T=Peak Discharge of design flood with
return. period T year
R =Hydraulic Radius
S, =Incremental Stream slope
S =Weighted mean stream slope
SO =Stream slope at bridge site
t =storm duration
T =turn Period
Tc =Time of concentration
Vm=mean stream velocity
v =stream velocity
X(T,t) =Rainfall depth of a storm
with an estimated return period of T
years and having a duration of t hours.
X(T) =Rainfall depth of a storm with an
estimated return period of T years
the duration of which is specified
elsewhere.
REFERENCES
1. T,D. Heiler, Estimation of the
Design Rainstorm, D.I.D.
Hydrological Procedure No. 1,
Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries Malaysia, 1973
2. T.D. Heiler and Chew Hai Hong,
Magnitude and Frequency of Floods
in Peninsular Malaysia, D.I.D.
Hydrological Procedure No.4,
Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries, Malaysia, 1974
3. T.D. Heiler, Rational Method of
Flood Estimation for Rural
Catchments in Peninsular Malaysia,
D.I.D. Hydrological Procedure No.
5. Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries, Malaysia, 1974
4. M.A.W. Taylor and Toh Yuan Kiat,
Design Flood Hydrograph
Estimation for Rural Catchments in
Peninsular Malaysia, D.I.D.
Hydrological Procedure No.11,
Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia,
1980
5. K.V. Lewis, P.A. Cassell and T.J .
Fricke, Urban Drainage Design
Standards and Procedures for
Peninsular Malaysia, Ministry of
Agriculture and Rural Development,
Malaysia 1975.
Page 56
C H A P T E R 3
BRIDGE LOADING
(A) Unlike in the design of Buildings
where there is a complete and
comprehensive code of practise, no
such code for the design of concrete
Bridges,ekist until recently. The recently
published BS5400, for the design and
construction of concrete Bridges, is yet
to be adopted by the Bridge Unit Until
such time, the design of bridges will be
in accordance with BS 153: Part 3A
(Loads) : 1973 and the C.P.114 (The
elastic analysis method).
Amendments and up-dating of the
various a clauses in the BS 153 are
carried out by the Ministry of transport.
(United Kingdom) from time to time
and are published in the Technical
Memorandum. As such, when referring
to the BS 153 for loading, the current
Technical Memorandum must also be
refered to in conjuction with-the BS153.
(B) Loads Acting an a Bridge
Superstructure
The following Loads are to be taken
into consideration when designing a
bridge. They are:
(i) Dead Load
Dead Loads consist of structural dead
Loads and superimposed dead Loads.
Structural dead Loads are Loads due to
the self-weight of the various structural
components of the bridge. It should be
noted here that a preliminary estimation
of the sizes of the various structural
components is necessary at this stage.
The superimposed dead load consist
of items like road surfacing road
furniture, weight of services (water
mains, Telecoms cables, electric
cables ...... etc). -
(ii) Live Loads (HA Loading and
HB Loading)
The Standard normal highway
loading is called HA loading and the
standard abnormal highway loading,
the HB loading. Type HA loading
comprises a uniform distributed load
combined with a line load across the
width of each traffic lane. This loading
is considered to be adequate to represent
the the effects of three vehicles, each
220 KN in weight, closely spaced, in
each of two carriageway lanes followed
by 100 KN and 50 KN vehicles. It
should be noted here that Type HA
Loading includes a 25% allowances for
impact.
Type.HB loading caters for
the safe passage of an abnormally
heavy vehicle of up to 180 tonnes
gross laden weight with a configuration
of wheels and axle as shown:
Type HB loading is usually expressed in
Units per axle.
The full type HB Loading (180 tonnes)
is commonly expressed as 45 units (1
unit - IOKN).or part of it, 371 units
(150 tonnes) or 30 units (120 tonnes).
Page 57
(iii) Loads due to centrifugal force
On elevated roadway structures and
bridges carrying highways that have
sharp horizontal curvature,
centrifugal force must be taken into
account. This involves making
assumptions about the speed and
weight of vehicles, together with the
intervals between them where the
loaded length allows several vehicles
in line. A judgement may be made
on the intervals between vehicles,
based on the information about
stopping distances given in the
highway code. The Technical
Memorandum BE 1/77 specifies
design forces to cover these
conditions in anticipition of the
requirements of BS 5400.
(iv) Tractive/Braking Loads
The longitudinal force on a bridge
structure result from the traction or
braking of vehicles at the level of
the carriageway surface. It is applied
horizontally to the carriageway
surface.
(v) Wind Loads
Wind forces though rarely significant
in small-span and medium-span
bridgeworks, can be critical in
bridges like the suspension type
where the span is large. Generally
any structure which is sensitive to
stability problems will inevitably tend to
be more sensitive-to wind loading.
(vi) Load due to shrinkagey
temperature.& creep
These are horizontal loads due to
forces generated in the beams/slab
caused by shrinkage, temperature
changes and creep in the concrete.
(vii) Seismic Loads
These are loads due to earthquakes.
For Bridges designed in this country
no seismic force are taken into
consideration. The only exception to
this, is the Penang Bridge where
seismic Loads are considered.
Procedure for determination of loads
on Bridge Superstructure
STEP1
Determine the dead loads & superimpose dead
loads of all structural components.
STEPII
Determine width and number of traffic lanes
STEP III
Determine live loads'type,HA & HB. '
STEP IV
Determine Tractive load,
Page 58
STEPV
Determine movement of beam due to tempera-
ture, shrinkage and creep and Ca1c . horiz.
load.
STEPVI
Determine loads due to wind forces ,
Guide-Lines for Determination of Loads on
Bridge Superstructure
Within the normal scope of design work carried
out by the Bridge Section, the loads on a
Bridge superstructure normally considered are:
(i) Dead Loads
(ii) Live Loads
(iii) Tractive/Braking Loads
(Longitudinal load)
(iv) Wind Loads
(v) Loads due to shrinkage, temperature &
creep (S.T.C)
The loads normally not taken into considera-
tion are loads due to centrifugal force (except
for sharp horizontal curvature) and even more
infrequently, seismic loads.
However, in special circumstances where a
bridge is designed to be submerged, then the
lateral horizontal force due to the water current
and the bouyant force of the water need to be
calculated and taken into consideration.
STEPI
Dead Loads
The calculations for the dead loads of a bridge
superstructure is quite straightforward.
However a preliminary estimation of the sizes
of the various structural components-, thickness
of the deck slab, premix surfacing ... etc is
required. This can be a problem for those
designers attempting bridge design for the first
time. The
importance of an orderly and systematic
approach to the calculations of dead loads can-
not be overemphasized. Any haphazard
approach may result in a structural component
or item inadvertently left out. A good guide to
follow is provided by the 'Summary of
Loadings on Bridge Superstructure'. It should
be noted here i that the total.dead loads are sup-
ported equally by the two supports.
STEPII
Width and number of traffic (design) lanes
Very frequently, views differ on what should be
the carriageway width for live loads (HA &
HB) considerations on a bridge and conse-
quently, the number of traffic (design) lanes. It
is the writerts opinion that
the carriageway width of a bridge should be the
clear distance between raised kerbs. However
the more recent standards issued by the Road
prdt\ch does not encourage the use of Kerbs
but instead adopts 'Road Edge Stripping' to
demarcate the traffic lane from the cycle/
pedestrian lane. In such cases, the carriageway
width should include the cycle/pedestrian
lanes. The justification for the inclusion being,
there is a very likely possibility of an errant
vehicle going onto the cycle/pedestrian lane, in
the absence of road kerbs. (see fig. 1 and fig.
2).
In the determination of Live Loads, two impor-
tant items need to be obtained initially.
(i) The number of traffic (design)
lanes
(ii) The width of each traffic
(design) lanes
There are two cases of carriageway width to
consider:
(i) Bridge with carriageway width of
4.60 m or more
(ii)Bridge with carriageway width of less
than 4.60 m
In case (i) the number of traffic (design) lanes
is obtained by dividing the carriageway width
by 3.80 m and rounding up to the next whole
number.
Page 59
Example
Assume carriageway width =7.5 m
From Table in B.S. 153: Part 3A:1972 (pg. 5)
Number of traffic lanes =3
width per lane =7.5 = 2.5 m
3
In case (ii) the number of traffic (design) lanes
is obtained by dividing the carriageway width
by 3.0 m. This implies that there will be frac-
tional lane and the loading on the fractional
lane will be proportional to the full lane.
Example
Assume carriage width =4.20m ,
Number of lanes = 4.2lanes
3
Width per lane = 4.2= 3.0 m.
1.4
At this juncture, it is appropriate to give some
clarification on the concept of traffic lanes.
Rightfully, when designing, the lanes referred
to should be called Design Lanes rather than
traffic lanes so as.to distinguish it from traffic
lanes in the context of Road design.
From the above example Of carriageway width
of 4.20m, it is clear why the distinction
between the two must be made. In that exam-
ple we have the number of lanes (for Loading
Consideration) =1.4 lanes, which would not be
a possible number in Road Design. It would,
in Road design, be a one lane or two lane road-
way. This clearly demonstrates that the number
of traffic (design) lanes of a bridge need not
necessary be equal to the number of traffic
lanes of a roadway.
STEPIII
Live Loads HA & HB
HA Loads
When considering HA (normal live load)
loads, it is important to note HA loads
onsist of three components; (i) HA-udl load
and (ii) HA-KEL load (See fig. 3) and (iii) HA-
Wheel loads. This implies that the HA-UDL
load is uniformly distributed bothways equally
i.e. longtudinally and across the width of the
design (traffic) lane. The HA-KEL load is a
line load acting across the width of the design
(traffic) l6e. An important point to note here is
that the HA-KEL load is a movabl load (along
the span). The HA-KEL load must be placed in
such a position so as to cause worst effects. For
example, in the design of abutment or pier the
HA-KEL must be positioned over the abutment
or pier. In beam design however, the HA-KEL
must be positioned mid-span.
To wheel loads each 112KN force in line trans-
versely to the direction of traffic flow spaced at
0.90m centres and having a contact area of 375
mm x 75 mm, the smaller dimension being in
the direction of travel, to be used in the follow-
ing cases:
(a) Where the member supports a small area
of roadway such that it may be called
on to carry the weight of one or two
wheels, and where the proportion of
distributed load and knife edge load
which would be allocated to it is small
and on cantilever projections not
exceeding 1.80m.
(b) Where deck slabs are designed as
supported on all four sides and the
distance between supports in one
directions is less than twice the
distance in the other direction.
The values for HA-udl (spanwise) and HA-
KEL (across the width of lane) are obtained
from Table 1 and Fig. 1 of B.S. 153. However
the values obtained need to be reduced by the
factor 3 for lanes less than 3.Om width for HA-
UDL values (W=width of design lane) and for
HA-KEL the values are 40KN/m (across
widths/lane), for lane width less than 3.Om and
120 KN per lane for,lane width greater than
3.0m. .
Page 60
Bridge with two or less design lanes shall be
loaded with the full HA-UDL and HA-KEL
loads. However for every additional design
lane above two lanes, it shall be loaded with
one-third (1/3) the full intensify. (see Fig.4).
The relevant clause pertaining to this rule is
clause 4.1.3. Of the B.S. 153.
The following examples will illustrate more
clearly the computations for HA-UDL and HA-
KEL loads.
Case (i) Design (traffic) lane width 3.0m. or
less Assume:
(a) Design' (traffic) lane width
= 2.70m(w)
(b) Number of Design (traffic) lanes =3
(c) Span of Bridge =31.O m
From Table 1 and Fig.1 of B.S. 153,
HA-UDL =28.5 KN/m (spanwise, per lane)
HA-UDL (Reduced)
= 28.5 x 2.70= 25.65 KN/m (per lane)
3
HA-KEL (Fig.1) =40 ICN/m (across width of
lane)
HA-UDL.(for first two lanes) =25.65 x 31.0
x 2
=1590.3 KN
HA-UDL (for third lane) =25.65 x 31.0 x
1 x 1/3
=265.05 KN
Total HA-UDL =1590.3 +265.05
= 1855.35 KN
HA-KEL (for first two lanes) =40 x 2.70
x 2
=216 KN
HA-KEL (for third lane) =40 x 2.7 x 1 x
x 1/3
= 36 KN
Total HA-KEL =216 +36 =252 KN
Case (ii) Design (traffic) lane width greater
than 3.Om assume:
(a) Design (traffic) lane width
=3.2m (w)
(b) Number of Design (traffic) lanes =3
(c) Span of Bridge =31.0m.
From Table 1 and Fig. Y of B.S. 153,
HA-UDL =28.5 KN/m (per lane) - HA-KEL
(Fig.1) =120 KN per lane.
HA-UDL (for first two lanes) = 28.5 x 31.0
x 2.
= 1767.0 KN
HA-UDL (for third lane) =7R-5 x31.0 x 1/3
=294.5 KN
Total HA-UDL = 1767 +294.5
= 2061.5 KN
HA-KEL (f6r first two lanes) =120 x 2 =240
KN HA-KEL (for third lane)
=120 x 1 x 1/3 =40 KN
Total HA-KEL =240 +40
= 280 KN
HB Load
The configuration of axles and wheels of a HB
vehicle is as shown in Fig. 5. The load per axle
is 450 KN and the total weight of the HB vehi-
cle is 1800 KN. Very often the full weight of
the HB load is also expressed as units per axle.
The full HB load is referred to as 45 units . (1
unit =10 KN) or part of it, say, 37J units HB.
(375 KN/axle).
Like the HA-KEL, the HB load is a movable
load. For the design of abutment/pier or beams,
the vehicle must be placed in such a position so
as to cause the most adverse effects. (See
Fig.6).
In Bridges designed (checked) for HB loads,
the Live Loads to be adopted for design will be
either loads due to HA (Normal) or HB (abnor-
mal) loads, depending whichever is greater.
In Bridges designed (checked) for HB loads,
the Live Loads to be adopted for design will be
either loads due to HA (Normal) or HB (abnor-
mal) loads, depending whichever is greater.
Page 61
STEPIV
Determination of Tractive/Braking Load
This is horizontal force acting longitudinally on
a bridge deck generated by sudden braking or
traction of vehicles (see Fig.7) on the bridge. It
is even more severe if the vehicles are heavy.
The determination of this Tractive load is sim-
ple enough and the relevant clause in clause 10
of the B.S. 153. However the present JKR
Practice predetermines a maximum value of
253 KN for tractive load for both HA and HB
(45 units) Loadings.
This is a slight departure from the B.S. 153
where the maximum load is 450 KN. The
reason for this adoption of a smaller load is, in
my opinion,. due to the present system of
control and approval of passage of HB- Class
of vehicles over a public road bridge. Any
heavier than normal load intending to use any
bridge has got to seek prior approval of JKR
authorities. A condition normally imposed will
be that the abnormally heavier vehicle to travel
along the bridge centre-line at a very slow
speed. No other vehicles will be permitted to
use the bridge during this time. In such circum-
stances, the force due to sudden braking and
traction is reduced to a minimum or none at all.
Hence the adoption of a smaller load is justi-
fied.
STEPV
Loads due to movement of beam caused by
temperature, shrinkage and creep
They are horizontal forces acting longtudinally
on a bridge generated by movement of beam
caused by temperature, shrinkage and creep.
The temperature and shrinkage coefficients
adopted may be assumed to be universal values
but the creep coefficients is dependent on con-
crete cube strength and cube strength at transfer
(for prestressed beams).
How much of shortening caused by shrinkage
and creep that has occured at the time of
casting of the beams and prestressing, is more
speculative than anything else. It is not
uncommon to see designer's assuming a
variety of figures. In the Bridge sectin we nor-
mally assume two-thirds (2/3) shrinkage and
half (1) creep has(already occurred at the time
of placing of beams. (See Fig.8).
Therefore the actual beam movement,
=Temperature shortening +shrinkage+creep
3 2
Knowing the actual beam movement, Plan area
of elastomer and it's-shear Modulus, (for that
particular 'Hardnesl';of elastomer) the horizon-
tal force due-to shrinkage, Temperature and
Creep, (commonly abbreviated to S.T.C.) can
be determined. (See Fig.9). Shrinkage and
creep can act in.only one 'direction but
temperature can act in ;either direction,
longitudinally.
STEPVI
Loads due to Wind Forces
Generally, structures that possessed stability
problems, like the suspension bridges, will be
sensitive to wind loads. For the types of
bridges designed in this section, wind loads are
not critical but nevertheless they have to be
taken into consideration of design purposes.
Only the longtudinally component of the lateral
wind force is taken into consideration. The lat-
eral horizontal'wind force is normally omitted-
due to the fact the ratio of the total vertical
forces to the lateral horizontal forces is so large
that stability of the structure can be provided by
the sheer weight (Live Dead Load) of the struc-
ture itself.
In the calculations for wind forces the area of
superstructure (AW/s) normal to the direction
of the wind in the windward side will be
required. This AW/s will normally be made up
of the height of the beam thickness of deck slab
and the edge kerb, in the case of the bridge is
of the metal. railings type or plus concrete
parapet height if it is of the concrete parapet
type.
Page 62
The height of the live load is taken as 2.50m
from the top surface of the deck and shall be
assumed to occupy the span of the bridge. -
Thus, the area of live load (AL.L.) normal to
the direction of the wind is =2.50 x span of
bridge. Case should be taken to ensure that
scree,ing effect of the concrete parapet on the
live load is taken into conside-ation. Hence the
A
L.L
. always refer to the net exposed area of
live load. In the case where the concrete para-
pet is used, then A
L.L
,=(2.50-0.80) x span of
bridge. (Assuming concrete parapet height
approx. =0.80m).
Another factor just simply referred to as 'n' in
the B.S. 153, (perhaps should be termed as the
leeward side factor) is simply defined as the
ratio of the distance between the windward
girders (beams) to the leeward girders (Beams)
to the height of the windward girder. This
factor, n/16 , is always less than unity and is
applied at the leeward side when determining
wind forces on it. The following shows the
derivation of the formulas shown i/n Fig. 10.
A. Unloaded Case
From B.S. 153, Wind Pressure =1.4 KN/m
2
on windward side, The lateral wind force
=1.4 x Aw/s on leeward side the lateral wind
force =1.4 x Aw/s x n
16
Since the two forces act in the same direction,
the total lateral wind force =1.4 x Aw/s x n/16
+1.4 x Aw/s =1.4 x Aw/s (1 +n/16)
The longtudinal wind Force is simply taken as
=1/4 of Lateral Wind Force.
B. Loaded Case
From B.S. 153, Wind Pressure =0.7 KN/m
2
.
Here however, the area providing resistance to
the wind will be (Aw/s +A
LL
).
As before;
The total lateral Wind Force =0.7 (Aw/s +
A
L.L
) (1 +n/16). In this case, the B.S. 153
states that the longtudinal wind force should be
taken as a.quarter of the lateral wind force on
the superstructure and half of the lateral wind
force on the live load.
Longtudinal Wind Forcez[( 1/4 x 0.7 x Aw/s)
+(1 /2 x 0.7 x A
L.L
) ] (1 +n/16)
References .
B.S. 153: Part 3A =1972 (Loads)
CONCRETE BRIDGE DESIGNER'S
MANUAL
E. PENNELLS - 1981
LECTURE NOTES ON BRIDGE
LOADINGS
BRIDGE DESIGN COURSE - BANGI 1983.
Page 63
Page 64
Page 65
Page 66

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Page 70
Page 71
Page 72
Page 73
BS 153.: Part 3A: 1972
British Standard Specification for
Steel girder bridges Part 3A. Loads
1. Scope of BS 153 .
This specification is primarily intended to
apply to the superstructure of simply supported
steel bridges of spans up to 100 m. Where
appropriate, the requirements of the specifica-
tion may be adopted for larger spans or other
types of steel bridges, but care should be taken,
in these circumstances to make whatever
amendments are necessary for fixity at the sup-
ports, continuity and other indeterminate or
special conditions, such as, for instance, may
apply to opening bridges.
2. Forces 'to be taken into account
For the purpose of computing stresses the
following items shall, where applicable; be
taken into account:
(1) Dead load.
(2)Live load.
(3) Impact effect.
(4) Lurching effect.
(5) Nosing effect.
(6) Centrifugal force.
(7) Longitudinal force.
(8) Wind pressure effect
(9) Temperature effect.
(10) Resistance of expansion bearings to
movement.
(11) Forces on parapets.
(12) Erection forces and effects.
(13) Forces and effects due to earthquakes, ice
packs, subsidence and other similar causes.
Subject to the provisions of other clauses, all
forces shall be considered as applied and all
loaded lengths chosen in such a way that the
most adverse effect is caused on the member
under consideration.
3. Dead load
The dead load is the weight of the structure and
any permanent loads fixed thereon. The dead
load initially assumed shall be checked after
the design is made and the design shall be
revised as found necessary.
In determining the dead load, actual ascertained
unit weights shall be used, but if these are not
available unit weights as given in 13S 648 may
be used, as appropriate.
4. Live load .
The live load is the weight of traffic and shall
be of the type and magnitude specified. The
following standard loadings shall be adopted
where appropriate:
4.1 Standard highway loading
4.1.1 Loading. Standard highway loadings
are given in Appendix A.
These are:
Type HA. Equivalent lane loading which is
the normal design loading for Great Britain
but may be varied in intensity where
conditions are other than, those prevailing in
Great Britain.
Type HB. Abnormal unit loading. To be
used when specified by the appropriate
authority. In Great Britain 45 units shall be
taken for bridges carrying the heaviest class
of load This is an idealized load which
allows for the weight of tractors
accompanying trailers.
4.1.2 Width and number of traffic lanes to
be used in conjunction with standard
highway loadings .
4.1.2.1 Bridges having a carriageway width
of 4.60 m,or more. Traffic lanes shall
be taken to be not less than 2.30 m
nor more than 3.70 m wide. The
carriageway shall be divided into the
least possible number of traffic lanes
having equal widths as follows:
Page 74
4.1.2.2 Bridges having a carriageway width
of less than 4.60 m. Where the
carriageway on a bridge is less than
4.60 min width it shall be taken to
have a number of traffic lanes.
=width of carriageway in metres
----------------------------------------
3.00
4.1.2.3 Where dual carriageways are carried
on one single superstructure, the
number of lanes on the bridge shall
be taken as the sum of the number of
lanes in each of the single
carriageways, as provided in the
table above. Where hard shoulders
and marginal strips are provided
these shall be considered as forming
part of the carriageway and the
number and width of traffic lanes
calculated accordingly.
Where marginal strips are provided
without hard shoulders the number
of traffic lanes shall be calculated
after deducting the widths of the
marginal strips from the overall
width of the carriageway between
the verges or raised 'kerbs; the
intensity of loading on the marginal
strip shall be taken as equal to that
for the adjacent carriageway lane,
except where the adjacent
arriageway lane carries HB loading,
in which case the marginal strip is
unloaded.
4.1.3 Application of standardloading on a
single superstructure
Type HA loading Type HA loading
shall be taken. to occupy one
carriageway lane and to be uniformly
distributed over the full width of the
lane.
Two lanes shall always be considered
as occupied by full Type HA loading,
while all other lanes shall be
considered as occupied by one-third the
full lane loading, except where other
wise specified by the appropriate
authority.
Type HB loading. One lane shall be
loaded with Type HB loading only.
Where one carriageway only is carried
on a superstructure, all other lanes shall
be considered as occupied by one-third
of the full lane loading, except where
otherwise specified by the appropriate
authority.
Where dual carriageways are carried on
one single superstructure two lanes on
the carriageway not carrying HB
loading shall be taken as occupied with
full HA loading. All other lanes- shall
be taken as carrying J, HA loading.
4.2 Standard railway loading
Standard railway loadings are given in
Appendix B, in imperial units only.
Where the remaining calculations are in
SI units, the values obtainedain imperial
units shall be converted into SI units
using the appropriate conversion factor.
These are:
Type RA. British Standard unit
loading, for various gauges.
Type RB. Total uniformly distributed
load, including impact, for gauges of
4 ft 81 in (1.432 m) and over.
Carriageway width (m) No.of lanes
4.60 up to and including 7.40
2
3
4
5
Page 75
BS 153: Part 3A: 1972
This loading is based on the Bridge Stress
Committee's report of 1928, a brief pricis of
which is given in Appendix D. It is suitable
for railways in Great Britain and abroad with a
gauge 4 ft 81 in (1.432 m) and over and with
locomotive and track characteristics similar to
those obtaining on the main railways in Great
Britain.
4.3 Standard footway loading .
The live load due to pedestrian traffic
shall be treated as uniformly distributed
over the footway. For loaded lengths up
to and including 23.0 m it shall
normally be taken as 4 kN/m' and for
lengths over 23.0 m as the standard
uniformly distributed loads given in
Fig. 1 multiplied by a reduction factor
of 4.0/31.5. Where crowd loading is
likely the live load for the design of
members exclusively supporting or
forming the footway shall be taken as
5 kN/m'.
In the case of highway bridges each
part of the footway shall be capable of
carrying a wheel load of 40 M, which
shall be deemed to include impact,
distributed over a contact area 300 mm
in diameter; the working stresses shall
be increased by 25 % to meet this
provision. This provision need not be
made where vehicles cannot mount the
footway.
5. Impact effect on highway bridges
Where Types HA ant"HB loadings
given in Appendix A are not adopted,
the allowance for impact on highway
bridges shall be to en as follows:
(1) An impact allowance of 25 % shall
be added to the axle-load, or (where
there is more than one lane of
traffic) the pair of adjacent wheel
loads, which produces the greatest
bending moment or shear, as the
case may be, and o the condition of
loading for which the member being
considered is designed.
(2) Where the loaded length required to
produce the maximum stress in any
member exceeds 30.0 m impact
shall be ignored.
No addition for impact shall be made to the
live load due to pedestrian or equivalent light
traffic.
6. Impact effect on railway bridges
A propriate additions shall be made to
the live load specified in 4 for impact
effects caused by the hammer blow of
locomotives, rail joints, and track and
wheel irregularities.
In determining these additions due
consideration shall be given by the
engineer to the standard and
maintenance of track and roiling stock,
the types and characteristics of
locomotives, and the. type and /
characteristics. of the bridge.
Type RB loading, which is suitable for
the main line railways of Great Britain
and other railways having similar
locomotive and track characteristics,
already includes an allowance for
impact and co further additions shall be
made. For all other loadings, including
type RA, the additions for impact shall
be specified by the engineer. For his
guidance three methods of calculating
the additions, those of Foxlee and Greet,
the Government of India and the
American Railway Engineering
Association, are described in detail in
Appendix C.
7 Lurching on railway bridges
A separate allowance shall be made for
lurching, unless this has already been
included in the impact effect. 'Lurching
results from the temporary transfer of
Page 76
BS 153: Part 3A: 1972
part of the live loading from one rail to
the other, the total load on the track
remaining unaltered. The transfer shall
be taken to increase the load on the rail
which most adversely affects the
member under consideration.
The proportion Q
L
of live load on one
rail so transferred shall be calculated
from the expression.
160k n
Q
L
= ---------
I +100
where k is a coefficient depending on
the type of spring suspension,
the weight and height of the
rolling stock, and the type of
construction and lateral rigidity
of the bridge structure;
n is the number of revolutions per
second of the driving wheels of
the locomotives (see Fig. 6,
Appendix B);
1 is the effective span in feet, as
defined in 1.4 of Part 4.
NOTE. For conditions corresponding. to those
ruling on the railways of Great Britain (4 ft
81/2 in gauge =1.432 m gauge), and provided
the structure is adequately stiffened laterally,
k =1/24 and n =6 for maximum speed, but
with a maximum value of Q
L
of 0.25. For
conditions other than those ruling on the
railways of Great Britain, and where provision
for a greater lurching effect is necessary, it is
recommended that the value of the coefficient
k be increased but to not more than 1/15 with a
maximum value for the factor Q
L
of 0.40.
Where a member supports or assists in support-
ing more than one track, provision for the
effect of lurching need only be made in respect
of one of the tracks where these are two. or in
respect of alternate tracks where there are more
than two, the track or tracks selected being
those on which the transfer of the load has the
greatest effect on the member.
Lurching need not be taken into account in the
case of an inner main girder assisting in sup-
porting more than one track.
No addition for impact shall be made to the
lurching effect.
8. Nosing on railway bridges.
An allowance shall be made for
nosing, and this shall be taken as a
single force of 10 tonf, acting
horizontally, in either direction, at
right angles to the track, at the rail level
and at such a paint in the span as to
produce the maximum effect in the
member under consideration. This
value is appropriate to the conditions
obtaining on railways in Great Britain.
In other cases the amount of force may
be amended at the engineer's discretion.
Vertical effects shall be disregarded. :
On multi-track bridges, a single force as
specified above shall be deemed
sufficient.
9. Centrifugal force on railway bridges
Where the track or tracks are curved,
allowance for centrifugal action of the
moving loads shall be made in
designing the members, all tracks on the
structure being considered as occupied.
The centrifugal force due to the load per
track shall be calculated from the
following formula:
w v
2
C = -----------
15R
where C = the centrifugal force per lin
ear foot considered as a
moving load, acting at a
height of 6 ft (1.83 m)
above the level of the rails,
unless otherwise specified
by the engineer;
w = the equivalent distributed
live load, without impact,
per linear foot per track;
v = the allowable maximum
speed of the train in miles
per hour, as specified by the
Page 77
BS 153: Part 3A: 1972
engineer; and
R = the radius of the track curve
in feet.
No addition for impact shall be
made to the centrifugal force.
10. Longitudinal force on highway
bridges
The following longitudinal force
resulting from the traction or
braking of vehicles shall be taken as
acting
horizontally at the level of the
carriageway surface, and having the
following values for all widths of
bridge. The force shall be applied
over an area 3.00 m wide by 9.00 m
long, or the length of the bridge,
whichever is less, and in that
position which will have the worst
effect on the member under
consideration.
No increase for impact effect shall be made to
the stresses due to longitudinal forces. Only
one such force shall be considered.
11. Longitudinal force on railway
bridges
Provision shall be made for the
forces due to traction and the
application of brakes. These forces
shall be considered as acting-on the
rail, and, for the purpose of the
design of the structure, shall be taken
as the larger of:
(1) A force due' to traction of
20 % of the total axle loads
on the coupled or driving
wheels on one track without
impact. When type RB
loading is used, 20 units of
type RA loading shall be
taken for this purpose.
(2) A force due to braking of
10 % of the total load on one
track without impact.
Where the structure carries two
tracks, one up and one down, both
tracks shall. be considered as being
occupied simultaneously, and the
force due to braking shall be applied
to one track and, the force (in the
same direction) due to traction to the
other.
Where the structure carries more
than two tracks, the longitudinal
forces shall be considered as applied
to two tracks only, unless otherwise
specified by the engineer, the worst
case being taken as'regards its effect
on any part of the structure.
Some relief in the effect of the
longitudinal force on the bridge and
its supports may be taken into
account where the tracks are capable
of transmitting part of these forces to
resistances outside the bridge
structure.
No addition for impact shall be made
the longitudinal force.
Type HA Loading Type HB Loading
for 45 units
Span up 3.00m
Spans above
3.00m
100 kN
100 KN plus 17kN
for each metre of
span over 3.00
mm but not
exceeding 253 kN
}
}
}
}450kN for all
spans
}
}
}
Page 78
BS 153: Part 3A: 1972
12. Wind pressure effects
12.1 General
Where the effect of wind has to
be taken into consideration, it
shall be treated as a moving
load (i.e. taken of such length
along the span as to produce the
maximum stress in the member
under consideration) acting at the
centroids of the exposed areas as
defined below.
The maximum effects from the
wind blowing in either lateral
direction on the loaded or
unloaded structure., shall be
taken, having regard to the
disposition of the live load.
For conditions normally
prevailing in Great Britain the
wind pressures specified below
shall be used, but where owing to
the position of the bridge or any
special conditions the assumed
wind speeds cannot be realized or
may be exceeded, the engineer
shall at his discretion specify
different values. For this purpose
the wind pressure shall be
assumed to vary as the square of
the wind speed.
12.2 For maximum lateral effect
12.2.1 On unloaded structures. A wind
pressure of 1.4 kN/m2
corresponding to a wind speed of
40 m/s shall be '. taken as acting
horizontally and normal to the
sides of the bridge on a total
exposed area of the
superstructure made up of the
following areas as applicable:
Windward girder, deck end
bracing. The net exposed area in
normal projected elevation of the
windward girder, deck
construction, bracing and parapet.
Leeward girders. The following
fractions (not exceeding unity) of
the net exposed area in normal
projected elevation of the leeward
girder :
n /16 when the windward girder
is a plate girder
n / 16 +0.5 when the windward
girder is a trussed girder
wheren =ratio of distance,
centre to centre between the
windward and outermost leeward
girder, to the depth of the
windward girder.
Where there are more than two
main girders, only that fraction of
the area of the outmost leeward
girder as calculated above shall
be taken.
In cases where a leeward girder
projects in elevation beyond the
windward girder, the full net
exposed area.,of the projection as
seen in elevation shall be treated
as subject to full wind pressure.
12.2.2 On loaded structures. In arriving
at the total effective area exposed
to wind on a loaded structure,
allowance shall be made for the
screening effect, based on
projected areas, of the structure
on the live load, or of the live
load on the structure, or of live
loads on each other:
Page 79
BS 153: Part 3A: 1972
12.2.2.1 Highway and jootway bridges.
A wind pressure of 0.7 kN/m2,
corresponding to 28 m/s, shall
be taken as acting horizontally
and normal to the sides of the
bridge on the exposed area of
the superstructure (calculated
as in 12.2.1). and of live load
taken as a single vertical plane
surface having a continuous
height of 22.500 m above the
carriageway or.1,25 m above
footway and cycle tracks, as
applicable.
12.2.2.2 Railway bridges. A wind pres
sure of 1.4 kN/m=(30lbf/ft2)
corresponding to a wind speed
of 40 m/s, shall be taken as
acting horizontally and normal
to the sides of the bridges on
the exposed. area of the
superstructure (calculated as in
12.2.1) and of live load taken
as a single vertical plane
surface having a continuous
height of 3.75 m (12 ft) above.
the rail.
12.3 For longitudinal effect
A longitudinal wind force shall
be combined with a
corresponding lateral wind
force equal to half the total
lateral force given in 1.2.2 and
the two shall be distributed
compatibly.
The longitudinal wind forces
shall be determined as follows:
(1) For plate girder bridges: a
quarter of the total lateral
wind forces on the super
structure in the unloaded
condition (see 12.2.1)
or a quarter of the total
lateral wind forces on the
superstructure and half the total
lateral wind forces on the live
load,in the loaded condition (see
12.2.2).
(2) For trussed girder bridges:
half the total lateral wind
forces on the superstructure in the
unloaded condition (see 12.2.1);
or, half the total lateral wind
forces on the superstructure and
live load, in the loaded condition
(see 12.2.2).
12.4 For maximum overturning effect
On the bridge and its supports, the
following shall be taken into
account :
(1) In addition to the lateral and
longitudinal wind forces specified
above, an upward vertical
pressure of . 0.24 kN/ml acting
over the net exposed area of the
bridge in plan.
(2) In considering the overturning
effect due to wind on live load,
the live load shall consist of
standard loading or of unloaded
wagons or vehicles of the lightest
tare, whichever produces the
maximum overturning effects.
The latter shall be taken as not
greater than 12 kN per linear
metre of bridge for railway
bridges and not greatet than 6 kN
per linear metre of bridge for
highway bridges.
13. Temperature effect
Allowances shall be made for the
forces resulting from the following
conditions:
(1) Any portion of the superstructure
being restrained from moving
Page 80
BS 153: Part 3A: 1972
when subjected to variations of
temperature. For this purpose in
Great Britain a minimum of -7 C
and a maximum between 27 C and
49 C, depending on the location of
the structure, shall be taken.
Elsewhere the temperature limits
shall be based on local conditions.
(2) Any portion of the superstructure
being at a temperature different from
the rest of the structure, due to the
effect of sun and shade. For this
purpose the maximum difference of
temperature shall be taken as 8 C.
In determining forces and
movements due to change of
temperature the coefficient of
expansion of steel shall be taken as
1.17 x 10-5 per C.
14. Frictional resistance of. expansion
bearings
For expansion and contraction of the
structure due to variations of
temperature or to other causes, the
forces due to friction on the
expansion bearings under dead load
only shall be taken into account and
the following coefficients of friction
shall be used:
For roller bearings with 1 or 2 rollers
- 0.01
For roller bearings with 3 or more
rollers - 0.05
For sliding of steel on hard copper
alloy bearing - 0.15
For sliding of steel on cast iron or steel
-0.25
15. Forces on parapets
15.1 Footbridge parapets .
Consideration shall be given to the
strength and stability of parapets.
Parapets may be subject to horizontal
loads acting at a height of 1.00 m
above the level of the footway, ranging
from 0.7 kN per metre to 1.4 kN per
metre, according to circumstances. The
maximum load will only be
encountered in extreme cases of crowd
loading.
The value of the loading shall be taken
at the discretion of the engineer'.
15.2 Motorway and other highway bridge
parapets
Reference should be made to the
Ministry of Transport memorandum
on the subject.
16. Combination of forces
The following combinations of forces
shall be considered:
(1) The worst combination possible of
dead load with live load, impact,
lurching and centrifugal force.
When a member whose primary
function is to resist longitudinal and
nosing forces due to live load is
under consideration the term live
load shall include these forces.
any or all of the'forces listed under
(1).to (11) inclusive in 2.
forces during erection: .
any or all of the forces listed in 2, at
the discretion of the engineer. 17.
Erection forces and effects
The weight of all permanent and
temporary material, together with all
other forces and effects which can
operate , or. any part of the structure
during erection, shall be taken into
account.
Page 81
BS 153: Part 3A: 1972
18. Anchorage .
The stability of the structure and its
parts shall be investigated and weight or
anchorage shall be provided so that the
least restoring moment, including
anchorage, is not less than the sum of:
1.1 x dead load overturning moment,
and 1.4 x overturning moments due to
applied loads.
Account shall be taken of possible
variations of dead load for repair or
other temporary purposes to ensure
stability at all times.
This margin of stability ifs so far as
stresses are concerned shall be deemed
to be covered in respect of.all parts. of
the structure which have been designed
for their working loads to the
permissible stresses in this British
Standard. In complying with the
requirements of this clause it. is
necessary to ascertain that the resulting
pressures and shears deemed to be
communicated by the bearings to the
substructure will not produce failure.
19. Clauses to be referred to the engineer
The following clauses in Part 3A
contain points on which the decision of
the engineer is required and concerning
which information-is to be supplied at
the time of inviting tenders.
Clauses 4.1.1, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11(2), 12.1,
13(1), 15,16(4).
Appendix A
Standard highway loading
A.1 Type HA loading
Type HA loading consists of (1) and (2), or (3),
viz.:
(1) A uniformly distributed lane loading.
The values for this load per linear metre
of traffic lane are given in Table I and
Fig. 1.
(2) One knife edge load uniformly
distributed across the width of the traffic
lane. The values of this load, which shall
be applied in accordance with A.3.I, are
given in Fig. 1.
(3) Two wheel loads each 112 kN force in
line transversely to the direction of traffic
flow spaced at 0.90 m centres and having
a contact area of 375 mm x 75 mm, the
smaller dimension being in the direction
of travel, to be used in the following
cases:
a. Where the member supports a
small area of roadway,such that it
may be called on to carry the
weight of one or two wheels, and
where the proportion of
distributed load and knife edge
load which would be allocated to
it is small and on cantilever
projections not exceeding 1.80 m.
b. Where deck slabs are designed as
supported on all four sides and
the distance between supports in
one direction is less than twice
the distance in the other direction.
In this respect the edge stiffening
of slabs as required by A.3.9 of
this appendix shall not be deemed
as providing adequate support for
this purpose.
A.2 Varied intensities of type HA loading .
Where a different intensity of loading is
required, Type HA loading may be varied pro-
portionately, each item of the loading being
varied pro rata.
When making any reduction it should be borne
in mind that an impact allowance of 25 % as
specified in A.5.1 has been taken into account
in this loading. This allowance is considered
adequate for conditions in Great Britain, but
may not necessarily be sufficient elsewhere.
Page 82
BS 153: Part 3A: 1972
A.3 Application of type HA loading
A.3.1 The knife edge load shall be taken as
acting as follows:
A.3.1.1 On reinforced concrete slabs effectively
supported on two sides and on cantilever slabs
exceeding 1.80 m. In a direction parallel to the
supporting members.
A.3.1.2 On longitudinal girders, stringers, etc.
In. a direction at right angles to the member.
A.3.1.3 On cross members, including trans-
verse cantilever girders. In a direction in line
with the member.
A.3.2 Where longitudinal members are spaced
at less than half the width of the lane the load-
ing to be taken on these members shall be that
appropriate to a half lane width.
A.3.3 The total end live load shear on any lon-
gitudinal beam shall be taken as not less
than.90 kN per metre width of carriageway
supported by the member.
A.3.4 No allowance shall be made for impact
or dispersal of load in respect of the distributed
load or knife edge load.
A.3.5 No allowance shall be made for impact
under the wheel loads.
A.3.6 Dispersal under the wheel loads, where it
can occur, shall be taken at 45.
A.3.7 It shall be permissible in considering the
effects of the 112 kN loads to allow a 25 90
overstress.
A.18 Reinforced concrete slabs shall be-
designed on the basis of 1 m wide strips carry-
ing one-third of the appropriate lane loading as
given in Table- I and Fig. 1 except when using
the wheel loads A.1(3).
Distribution reinforcement transverse to the
span of the slab shall be provided throughout.
For spans not exceeding 6.00 m its amount in
the area of sagging moment shall be sufficient
to resist not less than 5090 of the maximum
dive load moment at the sections considered
and it shall be so placed as to ensure effective
resistance to transverse bending.
A.3.9 Where the wheels of vehicles using the
bridge can travel on or near the unsupported
edge parallel to the main reinforcement of slab
decks, edge stiffening or its equivalent shall be
provided capable of carrying live load as
described below, in addition to the live load
which would normally be allocated to it.
A.3.9.1 Longitudinal slabs. That proportion of
loading from Fig. 1 and Table 1 appropriate to
a strip of slab having a width equal to one-
quarter of the span, but not more than 1.50 m
nor less than 0.60 m.
Alternatively, the slab may be extended beyond
the edge of the carriageway for a distance equal
to one-quarter of the span, but not more than
1.50 m nor less than 0.60 m.
A.3.9.2 Transverse slabs. That proportion of
loading from Fig. 1 and Table 1 appropriate to
a strip having a width equal to two-thirds of the
span.
A.3.10 Where elements of a structure. can sus-
tain the effects of live load in 'two ways, i.e., as
elements in themselves and also as parts of the
structure (as, e.g., the top flange of a box girder
functioning as a deck plate), the elements shall
be designed to resist the sum of the effects of
the appropriate loading for each condition.
Where the wheel loads of A.1(3) are used, the
25 % overstress permitted in A.3.7 shall be
applied in considering the sum of the effects.
Page 83
Loaded
Length
U.D.L for
beams per
metre of lane
U.D.L for
longitudinal
slabs per
metre of lane
U.D.L for
transverse
slabs and
cross girders
per metre of
lane
Loaded
length
U.D.L for
beams per
metre of lane
U.D.L for
longitudinal
slabs per
metre of lane
U.D.L for
transverse
slabs and
coss girders
per metre of
lane.
m
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.25
2.50
2.75
3.00
3.25
3.50
3.75
kN
318.6
233.7
179.4
146.4
126.6
112.8
101.7
92.4
84.6
77.4
72.3
68.4
kN
318.6
233.7
179.4
139.5
107.1
85.5
72.0
64.5
58.5
53.4
49.2
45.3
kN
282
153.6
113.4
89.4
72.6
62.7
55.2
48.6
45.0
41.7
37.7
36.3
m
4.00
4.25
4.50
4.75
5.00
5.50
6.00
6.50-23.0
kN
64.8
60.9
57.0
52.8
49.2
41.1
33.0
31.5
kN
42
39.0
36.3
35.1
33.9
32.1
31.5
31.5
kN
34.2
33.0
31.8
31.5
31.5
31.5
31.5
31.5
Table 1. Highway loading. Type HA
Equivalent uniformly distributed load (U.D.L) to be used in conjunction with the knife edge
load (see Fig. 1)
Page 84
Loaded
length
Force Loaded
length
Force Loaded
length
Force Loaded
length
Force
m
24.0
25.0
26.0
27.0
28.0
29.0
30.0
31.0
32.0
33.0
34.0
35.0
36.0
37.0
38.0
39.0
40.0
41.0
42.0
43.0
44.0
45.0
46.0
47.0
48.0
49.0
50.0
51.0
kN/m
31.2
30.8
30.4
30.0
29.0
29.3
28.9
28.5
28.2
27.8
27.4
27.0
26.8
26.6
26.2
26.0
25.7
25.4
25.2
24.9
24.6
24.3
24.0
23.8
23.5
23.2
22.9
22.6
m
52.0
53.0
54.0
55.0
56.0
57.0
58.0
59.0
60.0
61.0
62.0
63.0
64.0
65.0
66.0
67.0
68.0
69.0
70.0
71.0
72.0
73.0
74.0
75.0
76.0
77.0
78.0
79.0
kN/m
22.3
22.0
21.8
21.5
21.3
21.1
20.9
20.7
20.6
20.4
20.2
20.0
19.8
19.7
19.6
19.4
19.3
19.1
19.0
18.9
18.7
18.6
18.5
18.3
18.2
18.1
17.9
17.8
m
80.0
82.0
84.0
86.0
88.0
90.0
92.0
94.0
96.0
98.0
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
180
190
200
kN/m
17.7
17.4
17.2
17.0
16.8
16.6
16.4
16.2
16.1
16.0
15.9
15.6
15.3
15.12
14.9
14.7
14.5
14.3
14.1
14.0
13.8
13.7
13.6
13.5
13.4
13.1
12.9
12.7
m
220
240
260
280
300
325
350
375
400
425
450
475
500
525
550
575
600
625
650
675
700
725
750
775
800
850
900
kN/m
12.2
11.7
11.3
10.9
10.6
10.1
9.8
9.5
9.0
8.6
8.4
8.2
7.9
7.7
7.4
7.3
7.1
7.0
6.8
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.3
6.1
5.9
5.8
Note to Table t and Fig. i
Normal loading (Type HA) approximately, represents the effect of three vehicles, each 22 tonne
(220 kN) in weight, closely spaced, in each of two carriageway lanes, followed by 10 tonne (I00
kN) and 5 tonne (50 kN) vehicles. Design loads for short span members to allow for possible local
concentration of loads, the effect of two 90 kN wheel forces 0.90 m apart have been considered (i.e.
approximately two 112 kN wheel forces with 25 % overstress).
In general, normal loading is sufficient to cover 30 units of abnormal loading (Type HB) for loaded
lengths above 30.0 m and for slabs (but see A.5), and at least 20 units of abnormal loading for
beams having spans less than 30.0 m carrying decks with a weight similar to that of an ordinary
reinforced concrete slab. Where a bridge is definitely required to carry abnormal loads in excess of
20 units a check should be made.
A special case is a narrow bridge or one in which the carriageway is cantilevered beyond the beams,
where high stresses car.
occur under abnormal loading.
Page 85

Page 86
BS 153: Part 3A: 1972
A.4- Type HB loading
Type HB loading is a unit loading representing
a single abnormally heavy vehicle.
Figure 2 shows the plan and axle arrangement
for one unit this loading. The weight factora for
each of the four axles shall each be multiplied
by an appropriate number of units.
All parts of the btidge shall be capable of carry-
ing Type HA loading, and shall be increased in
strength, where necessary so as to be able to
carry Type HB loading as an alternative.
A.5 Application of type- HB loading.
A.5.1 No allowance for impact shall be made.:
A.5.2 t shah be permissible in considering the
effects of this loading to allow 25 % overstress
(but see 4 in Part 38 for total permissible
stress).
A.5.3 The contact area of the heaviest wheel
shall be taken as 375 mm x 75 mm the smaller
dimension being taken in the direction of
travel.
A.5.4 Suitable provision shall be made for the
dispersion (at 45 } or distribution of the wheel
loads where these can take place. .
A.5.5 Members which occur in such a position
that they may be straddled by two axles or
wheels of Type HB loading may, if desired, be
designed by simple statical methods, subject to
a reduction factor obtained from the following
table where the bridge deck is designed to pos-
sess sufficient rigidity to admit of reasonable
transverse distribution. The reduction can be
applied td jack arch decks.
Spacing of member Reduction factor Spacing of members Reduction factor
mm
250
500
750
1000
1250
0.66
0.68
0.70
0.73
0.77
mm
1500
1750
2000
2150
0.81
0.88
0.96
1.00
Page 88

Page 89
C H A P T E R 4
DECK. SLAB
DESIGN OF DECK SLAB
1.0 Introduction.
2.0 Pigeauds Method:
2.1 Application of Pigeaud's Method.
3.0 Westergaard+s Method.
3.1 Effect of encastre.
3.2 Application of Westergaard's Method.
1.0 Introduction
In addition to the distribution of the load in the
main longitudinal beams and the tranverse
diaphragm beam, there will also be a local
stress distribution in the deck slab. This
local stress distribution is due to:
A) Dead load of deck slab and surfacing.
B) HA Loading.
C) HB wheel loads.
This stress distribution will, in general, be
restricted to. the deck slab but may be superim-
posed to give the resultant stress distribution in
the bridge as a whole.
The boundary conditions of the deck slab are
complex since the longitudinal and the tran-
verse beams do not deflect equally. The prob-
lem can be simplified by assuming.that the
boundaries of the deck slab are simple and
undeflecting. A factor is then introduced to take
account of,the continuity over the supports. The
determination of stress due to uniform loading,
i.e dead load and HA load, is quite straight for-
ward and methods described in CP114 can be
employed. For stress due to wheel load, it may
be determined by Pigeaud's Method or
Westergaard's Method. However, Westergaard's
Method is the most commonly used since the
conditions in most practical bridge structure
suit this method.
2.0 Pigeaud's Method
of the surfacing. Hence, for HB wheel of
dimension 15 in x 3 in.
u =15+2t
V = 3+2t
where t is the surfacing thickness.
Ratio of a/b , u/a and v/b are.then calculated.
Values of M
1
, and M
2
. can then be determined
from Pigeaud's Curve, where M.
1
and M.
2
.are
functions of u/a and v/b for various values .of
P =a/b equal to 1.0. 0.9 , 0.8 , 0.707 , 0.6 , 0.5
0.4 , 0.3 , 0.2 and 0.
The minimum moments are then derived as
follows:
M=max. moment across direction a =( M
1
+
0.15 M
2
) P
M=max. moment across direction b =( 0.15
M
1
+M
2)
P .
where Pis,the wheel load in lbs and M and M
2
in lbs in/in. Pigeaud suggested that for two cen-
tral load, as shown in figure 2, the value of U
and V should be taken as follows.
Page 90
2.1 Application of Pigeaud's Method.
Pigeaud's Method is most useful wh
dealing with slab in which the width is less
than 1.8 times t e span. To take account of
fixity at the boundaries of the slab a factor
of 0.8 is normally introduced. Thus the
moments are derive for the simply supported
slab and multiplied by 0.8 to give the
approximate moment for the boundries.
Some limitations of Pigeaud's Method are as
follows:
i)Only central load can be dealt
with.
ii)When dealing with 2 loads, it is
not sufficiently accurate to replace
the loads by a single load having
an area which is dependant on the
spacing.
iii) It is not very easy to read accu
rately the values of. M
I
and M
2
from Pigeaud's Curve.
3.0 Westergaard's Method
The notation adopted by Westergaard is as
shown.
The initial assumption is that the slab extends
sufficiently far in the direction+y without
being supported. by dia~ragms for it to be con-
sidered as an infinite slab Poison's ratio was
taken as 0.15.
Fig.2. Notation in Pigeaud's Method for two central loads.
u =3 in +2t } For load.as in fig.2 (a).
v =w +b
o
+2t }
and
u =w +b
o
+2t } for load as in fig.2 (b)
V =3in +2t }
Fig.3. Westergaard's Notation.
Page 91

Page 92
Page 93
Page 94
Page 95
REFERENCE'
R.E. Rowe,, Concrete Bridge Design/Applied Science Publishers LTD
Page 96
C H A P T E R 5
BRIDGE BEARING, DOWEL BAR AND
EXPANSION JOINT
BEARINGS IN BRIDGES
1.0 DESIGN CODE (CONCERNING
ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS)
Department of the Environment Highway
Directorate Technical Memorandum
(Bridges) No. BE 1/76
2.0 FUNCTIONS OF BEARINGS
i) To trgnsfer loads from superstructure to
substructure.
ii)To accomodate expansion and
contraction movements between
different parts of a .structure.
iii)To accomodate q nd rotations of deck
girders. Rotation occurs as the deck
deflects under load.
iv)To limit the forces actually transmitted
to the substructures by suitable design.
v)To damp down vibrations and minimise
the effect of impact loading in case of
elastomeric bearings.
3.0 SOURCES OF DISPLACEI%ENTS
3.1 Movement and rotations tend to occur in
all types of structural members. In bridges,
these are generated due to the following
reasons:
I) Temperature variations
ii)Concrete shrinkage and creep
iii) Effect of prestressing
iv)Dead, superimposed and live loads
v)Tilt, settlements and seismic
disturbances
Displacements can either be in the form of
movement in the longitudinal, transverse and
vertical directions, rotational modes or any of
their combinations.
3:2 For the purpose of,designing elastomeric
bearings, it is the practice of Unit Jambatan to
consider displacements only due to the
following factors:
i) Longitudinal movements due to
temperature variation, creep and
shrinkage of concrete (S.T.C effects).
ii) Rotation of girders due to the effect of
dead, superimposed and live loads.
4.0 TYPES OF BEARINGS
Basically, there are three different types of
bearings commonly used in structural
engineering. They are categorised
according to material
Classification as follows :
i) Elastomeric Bearing.
An.elastomer is either vulcanised natural
rubber or synthetic material-called
neoprene having rubberlike
characteristics. Movement and rotation
are accommodated by compressing or
shearing .the layers.
ii) Mechanical Bearing.
The bearings are made up of metal such
as steel. Movement and rotation are
accommodated by rolling, rocking or
sliding action of the metal parts.
iii) Combination of Elastomeric and
Mechanical Parts..-For bearings in this
category, elastomer is used as the
rotation medium'while horizontal
movement capacity is.provided
mechanically.
Page 97
Page 98
5.0 INITIAL SELECTION OF
BEARINGS
Many small bridges need no formal
bearings. In general, this is true for spans
below 10m, except where vibration is
involved. In situation where bearings are
required, they are designed and supplied by
a specialist company. The criteria for the
initial selection of bearings shall be based
upon the following data :
6.0 ELASTOMERIC BEARING i
Basically all the bearings being designed
and adopted by Unit Jambatan are of,the
elastomeric type. This is so due to the
fact that the majority of bridges are
subjected to-loadings and rotations
which are within the capacity of
elastomeric bearings.
For the purpose of this design manual,
only elastomeric bearing will be
discussed.
6.1 PROPERTIES OF ELASTOMER
Elastomers can be produced with a wide
range of physical properties. Some of
the important properties include
hardness, elastic, shear and bulk
modulus which form part of the design
parameters.
CHARACTERISTIC ELASTOMERIC MECHANICAL
Vertical load capacity (KN)
Horizontal load capacity (KN)
Horizontal movement (mm)
Rotatian about horizontal axis (rod)
To resist uplist forces
Vibration damping
Maintenance
Contact stresses under bearing system
First cost
Life under proper maintenance schedule
(years)
3000
20
70
0.02
improbable
possible
negligible
lower
lower
45-80
over 30,000
over 3000
Virtually
unlimited
0.08
possible
improbable
required
higher
higher
100-120
Page 99
The properties that formed the des4.gn parame-
ters are as -tabulated below :
IRHD denotes International Rubber Hardness
whose scale extends from 0 (very soft) to 100
(very hard).
K is an empirically determined constant.
6.2 THREE TYPES OF ELASTOMERIC
BEARINGS
i) A laminated bearing consists of one
or more elastomer slabs bonded to
metal plates so as to form a
sandwich.
ii) A bearing pad is a single
unreinforced elastomer slab.
iii) A bearing strip is a continuous
bearing pad for which B/L is greater
than 5.
6.3 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS IN DESIGN
i) The elastomer is an elastic and
almost incompressible material; its
bulk modulus has to be taken into
account where appropriate.
ii) There is no relative movement
between elastomer and
reinforcement plate at an interface.
iii) The thickness of bearing pads and
strips shall be not less than 10mm nor
greater than 25mm. (Not counting inner
rubber slabs of laminated bearings).
iv)The thickness of the steel plate
reinforcement shall be not less than
2(t
1
+t
2
.,) V, but the thickness shall
--------------
A
1
.f
s
be not less than 3mm for outer plates
and not less than 1.5mm for internal
plates. A greater thickness of
Hardness
(IRHD)
Youngs
Modulus, E
(N/mm
2)
Shear
Modulus
G (N/mm
2)
K
Constant
Buld
Modulus,
E (N/mm
2)
Elongation
at Break,
Xe (%)
45
50
55
60
65
1.80
2.20
3.25
4.45
5.85
0.54
0.64
0.81
1.06
1.37
0.8
0.73
0.64
0.57
0.54
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
600
600
600
450
400
TABLE 1 (ELASTIC CONSTANT)
Page 100

Page 101
Page 102
ii) Rotational Capacity of bearing shall be
equal to or greater than rotation of girder
at support. An additional tolerance of
0.005 radian shall be added to the
rotation of girders to cater for the seating
allowance.
iii) Factors on stability of bearing.
iv) Friction location.This is to ascertain that
the bearing will not be displaced from
the original position during service.
6.6 STATIC BEHAVIOUR OF
ELASTOMER UNDER
COMPRESSION
When a block of elastomer is loaded in
compression, its vertical stiffeness
depends upon its freedom to bulge at the
sides. This is expressed in terms of the
shape factor.
The shape factor depends on the
dimensions ans shapes of the elastomer
slab.
The Vertical stiffeness of the block
increases rapidly with the shape factor.
On the same plan area, a thinner block
will be stiffer vertically.
ii) Partial Slippage.
Under compressive loading, partial slip
page will occur to the unbonded layers
of an elastomeric bearing. Thus, the
vertical stiffeness of the unbonded layers
are reduced.
To compensate for this, the two outer
layers of a laminated bearing is treated
as being 40% greater than the actual
thickness. For the inner layers, since
they are bonded on both sides by the
steel plates, the effective thickness is
equal to the actual thickness. For pad
and strip bearings, their thickness is
treated as being 80% greater than the
actual thickness
Page 103

Page 104
Page 105
Page 106
7.0 LOCATION OF BEARING BY
FRICTION
When a bearing is subjected to direct
shear strain, horizontal force is induced
which tends to displace the bearing
from its original position. To prevent
this happening, there must be sufficient
minimum vertical load acting on the
bearing. Assuming the coefficient of
friction between elastomer and concrete
seating of 0.33 and a coefficient of 0.25
with steel seating, the friction location is
checked as follow :
7.1 DESIGN EXAMPLE
The bridge designer can either select
proprietory elastomeric bearings, or
design bearings in detail, or even simply
specify the requisite loads, movements
and rotations, and then approve the
bearing details submitted by the
contractor. Standard. proprietory
bearings, even if not fully loaded, will
prove to be cheaper than special designs.
The design of elastomeric bearings is
essentially a trial and error process.
The plan size of a bearing is normally
governed by the. width of the beam it
supports and the width of the abutment
seating in the direction of the bridge
span.
An elastomeric bearing shall now be
designed to satisfy the following
requirements:-
Note
The rotation of the beam shall include an
additional tolerance of 0.005 radians to.cater
for the seating allowgnce. Thus, the minimum
rotational capacity of the bearing shall.be 0.006
and 0.008 radians respectively under HA and
HB loadings.
Minimum Compressive Force, V min.
----------------------------------------------- >3 for elastomer in contact
Maximum Horizontal Force, H max with concrete
(>4 for steel contact)
V min =Dead Load Alone
H Max = A
o G e b
Page 107
The carrying capacity of a free Pnd bearing,
subjected to horizontal movement, can be taken
to be about 0.8 S N/mm2, as a first guess.
Normally,, laminating is required in order to
provide sufficient horizontal movement, while
maintaining the vertical load carrying capacity.
Plain.pad.may be sufficient if horizontal
movement is very small, but not in this case.
Horizontal movement of about half the total
thickness of elastomer can be used as a starting
point in design.
Page 108
Page 109
Page 110
Page 111

Page 112
Page 113
DESIGN OF DOWEL BARS
1) Elastomeric bearing can he conveniently
subdivided into two types 'fixed', where the
support member can only rotate, all
horizontal movements. being restrained, and
'free', where the member can rctate and also
move horizontally.
2) The fixed state is provided by dowels
passing from the beam. to its support. In
order to make provision for the possible
replacement of bearings, these dowels are
best placed between bearings, but where
space is restricted they car. pass through
holes in the bearing. Dowels usually need an
elastomeric cap at one end to permit the
superstructure to rotate relative to the sub
structure. The dowels must penetrate to
sufficient depth to resist the horizontal load,
without inducing excessive stresses in the
concrete. In all cases the doi,lels should be
long enough to reach the main reinforcement
in the support.
3) Dowel bars at one end of a bridge span will
form an expansion centre line, longitudinal
movements of the deck will be accomodated
by the bearings at the free end, horizontal
loads will be carried by the dowels.
It should be remembered that horizontal
forces will be transmitted to the support at
the tree end, due to the resistance of the
bearings there to the horizontal movements,
and this same force will be transmitted
through the superstructure to the fixed end
dowels. In Unit Jambatan,this force is
calculated on the basis of the movement of
the deck due /to changes in temperature,
shrinkage and creep of concrete ( S.T.C ).
4) The dowel bars shall be designed to resist a
combination of three types of horizontal load
as follows:
(i) Tractive load
(ii) Wind load.
(iii)Load due to the effect of S.T.C above.
(Note: The load due to S.T.C is such that F- Z
A,G e
b,
)
5) TYPICAL CALCULATION
A) Design suibtable dowel bars at the fixed
end of a bridge span to transfer the
horizontal forces to the abutment. Input
datas are as follwos :
Page 114
Page 115
Page 116
EXPANSION JOINTS
1) GENERAL
The expansion joint is an integral part of any
bridge structure and should be considered at
an early stage in the design. Joints which
are properly designed, installed by specialist
operatives together with reasonable
maintenance should give trouble free
service within its lifespan. Expansion joint
is situated in the most vulnerable position
on the bridge deck where it is subjected to
impact.loading, vibration and exposed to
dirt, ozone attack and other corrosive
chemicals.
2) FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS .
These are as follows
i) To accommodate movements and with
stand loadings.
ii) To cater for operational needs.
The sources of movements to be
accommodated by an expansion joint are
identical to that of a bearing.For this reason,
expansion joints and bearings of any
particular span of a bridge shall be designed
to be compatible. An expansion joint shall
be designed to withstand a combination of
vertical and horizontal loads. This shall be
discussed later under the heading of design
load.
The operational requirements for joints are
as follows
i)Possess good riding characteristics.
ii) Not a skid hazard or danger.
iii) Silent and vibration free
iv) Be sealed against1water and foreign
matter or make provision for their
disposal.
v) Be capable of absorbing the various types
and ranges of movement., without being
extruded or expelled from position.
vi) Riding surface of joint must be able to
withstand wear and tear and be durable
against petroleum product, weather, etc.
vii) Facilities easy inspection, maintenance
and repair
4) CLASSIFICATION OF EXPANSION
JOINTS.
i) Open Gap Joint.
The joint comprises of two edges which
are spaced some distance apart and not
interconnected by. any load supporting
connection. There are two categories of
open gap joint :
a) Buried joint under continuous premix
surfacing. Most of the expansion joints
being adopted by Unit Jambatan fall
under this category.
b)Exposed joints which are installed to
flush with the wearing surface of
the bridge deck. The joint may be
completely opened or be sealed up with,
say, neoprene sealing element.
ii) Covered Gap Joint ( or Bridged Joint ).
The gap is bridged by a sliding plate or
some other transverse structural element.
The structural element will be subjected
to a combination of vertical and
horizontal loads.
iii) Composite Expansion Joint.
The joint comprises of a gap bridging
element for carrying the traffic loads
together with a deformable closing seal
element to ensure continuity of the
carriageway surface.
Page 117
Page 118

Page 119
Page 120
Page 121
5) SELECTION OF JOINT TYPE
This is largely determined by the total
range.of movement to be expected.
6) DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS .
Expansion gap should be straight of
uniform width and have a minimum gap of
6mm at maximum temperature.
7) DESIGN LOAD
a) Vertical Two 112 KN wheel loads, 0.9m
apart, with a contact area of 265 x
265mm. It shall be applied to the edge
ef.the expansion gap. It.may be spread
tranversely over such a length as is
justified by the continuity and rigidity of
the joint subject to a maximum of
450mm on either side of the centre line
of each wheel.
b) Horizontal
A traffic force of 60KN/m run o joint,
acting at load level..
8) ANCHORAGE SYSTEM
i) The joints are severely loaded. Forces
involved are vertical, horizontal together
with twisting moments.
ii) The common types of anchorage
system: .
- Epoxy mortar nosing.
- Anchor bars.
- Holding down bolts ( May be
prestressed ).
iii) Stresses in concrete, structural steel,
epoxy mortar etc must be within the
permissible values.
9) INSTALLATION OF EXPANSION
JOINT
i) The whole operation shall receive
competent supervision. Only.proper
materials and equipment shall be used,
in accordancewith the manufacturers
instructions.
ii) Prior to installing the joint system, the
bedding shall be prepared accordingly
without traces of dirt, oil and other
impurities.
iii) Composite meoprene expansion
joints are installed in precompressed
condition:
- During placing+fconcrete or epoxy
mortar, the joint assembly shall be
immovable both in vertical and horizontal
directions.
- Can be achieved by :-
a) Clamp down the joint assembly.
b) Install under uniform temperature
condition.
iv) The joint shall hot be subjected to any
kind of loading until /all the materials
have gained the required strength.
10) PROVISION FOR DRAINAGE
Water and other foreign products shall not
be allowed to reach the bearings, girders,
pier head etc, Provision must be made to
prevent the ingress of surface water
through the joint.
i) For water tight joints, ensure that the
sealing agents are performing in the
manner intended.
ii) For large open joints, Special drainage
techniques must be adopted to deal with
surface water, earth etc, easy access for
cleaning shall be provided.
iii) Provide with proper Camber and
crossfall within the carriageway surface
around the joint to discharge water.
v)Water that collects and runs along the
kerbs sould be intercepted by suitable
drainage outlet before it reaches the
joints
11) MAINTENANCE
It is essential that expansion joints are
easily accessible for the purpose of
maintenance.
i) Joints shall be regularly inspected to
ensure that no parts are loose, the
sealing materials are intact, and drainage
systems are working properly.
ii) Safeguard the screws and bolts against
corrosion. Holding down bolts need to
be retentioned to the required torque
once they are.loose.
Page 122
iii) Ensure that no debris are left to
accumulate in the joint gape This will
induce enormous restraining forces
causing damaging effects.
iv) The road surface should be maintained
to the level of the joint and in no case
should the difference in level become
more than 6mm.
References.
1. Department of the Environment Highways
Directorate. Technical Memorandum B.E.
1/76.
Design Requirements For Elastomeric
Bridge Bearings.
2. Bearings in Structural Engineering.
J.E. Long M. Sc. M.I.C.E., M.I. Structural
Engineering. Newnes - Butterworths,
London. (1974)
3. The Theory and Practice of Bearings and
Expansion Joints For Bridges. David J. Lee
B. Sc. Tech, DIC, C. Eng., FILE, FI
Struct. E.
Cement & }Concrete Association (1971)
4. Expansion Joints in Bridges and Concrete
Roads. - W. Koster.
Maclaren & Sons, London..
5. Department of the Environment Highways
Directorate. Technical Memorandum BE
3/72.
Design Requirement for Expansion Joints.
Page 123

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