USSR postage stamp dedicated to Albert

Einstein
Special relativity
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Special relativity (SR, also known as the special theory of
relativity or STR) is the physical theory of measrement in an
inertial frame of reference proposed in !"#$ by Albert Einstein in
the paper %&n the Electrodynamics of 'o(ing )odies%*
+!,
-t e.tends /alileo0s principle of relati(ity1that all niform motion
is relati(e, and that there is no absolte and well2defined state of
rest (no pri(ileged reference frames)1to accont for the
constant speed of light
+3,
1which was pre(iosly obser(ed in the
'ichelson2'orley e.periment1and postlates that it holds for
all the laws of physics, inclding both the laws of mechanics and
of electrodynamics, whate(er they may be*
+4,
5his theory has a wide range of conse6ences which ha(e been
e.perimentally (erified,
+7,
inclding conter2intiti(e ones sch as length contraction, time dilation and relati(ity
of simltaneity* -t has replaced the classical notion of in(ariant time inter(al for two e(ents with the notion of
in(ariant space2time inter(al* 8ombined with other laws of physics, the two postlates of special relati(ity
predict the e6i(alence of mass and energy, as e.pressed in the mass9energy e6i(alence formla E : mc
3
,
where c is the speed of light in (acm*
+$,+;,
5he predictions of special relati(ity agree well with <ewtonian
mechanics in their common realm of applicability, specifically in e.periments in which all (elocities are small
compared with the speed of light* Special relati(ity re(eals that c is not =st the (elocity of a certain phenomenon
1namely the propagation of electromagnetic radiation (light)1bt rather a fndamental featre of the way
space and time are nified as spacetime* &ne of the conse6ences of the theory is that it is impossible for any
particle that has rest mass to be accelerated to the speed of light*
5he theory was originally termed %special% becase it applied the principle of relati(ity only to the special case of
inertial reference frames, i*e* frames of reference in niform relati(e motion with respect to each other*
+>,
Einstein
de(eloped general relati(ity to apply the principle in the more general case, that is, to any frame so as to handle
general coordinate transformations, and that theory incldes the effects of gra(ity*
5he term is crrently sed more generally to refer to any case in which gra(itation is not significant* /eneral
relati(ity is the generali?ation of special relati(ity to inclde gra(itation* -n general relati(ity, gra(ity is described
sing noneclidean geometry, so that gra(itational effects are represented by cr(atre of spacetime@ special
relati(ity is restricted to flat spacetime* Ast as the cr(atre of the earth0s srface is not noticeable in e(eryday
life, the cr(atre of spacetime can be neglected on small scales, so that locally, special relati(ity is a (alid
appro.imation to general relati(ity*
+B,
5he presence of gra(ity becomes ndetectable in a sfficiently small, free2
falling laboratory*
Contents
! Costlates
3 Dack of an absolte reference frame
4 Reference frames, coordinates and the Dorent? transformation
7 8onse6ences deri(ed from the Dorent? transformation
7*! Relati(ity of simltaneity

Reflections of this type

made it clear to me as
long ago as shortly
after !"##, i*e*, shortly
after Clanck0s
trailbla?ing work, that
neither mechanics nor
electrodynamics cold
(e.cept in limiting
cases) claim e.act
(alidity* /radally -
despaired of the
possibility of
7*3 5ime dilation
7*4 Dength contraction
7*7 8omposition of (elocities
$ &ther conse6ences
$*! 5homas rotation
$*3 E6i(alence of mass and energy
$*4 Eow far can one tra(el from the EarthF
; 8asality and prohibition of motion faster than light
> /eometry of space2time
>*! 8omparison between flat Eclidean space and 'inkowski space
>*3 4G spacetime
>*4 7G spacetime
B Chysics in spacetime
B*! 5ransformations of physical 6antities between reference frames
B*3 'etric
B*4 -n(ariance
B*7 Helocity and acceleration in 7G
B*$ 'omentm in 7G
B*; Force in 7G
" Relati(ity and nifying electromagnetism
!# Stats
!! Relati(istic 6antm mechanics
!3 See also
!4 References
!4*! 5e.tbooks
!4*3 Aornal articles
!7 E.ternal links
!7*! &riginal works
!7*3 Special relati(ity for a general adience (no math knowledge re6ired)
!7*4 Special relati(ity e.plained (sing simple or more ad(anced math)
!7*7 Hisali?ation
Postulates
Einstein discerned two fndamental propositions that seemed to be the
most assred, regardless of the e.act (alidity of the (then) known laws
of either mechanics or electrodynamics* 5hese propositions were the
constancy of the speed of light and the independence of physical laws
(especially the constancy of the speed of light) from the choice of
inertial system* -n his initial presentation of special relati(ity in !"#$ he
e.pressed these postlates asI
+!,
5he Crinciple of Relati(ity 9 5he laws by which the states of
physical systems ndergo change are not affected, whether these
changes of state be referred to the one or the other of two
systems in niform translatory motion relati(e to each other*
+!,
5he Crinciple of -n(ariant Dight Speed 9 %*** light is always
propagated in empty space with a definite (elocity +speed, c
disco(ering the tre
laws by means of
constrcti(e efforts
based on known facts*
5he longer and the
more desperately -
tried, the more - came
to the con(iction that
only the disco(ery of a
ni(ersal formal
principle cold lead s
to assred reslts***
Eow, then, cold sch
a ni(ersal principle be
fondF

1Albert EinsteinI Autobiographical

Notes
+",
which is independent of the state of motion of the emitting
body*% (from the preface)*
+!,
5hat is, light in (acm propagates
with the speed c (a fi.ed constant, independent of direction) in
at least one system of inertial coordinates (the %stationary
system%), regardless of the state of motion of the light sorce*
5he deri(ation of special relati(ity depends not only on these two
e.plicit postlates, bt also on se(eral tacit assmptions (made in
almost all theories of physics), inclding the isotropy and homogeneity
of space and the independence of measring rods and clocks from
their past history*
+!#,
Following Einstein0s original presentation of special relati(ity in !"#$,
many different sets of postlates ha(e been proposed in (arios
alternati(e deri(ations*
+!!,
Eowe(er, the most common set of
postlates remains those employed by Einstein in his original paper* A
more mathematical statement of the Crinciple of Relati(ity made later
by Einstein, which introdces the concept of simplicity not mentioned
abo(e isI
Special principle of relativityI -f a system of coordinates J is chosen so that, in relation to it,
physical laws hold good in their simplest form, the same laws hold good in relation to any other
system of coordinates J0 mo(ing in niform translation relati(ely to J*
+!3,
Eenri CoincarK pro(ided the mathematical framework for relati(ity theory by pro(ing that Dorent?
transformations are a sbset of his CoincarK grop of symmetry transformations* Einstein later deri(ed these
transformations from his a.ioms*
'any of Einstein0s papers present deri(ations of the Dorent? transformation based pon these two principles*
+!4,
Einstein consistently based the deri(ation of Dorent? in(ariance (the essential core of special relati(ity) on =st the
two basic principles of relati(ity and light2speed in(ariance* Ee wroteI
5he insight fndamental for the special theory of relati(ity is thisI 5he assmptions relati(ity and light
speed in(ariance are compatible if relations of a new type (%Dorent? transformation%) are
postlated for the con(ersion of coordinates and times of e(ents*** 5he ni(ersal principle of the
special theory of relati(ity is contained in the postlateI 5he laws of physics are in(ariant with
respect to Dorent? transformations (for the transition from one inertial system to any other
arbitrarily chosen inertial system)* 5his is a restricting principle for natral laws***
+",
5hs many modern treatments of special relati(ity base it on the single postlate of ni(ersal Dorent? co(ariance,
or, e6i(alently, on the single postlate of 'inkowski spacetime*
+!7,+!$,
From the principle of relati(ity alone withot assming the constancy of the speed of light (i*e* sing the isotropy
of space and the symmetry implied by the principle of special relati(ity) one can show that the space2time
transformations between inertial frames are either Eclidean, /alilean, or Dorent?ian* -n the Dorent?ian case, one
can then obtain relati(istic inter(al conser(ation and a certain finite limiting speed* E.periments sggest that this
speed is the speed of light in (acm*
+!;,+!>,
5he constancy of the speed of light was moti(ated by 'a.well0s theory of electromagnetism and the lack of
e(idence for the lminiferos ether* 5here is conflicting e(idence on the e.tent to which Einstein was inflenced
5he primed system is in motion relati(e to the
nprimed system with constant speed ( only along
the .2a.is, from the perspecti(e of an obser(er
stationary in the nprimed system* )y the principle
of relati(ity, an obser(er stationary in the primed
system will (iew a likewise constrction e.cept that
the speed they record will be 2(* 5he changing of
the speed of propagation of interaction from infinite
in non2relati(istic mechanics to a finite (ale will
re6ire a modification of the transformation
e6ations mapping e(ents in one frame to another*
by the nll reslt of the 'ichelson9'orley e.periment*
+!B,+!",
-n any case, the nll reslt of the 'ichelson9
'orley e.periment helped the notion of the constancy of the speed of light gain widespread and rapid
acceptance*
Lack of an absolute reference frame
5he principle of relati(ity, which states that there is no preferred inertial reference frame, dates back to /alileo,
and was incorporated into <ewtonian physics* Eowe(er, in the late !"th centry, the e.istence of
electromagnetic wa(es led physicists to sggest that the ni(erse was filled with a sbstance known as %aether%,
which wold act as the medim throgh which these wa(es, or (ibrations tra(elled* 5he aether was thoght to
constitte an absolte reference frame against which speeds cold be measred, and cold be considered fi.ed
and motionless* Aether spposedly had some wonderfl propertiesI it was sfficiently elastic that it cold
spport electromagnetic wa(es, and those wa(es cold interact with matter, yet it offered no resistance to
bodies passing throgh it* 5he reslts of (arios e.periments, inclding the 'ichelson9'orley e.periment,
indicated that the Earth was always 0stationary0 relati(e to the aether 9 something that was difficlt to e.plain,
since the Earth is in orbit arond the Sn* Einstein0s soltion was to discard the notion of an aether and an
absolte state of rest* Special relati(ity is formlated so as to not assme that any particlar frame of reference is
special@ rather, in relati(ity, any reference frame mo(ing with niform motion will obser(e the same laws of
physics* -n particlar, the speed of light in (acm is always measred to be c, e(en when measred by mltiple
systems that are mo(ing at different (bt constant) (elocities*
Reference frames, coordinates and the Lorentz transformation
Main article: Lorentz transformation
Relati(ity theory depends on %reference frames%* 5he
term reference frame as sed here is an obser(ational
perspecti(e in space at rest, or in niform motion, from
which a position can be measred along 4 spatial a.es*
-n addition, a reference frame has the ability to
determine measrements of the time of e(ents sing a
0clock0 (any reference de(ice with niform periodicity)*
An e(ent is an occrrence that can be assigned a single
ni6e time and location in space relati(e to a reference
frameI it is a %point% in space2time* Since the speed of
light is constant in relati(ity in each and e(ery reference
frame, plses of light can be sed to nambigosly
measre distances and refer back the times that e(ents
occrred to the clock, e(en thogh light takes time to
reach the clock after the e(ent has transpired*
For e.ample, the e.plosion of a firecracker may be
considered to be an %e(ent%* We can completely specify
an e(ent by its for space2time coordinatesI 5he time of
occrrence and its 42dimensional spatial location define
a reference point* Det0s call this reference frame S*
-n relati(ity theory we often want to calclate the position of a point from a different reference point*
Sppose we ha(e a second reference frame S, whose spatial a.es and clock e.actly coincide with that of S at
time ?ero, bt it is mo(ing at a constant (elocity v with respect to S along the x2a.is*
Since there is no absolte reference frame in relati(ity theory, a concept of 0mo(ing0 doesn0t strictly e.ist, as
e(erything is always mo(ing with respect to some other reference frame* -nstead, any two frames that mo(e at
the same speed in the same direction are said to be comoving* 5herefore S and SL are not comoving*
Gefine the e(ent to ha(e space2time coordinates (t,x,y,z) in system S and (t,x,y,z) in SL* 5hen the Dorent?
transformation specifies that these coordinates are related in the following wayI
where
is the Dorent? factor and c is the speed of light in (acm, and the (elocity v of S is parallel to the x2a.is* 5he y
and z coordinates are naffected@ only the x and t coordinates are transformed* 5hese Dorent? transformations
form a one2parameter grop of linear mappings, that parameter being called rapidity*
5here is nothing special abot the x2a.is, the transformation can apply to the y or z a.es, or indeed in any
direction, which can be done by directions parallel to the motion (which are warped by the M factor) and
perpendiclar@ see main article for details*
A 6antity in(ariant nder Dorent? transformations is known as a Dorent? scalar*
Writing the Dorent? transformation and its in(erse in terms of coordinate differences, where for instance one
e(ent has coordinates (x
!
, t
!
) and (xL
!
, tL
!
), another e(ent has coordinates (x
3
, t
3
) and (xL
3
, tL
3
), and the
differences are defined as
we get
5hese effects are not merely appearances@ they are e.plicitly related to or way of measring time intervals
between e(ents which occr at the same place in a gi(en coordinate system (called %co2local% e(ents)* 5hese
time inter(als will be different in another coordinate system mo(ing with respect to the first, nless the e(ents
are also simltaneos* Similarly, these effects also relate to or measred distances between separated bt
simltaneos e(ents in a gi(en coordinate system of choice* -f these e(ents are not co2local, bt are separated
by distance (space), they will not occr at the same spatial distance from each other when seen from another
mo(ing coordinate system* Eowe(er, the space2time inter(al will be the same for all obser(ers* 5he nderlying
E(ent ) is simltaneos with A in the
green reference frame, bt it
occrred before in the ble frame,
and will occr later in the red frame*
reality remains the same* &nly or perspecti(e changes*
Conseuences derived from the Lorentz transformation
See also: !in paradox
5he conse6ences of special relati(ity can be deri(ed from the Dorent? transformation e6ations*
+3#,
5hese
transformations, and hence special relati(ity, lead to different physical predictions than those of <ewtonian
mechanics when relati(e (elocities become comparable to the speed of light* 5he speed of light is so mch
larger than anything hmans enconter that some of the effects predicted by relati(ity are initially conterintiti(e*
Relativity of simultaneity
See also: "elativity of simultaneity
5wo e(ents happening in two different locations that occr
simltaneosly in the reference frame of one inertial obser(er, may
occr non2simltaneosly in the reference frame of another inertial
obser(er (lack of absolte simltaneity)*
From the first e6ation of the Dorent? transformation in terms of
coordinate differences
it is clear that two e(ents that are simltaneos in frame S (satisfying
Nt : #), are not necessarily simltaneos in another inertial frame S
(satisfying Nt : #)* &nly if these e(ents are colocal in frame S
(satisfying Nx : #), will they be simltaneos in another frame S*
Time dilation
See also: ime dilation
5he time lapse between two e(ents is not in(ariant from one obser(er to another, bt is dependent on the
relati(e speeds of the obser(ers0 reference frames (e*g*, the twin parado. which concerns a twin who flies off in
a spaceship tra(eling near the speed of light and retrns to disco(er that his or her twin sibling has aged mch
more)*
Sppose a clock is at rest in the nprimed system S* 5wo different ticks of this clock are then characteri?ed by
Nx : #* 5o find the relation between the times between these ticks as measred in both systems, the first
e6ation can be sed to findI
for e(ents satisfying
5his shows that the time (Nt#) between the two ticks as seen in the frame in which the clock is mo(ing (S0), is
longer than the time (Nt) between these ticks as measred in the rest frame of the clock (S)* 5ime dilation
e.plains a nmber of physical phenomena@ for e.ample, the decay rate of mons prodced by cosmic rays
impinging on the Earth0s atmosphere*
+3!,
Len!th contraction
See also: Lorentz contraction
5he dimensions (e*g*, length) of an ob=ect as measred by one obser(er may be smaller than the reslts of
measrements of the same ob=ect made by another obser(er (e*g*, the ladder parado. in(ol(es a long ladder
tra(eling near the speed of light and being contained within a smaller garage)*
Similarly, sppose a measring rod is at rest and aligned along the .2a.is in the nprimed system S* -n this
system, the length of this rod is written as Nx* 5o measre the length of this rod in the system S0, in which the
clock is mo(ing, the distances xL to the end points of the rod mst be measred simltaneosly in that system S0*
-n other words, the measrement is characteri?ed by NtL : #, which can be combined with the forth e6ation to
find the relation between the lengths Nx and NxLI
for e(ents satisfying
5his shows that the length (Nx#) of the rod as measred in the frame in which it is mo(ing (S0), is shorter than its
length (Nx) in its own rest frame (S)*
Composition of velocities
See also: $elocity%addition formula
Helocities (and speeds) do not simply add* -f the obser(er in S measres an ob=ect mo(ing along the x a.is at
(elocity u, then the obser(er in the SL system, a frame of reference mo(ing at (elocity v in the x direction with
respect to S, will measre the ob=ect mo(ing with (elocity u# where (from the Dorent? transformations abo(e)I
5he other frame S will measreI
<otice that if the ob=ect were mo(ing at the speed of light in the S system (i*e* u : c), then it wold also be
mo(ing at the speed of light in the SL system* Also, if both u and v are small with respect to the speed of light,
we will reco(er the intiti(e /alilean transformation of (elocities
*
5he sal e.ample gi(en is that of a train (frame S abo(e) tra(eling de east with a (elocity v with respect to the
tracks (frame SL)* A child inside the train throws a baseball de east with a (elocity u with respect to the train* -n
classical physics, an obser(er at rest on the tracks will measre the (elocity of the baseball (de east) as u : uL
O v, while in special relati(ity this is no longer tre, instead the (elocity of the baseball (de east) is gi(en by the
second e6ationI u : (uL O v)P(! O uLvPc
3
)* Again, there is nothing special abot the x or east directions* 5his
formalism applies to any direction by considering parallel and perpendiclar motion to the direction of relati(e
(elocity v, see main article for details*
Einstein0s addition of colinear (elocities is consistent with the Fi?ea e.periment which determined the speed of
light in a flid mo(ing parallel to the light, bt no e.periment has e(er tested the formla for the general case of
non2parallel (elocities*
+citation needed,
"ther conseuences
Thomas rotation
See also: homas rotation
5he orientation of an ob=ect (i*e* the alignment of its a.es with the obser(er0s a.es) may be different for different
obser(ers* Unlike other relati(istic effects, this effect becomes 6ite significant at fairly low (elocities as can be
seen in the spin of mo(ing particles*
-nertia and momentm
As an ob=ect0s speed approaches the speed of light from an obser(er0s point of (iew, its relati(istic mass
increases thereby making it more and more difficlt to accelerate it from within the obser(er0s frame of
reference*
#uivalence of mass and ener!y
See also: Mass&energy e'uivalence
5he energy content of an ob=ect at rest with mass m e6als mc
3
* 8onser(ation of energy implies that, in any
reaction, a decrease of the sm of the masses of particles mst be accompanied by an increase in kinetic
energies of the particles after the reaction* Similarly, the mass of an ob=ect can be increased by taking in kinetic
energies*
-n addition to the papers referenced abo(e1which gi(e deri(ations of the Dorent? transformation and describe
the fondations of special relati(ity1Einstein also wrote at least for papers gi(ing heristic argments for the
e6i(alence (and transmtability) of mass and energy, for E : mc
3
*
'ass9energy e6i(alence is a conse6ence of special relati(ity* 5he energy and momentm, which are separate
in <ewtonian mechanics, form a for2(ector in relati(ity, and this relates the time component (the energy) to the
space components (the momentm) in a nontri(ial way* For an ob=ect at rest, the energy2momentm for2(ector
is (E, #, #, #)I it has a time component which is the energy, and three space components which are ?ero* )y
changing frames with a Dorent? transformation in the . direction with a small (ale of the (elocity (, the energy
momentm for2(ector becomes (E, EvPc
3
, #, #)* 5he momentm is e6al to the energy mltiplied by the
(elocity di(ided by c
3
* As sch, the <ewtonian mass of an ob=ect, which is the ratio of the momentm to the
(elocity for slow (elocities, is e6al to EPc
3
*
5he energy and momentm are properties of matter and radiation, and it is impossible to dedce that they form
a for2(ector =st from the two basic postlates of special relati(ity by themsel(es, becase these don0t talk
abot matter or radiation, they only talk abot space and time* 5he deri(ation therefore re6ires some additional
physical reasoning* -n his !"#$ paper, Einstein sed the additional principles that <ewtonian mechanics shold
hold for slow (elocities, so that there is one energy scalar and one three2(ector momentm at slow (elocities,
and that the conser(ation law for energy and momentm is e.actly tre in relati(ity* Frthermore, he assmed
that the energy of light is transformed by the same Goppler2shift factor as its fre6ency, which he had pre(iosly
shown to be tre based on 'a.well0s e6ations*
+!,
5he first of Einstein0s papers on this sb=ect was %Goes the
-nertia of a )ody Gepend pon its Energy 8ontentF% in !"#$*
+33,
Althogh Einstein0s argment in this paper is
nearly ni(ersally accepted by physicists as correct, e(en self2e(ident, many athors o(er the years ha(e
nearly ni(ersally accepted by physicists as correct, e(en self2e(ident, many athors o(er the years ha(e
sggested that it is wrong*
+34,
&ther athors sggest that the argment was merely inconclsi(e becase it relied
on some implicit assmptions*
+37,
Einstein acknowledged the contro(ersy o(er his deri(ation in his !"#> sr(ey paper on special relati(ity* 5here
he notes that it is problematic to rely on 'a.well0s e6ations for the heristic mass9energy argment* 5he
argment in his !"#$ paper can be carried ot with the emission of any massless particles, bt the 'a.well
e6ations are implicitly sed to make it ob(ios that the emission of light in particlar can be achie(ed only by
doing work* 5o emit electromagnetic wa(es, all yo ha(e to do is shake a charged particle, and this is clearly
doing work, so that the emission is of energy*
+3$,+3;,
$o% far can one travel from the #arth&
See also: Space travel using constant acceleration
Since one can not tra(el faster than light, one might conclde that a hman can ne(er tra(el frther from Earth
than 7# light years if the tra(eler is acti(e between the age of 3# and ;#* &ne wold easily think that a tra(eler
wold ne(er be able to reach more than the (ery few solar systems which e.ist within the limit of 3#27# light
years from the earth* )t that wold be a mistaken conclsion* )ecase of time dilation, a hypothetical
spaceship can tra(el thosands of light years dring the pilot0s 7# acti(e years* -f a spaceship cold be bilt that
accelerates at a constant !g, it will after a little less than a year be tra(eling at almost the speed of light as seen
from Earth* 5ime dilation will increase his life span as seen from the reference system of the Earth, bt his
lifespan measred by a clock tra(eling with him will not thereby change* Gring his =orney, people on Earth will
e.perience more time than he does* A $ year rond trip for him will take ;Q Earth years and co(er a distance
of o(er ; light2years* A 3# year rond trip for him ($ years accelerating, $ decelerating, twice each) will land
him back on Earth ha(ing tra(eled for 44$ Earth years and a distance of 44! light years*
+3>,
A fll 7# year trip at
! g will appear on Earth to last $B,### years and co(er a distance of $$,### light years* A 7# year trip at !*! g
will take !7B,### Earth years and co(er abot !7#,### light years* 5his same time dilation is why a mon
tra(eling close to c is obser(ed to tra(el mch frther than c times its half2life (when at rest)*
+3B,
Causality and prohibition of motion faster than li!ht
See also: (ausality )physics* and achyonic antitelephone
-n diagram 3 the inter(al A) is 0time2like0@ i+e+, there is a frame of reference in which e(ents A and ) occr at
the same location in space, separated only by occrring at different times* -f A precedes ) in that frame, then A
precedes ) in all frames* -t is hypothetically possible for matter (or information) to tra(el from A to ), so there
can be a casal relationship (with A the case and ) the effect)*
5he inter(al A8 in the diagram is 0space2like0@ i+e+, there is a frame of reference in which e(ents A and 8 occr
simltaneosly, separated only in space* 5here are also frames in which A precedes 8 (as shown) and frames in
which 8 precedes A* -f it were possible for a case2and2effect relationship to e.ist between e(ents A and 8,
then parado.es of casality wold reslt* For e.ample, if A was the case, and 8 the effect, then there wold
be frames of reference in which the effect preceded the case* Althogh this in itself won0t gi(e rise to a
parado., one can show
+3",+4#,
that faster than light signals can be sent back into one0s own past* A casal
parado. can then be constrcted by sending the signal if and only if no signal was recei(ed pre(iosly*
5herefore, if casality is to be preser(ed, one of the conse6ences of special relati(ity is that no information
signal or material ob=ect can tra(el faster than light in (acm* Eowe(er, some %things% can still mo(e faster than
light* For e.ample, the location where the beam of a search light hits the bottom of a clod can mo(e faster than
light when the search light is trned rapidly*
+4!,
Giagram 3* Dight cone
&rthogonality and rotation of coordinate systems compared
between left' Eclidean space throgh circlar angle R,
ri!ht' in 'inkowski spacetime throgh hyperbolic angle R
(red lines labelled c denote the worldlines of a light signal, a
(ector is orthogonal to itself if it lies on this line)*
+7!,
E(en withot considerations of casality, there are other strong
reasons why faster2than2light tra(el is forbidden by special relati(ity*
For e.ample, if a constant force is applied to an ob=ect for a limitless
amont of time, then integrating , : dpPdt gi(es a momentm that
grows withot bond, bt this is simply becase
approaches infinity as v approaches c* 5o an obser(er who is not
accelerating, it appears as thogh the ob=ect0s inertia is increasing, so
as to prodce a smaller acceleration in response to the same force*
5his beha(ior is in fact obser(ed in particle accelerators, where each
charged particle is accelerated by the electromagnetic force*
5heoretical and e.perimental tnneling stdies carried ot by /Snter
<imt? and Cetrissa Eckle wrongly claimed that nder special
conditions signals may tra(el faster than light*
+43,+44,+47,+4$,
-t was
measred that fiber digital signals were tra(eling p to $ times c and a
?ero2time tnneling electron carried the information that the atom is
ioni?ed, with photons, phonons and electrons spending ?ero time in
the tnneling barrier* According to <imt? and Eckle, in this
sperlminal process only the Einstein casality and the special
relati(ity bt not the primiti(e casality are (iolatedI Sperlminal
propagation does not reslt in any kind of time tra(el*
+4;,+4>,
Se(eral
scientists ha(e stated not only that <imt?0 interpretations were erroneos, bt also that the e.periment actally
pro(ided a tri(ial e.perimental confirmation of the special relati(ity theory*
+4B,+4",+7#,
(eometry of space)time
Main article: Min-o!s-i space
Comparison bet%een flat #uclidean space and *inko%ski space
See also: line element
Special relati(ity ses a 0flat0 72dimensional
'inkowski space 9 an e.ample of a space2
time* 'inkowski spacetime appears to be (ery
similar to the standard 42dimensional Eclidean
space, bt there is a crcial difference with
respect to time*
-n 4G space, the differential of distance (line
element) ds is defined by
,
where d+ : (dx
!
, dx
3
, dx
4
) are the differentials of the three spatial dimensions* -n 'inkowski geometry, there is
5hree dimensional dal2cone*
<ll spherical space*
! 3 4
an e.tra dimension with coordinate x
#
deri(ed from time, sch that the distance differential flfills
,
where d+ : (dx
#
, dx
!
, dx
3
, dx
4
) are the differentials of the for spacetime dimensions* 5his sggests a deep
theoretical insightI special relati(ity is simply a rotational symmetry of or space2time, analogos to the rotational
symmetry of Eclidean space (see image right)*
+73,
Ast as Eclidean space ses a Eclidean metric, so space2
time ses a 'inkowski metric* )asically, special relati(ity can be stated as the invariance of any space%time
interval (that is the 7G distance between any two e(ents) when (iewed from any inertial reference frame* All
e6ations and effects of special relati(ity can be deri(ed from this rotational symmetry (the CoincarK grop) of
'inkowski space2time*
5he actal form of ds abo(e depends on the metric and on the choices for the x
#
coordinate* 5o make the time
coordinate look like the space coordinates, it can be treated as imaginaryI x
#
: ict (this is called a Wick
rotation)* According to 'isner, 5horne and Wheeler (!">!, T3*4), ltimately the deeper nderstanding of both
special and general relati(ity will come from the stdy of the 'inkowski metric (described below) and to take
x
#
: ct, rather than a %disgised% Eclidean metric sing ict as the time coordinate*
Some athors se x
#
: t, with factors of c elsewhere to compensate@ for instance, spatial coordinates are
di(ided by c or factors of c
U3
are inclded in the metric tensor*
+74,
5hese nmeros con(entions can be
sperseded by sing natral nits where c : !* 5hen space and time ha(e e6i(alent nits, and no factors of c
appear anywhere*
,- spacetime
-f we redce the spatial dimensions to 3, so that we can represent the
physics in a 4G space
,
we see that the nll geodesics lie along a dal2cone (see image right)
defined by the e6ation@
or simply
,
Vwhich is the e6ation of a circle of radis c.dt*
.- spacetime
-f we e.tend this to three spatial dimensions, the nll geodesics are the
72dimensional coneI
so
*
<ll spherical space*
*
5his nll dal2cone represents the %line of sight% of a point in space*
5hat is, when we look at the stars and say %5he light from that star
which - am recei(ing is W years old%, we are looking down this line of sightI a nll geodesic* We are looking at
an e(ent a distance away and a time d/c in the past* For this reason the nll dal cone
is also known as the 0light cone0* (5he point in the lower left of the pictre below represents the star, the origin
represents the obser(er, and the line represents the nll geodesic %line of sight%*)
5he cone in the Xt region is the information that the point is 0recei(ing0, while the cone in the Ot section is the
information that the point is 0sending0*
5he geometry of 'inkowski space can be depicted sing 'inkowski diagrams, which are sefl also in
nderstanding many of the thoght2e.periments in special relati(ity*
Physics in spacetime
5he e6ations of special relati(ity can be written in a manifestly co(ariant form* 5he position of an e(ent in
spacetime is gi(en by a contra(ariant for (ector with componentsI
We define x
#
: ct so that the time coordinate has the same dimension of distance as the other spatial
dimensions@ so that space and time are treated e6ally*
+77,+7$,+7;,
Sperscripts are contra(ariant indices in this
section rather than e.ponents e.cept when they indicate a s6are (it shold be clear from the conte.t)*
Sbscripts are co(ariant indices which also range from ?ero to three, as with the for2gradient of a scalar field RI
Transformations of physical uantities bet%een reference frames
8oordinate transformations between inertial reference frames are gi(en by the Dorent? transformation tensor Y*
For the special case of motion along the x2a.isI
which is simply the matri. of a boost (like a rotation) between the x and ct coordinates, where Z0 indicates the
row and [ indicates the colmn, and
5his can be generali?ed to a boost in any direction, and frther to inclde rotations, see main article*
5ransformation of a for2(ector
A transformation of a for2(ector from one inertial frame to another (ignoring translations for simplicity) is gi(en
A transformation of a for2(ector from one inertial frame to another (ignoring translations for simplicity) is gi(en
byI
where there is an implied smmation of Z0 and [0 from # to 4* 5he in(erse transformation isI
where is the reciprocal matri. of *
-n the case of the Dorent? transformations abo(e in the x2directionI
5ransformation of a tensor
'ost physical 6antities are best described as (components of) tensors* So to transform from one frame to
another, we se the well2known tensor transformation law
+7>,
where is the reciprocal matri. of * All tensors transform by this rle*
*etric
/i(en the for2dimensional natre of spacetime the 'inkowski metric 0 has components ((alid in any inertial
reference frame) which can be arranged in a 7 \ 7 matri.I
which is e6al to its reciprocal, , in those frames*
5he CoincarK grop is the most general grop of transformations which preser(es the 'inkowski metric
and this is the physical symmetry nderlying special relati(ity*
/nvariance
5he s6ared length of the differential of the position for2(ector constrcted sing
is an in(ariant* )eing in(ariant means that it takes the same (ale in all inertial frames, becase it is a scalar (#
rank tensor), and so no Y appears in its tri(ial transformation* <otice that when the line element d+
3
is negati(e
that
is the differential of proper time, while when d+
3
is positi(e, ](d+
3
) is differential of the proper distance*
5he primary (ale of e.pressing the e6ations of physics in a tensor form is that they are then manifestly
in(ariant nder the CoincarK grop, so that we do not ha(e to do a special and tedios calclation to check that
fact* Also in constrcting sch e6ations we often find that e6ations pre(iosly thoght to be nrelated are, in
fact, closely connected being part of the same tensor e6ation*
0elocity and acceleration in .-
Recognising other physical 6antities as tensors also simplifies their transformation laws* First note that the
(elocity for2(ector 1
Z
is gi(en by
Recognising this, we can trn the awkward looking law abot composition of (elocities into a simple statement
abot transforming the (elocity for2(ector of one particle from one frame to another* 1
Z
also has an in(ariant
formI
So all (elocity for2(ectors ha(e a magnitde of c* 5his is an e.pression of the fact that there is no sch thing as
being at coordinate rest in relati(ityI at the least, yo are always mo(ing forward throgh time* 5he acceleration
72(ector is gi(en by
/i(en this, differentiating the abo(e e6ation by ^ prodces
So in relati(ity, the acceleration for2(ector and the (elocity for2(ector are orthogonal*
*omentum in .-
5he momentm and energy combine into a co(ariant 72(ectorI
where m is the in(ariant mass*
5he in(ariant magnitde of the momentm 72(ector isI
We can work ot what this in(ariant is by first arging that, since it is a scalar, it doesn0t matter which reference
frame we calclate it, and then by transforming to a frame where the total momentm is ?ero*
We see that the rest energy is an independent in(ariant* A rest energy can be calclated e(en for particles and
systems in motion, by translating to a frame in which momentm is ?ero*
5he rest energy is related to the mass according to the celebrated e6ation discssed abo(eI
<ote that the mass of systems measred in their center of momentm frame (where total momentm is ?ero) is
gi(en by the total energy of the system in this frame* -t may not be e6al to the sm of indi(idal system masses
measred in other frames*
1orce in .-
5o se <ewton0s third law of motion, both forces mst be defined as the rate of change of momentm with
respect to the same time coordinate* 5hat is, it re6ires the 4G force defined abo(e* Unfortnately, there is no
tensor in 7G which contains the components of the 4G force (ector among its components*
-f a particle is not tra(eling at c, one can transform the 4G force from the particle0s co2mo(ing reference frame
into the obser(er0s reference frame* 5his yields a 72(ector called the for2force* -t is the rate of change of the
abo(e energy momentm for2(ector with respect to proper time* 5he co(ariant (ersion of the for2force isI
where ^ is the proper time*
-n the rest frame of the ob=ect, the time component of the for force is ?ero nless the %in(ariant mass% of the
ob=ect is changing (this re6ires a non2closed system in which energyPmass is being directly added or remo(ed
from the ob=ect) in which case it is the negati(e of that rate of change of mass, times c* -n general, thogh, the
components of the for force are not e6al to the components of the three2force, becase the three force is
defined by the rate of change of momentm with respect to coordinate time, i*e* dpPdt while the for force is
defined by the rate of change of momentm with respect to proper time, i*e* dpPd^*
-n a continos medim, the 4G density of force combines with the density of po!er to form a co(ariant 72
(ector* 5he spatial part is the reslt of di(iding the force on a small cell (in 42space) by the (olme of that cell*
5he time component is X!Pc times the power transferred to that cell di(ided by the (olme of the cell* 5his will
be sed below in the section on electromagnetism*
Relativity and unifyin! electroma!netism
Main articles: (lassical electromagnetism and special relativity and (ovariant formulation of
classical electromagnetism
5heoretical in(estigation in classical electromagnetism led to the disco(ery of wa(e propagation* E6ations
generali?ing the electromagnetic effects fond that finite propagation2speed of the # and 2 fields re6ired certain
beha(iors on charged particles* 5he general stdy of mo(ing charges forms the DiKnard9Wiechert potential,
which is a step towards special relati(ity*
5he Dorent? transformation of the electric field of a mo(ing charge into a non2mo(ing obser(er0s reference frame
reslts in the appearance of a mathematical term commonly called the magnetic field* 8on(ersely, the magnetic
field generated by a mo(ing charge disappears and becomes a prely electrostatic field in a como(ing frame of
reference* 'a.well0s e6ations are ths simply an empirical fit to special relati(istic effects in a classical model of
the Uni(erse* As electric and magnetic fields are reference frame dependent and ths intertwined, one speaks of
electromagnetic fields* Special relati(ity pro(ides the transformation rles for how an electromagnetic field in
one inertial frame appears in another inertial frame*
'a.well0s e6ations in the 4G form are already consistent with the physical content of special relati(ity, althogh
they are easier to maniplate a manifestly co(ariant form, i*e* in the langage of tensor calcls*
+7B,
See main
links for more detail*
Status
Main articles: ests of special relativity and (riticism of relativity theory
Special relati(ity in its 'inkowski spacetime is accrate only when the absolte (ale of the gra(itational
potential is mch less than c
3
in the region of interest*
+7",
-n a strong gra(itational field, one mst se general
relati(ity* /eneral relati(ity becomes special relati(ity at the limit of weak field* At (ery small scales, sch as at
the Clanck length and below, 6antm effects mst be taken into consideration reslting in 6antm gra(ity*
Eowe(er, at macroscopic scales and in the absence of strong gra(itational fields, special relati(ity is
e.perimentally tested to e.tremely high degree of accracy (!#
X3#
)
+$#,
and ths accepted by the physics
commnity* E.perimental reslts which appear to contradict it are not reprodcible and are ths widely belie(ed
to be de to e.perimental errors*
Special relati(ity is mathematically self2consistent, and it is an organic part of all modern physical theories, most
notably 6antm field theory, string theory, and general relati(ity (in the limiting case of negligible gra(itational
fields)*
<ewtonian mechanics mathematically follows from special relati(ity at small (elocities (compared to the speed
of light) 9 ths <ewtonian mechanics can be considered as a special relati(ity of slow mo(ing bodies* See
classical mechanics for a more detailed discssion*
Se(eral e.periments predating Einstein0s !"#$ paper are now interpreted as e(idence for relati(ity* &f these it is
known Einstein was aware of the Fi?ea e.periment before !"#$,
+$!,
and historians ha(e conclded that
Einstein was at least aware of the 'ichelson9'orley e.periment as early as !B"" despite claims he made in his
later years that it played no role in his de(elopment of the theory*
+!",
5he Fi?ea e.periment (!B$!, repeated by 'ichelson and 'orley in !BB;) measred the speed of light
in mo(ing media, with reslts that are consistent with relati(istic addition of colinear (elocities*
5he famos 'ichelson9'orley e.periment (!BB!, !BB>) ga(e frther spport to the postlate that
5he famos 'ichelson9'orley e.periment (!BB!, !BB>) ga(e frther spport to the postlate that
detecting an absolte reference (elocity was not achie(able* -t shold be stated here that, contrary to
many alternati(e claims, it said little abot the in(ariance of the speed of light with respect to the sorce
and obser(er0s (elocity, as both sorce and obser(er were tra(elling together at the same (elocity at all
times*
5he 5roton9<oble e.periment (!"#4) showed that the tor6e on a capacitor is independent of position
and inertial reference frame*
5he E.periments of Rayleigh and )race (!"#3, !"#7) showed that length contraction doesn0t lead to
birefringence for a co2mo(ing obser(er, in accordance with the relati(ity principle*
Carticle accelerators rotinely accelerate and measre the properties of particles mo(ing at near the speed of
light, where their beha(ior is completely consistent with relati(ity theory and inconsistent with the earlier
<ewtonian mechanics* 5hese machines wold simply not work if they were not engineered according to
relati(istic principles* -n addition, a considerable nmber of modern e.periments ha(e been condcted to test
special relati(ity* Some e.amplesI
5ests of relati(istic energy and momentm 9 testing the limiting speed of particles
-(es9Stilwell e.periment 9 testing relati(istic Goppler effect and time dilation
5ime dilation of mo(ing particles 9 relati(istic effects on a fast2mo(ing particle0s half2life
Jennedy95horndike e.periment 9 time dilation in accordance with Dorent? transformations
Eghes9Gre(er e.periment 9 testing isotropy of space and mass
'odern searches for Dorent? (iolation 9 (arios modern tests
E.periments to test emission theory demonstrated that the speed of light is independent of the speed of
the emitter*
E.periments to test the aether drag hypothesis 9 no %aether flow obstrction%
Relativistic uantum mechanics
Special relati(ity can be combined with 6antm theory to form relati(istic 6antm mechanics* -t is an nsol(ed
6estion how general relati(ity and 6antm mechanics can be nified@ 6antm gra(itation is an acti(e area in
theoretical research*
5he early )ohr2Sommerfeld atomic model e.plained the fine strctre of alkaline atoms by sing both special
relati(ity and the preliminary knowledge on 6antm mechanics of the time*
+citation needed,
Cal Girac de(eloped a relati(istic wa(e e6ation now known as the Girac e6ation in his honor,
+$3,
flly
compatible both with special relati(ity and with the final (ersion of 6antm theory e.isting after !"3;* 5his
theory e.plained not only the intrinsic anglar momentm of the electrons called spin, a property which can only
be stated, bt not explained by non2relati(istic 6antm mechanics, and led to the prediction of the antiparticle
of the electron, the positron*
+$3,+$4,
Also the fine strctre cold finally not be e.plained withot special
relati(ity*
&n the other hand, the e.istence of antiparticles makes ob(ios that one is not dealing with a nai(e nification of
special relati(ity and 6antm mechanics* -nstead a theory is necessary, where one is dealing with 6anti?ed
fields, and where particles can be created and destroyed, as in 6antm electrodynamics or 6antm
chromodynamics* 5hese elements merge in the standard model of particle physics*
See also
PeopleI Eendrik Dorent? _ Eenri CoincarK _ Albert Einstein _ 'a. Clanck _ Eermann 'inkowski _ 'a.
(on Dae _ Arnold Sommerfeld _ 'a. )orn _ /sta( Eerglot? _ Richard 8* 5olman
(on Dae _ Arnold Sommerfeld _ 'a. )orn _ /sta( Eerglot? _ Richard 8* 5olman
RelativityI 5heory of relati(ity _ Eistory of special relati(ity _ Crinciple of relati(ity _ /eneral relati(ity _
Fndamental Speed _ Frame of reference _ -nertial frame of reference _ Dorent? transformations _ )ondi k2
calcls _ Einstein synchronisation _ Rietdi=k2Ctnam Argment _ Special relati(ity (alternati(e
formlations) _ 8riticism of relati(ity theory _ Relati(ity priority dispte
PhysicsI <ewtonian 'echanics _ spacetime _ speed of light _ simltaneity _ physical cosmology _ Goppler
effect _ relati(istic Eler e6ations _ Aether drag hypothesis _ Dorent? ether theory _ 'o(ing magnet and
condctor problem _ Shape wa(es_ Relati(istic heat condction
*athematicsI 'inkowski space _ for2(ector _ world line _ light cone _ Dorent? grop _ CoincarK grop _
geometry _ tensors _ split2comple. nmber _ Relati(ity in the ACS formalism
PhilosophyI actalism _ con(entionalism _ formalism
Parado+esI 5win parado. _ Ehrenfest parado. _ Dadder parado. _ )ell0s spaceship parado. _ Helocity
composition parado.
References
!* `
a

b

c

d

e
Albert Einstein (!"#$) %2ur Ele-trodynami- be!egter 34rper (httpIPPwww*pro2
physik*dePChyPpdfsPgeraB"#a"3!*pdf) %, Annalen der 5hysi- !>I B"!@ English translation &n the
Electrodynamics of 'o(ing )odies (httpIPPwww*formilab*chPete.tsPeinsteinPspecrelPwwwP) by /eorge )arker
Aeffery and Wilfrid Cerrett (!"34)@ Another English translation &n the Electrodynamics of 'o(ing )odies by
'egh <ad Saha (!"3#)*
3* 3 Edwin F* 5aylor and Aohn Archibald Wheeler (!""3)* Spacetime 5hysics: 6ntroduction to Special "elativity*
W* E* Freeman* -S)< #2>!;>2343>2!*
4* 3 Wolfgang Rindler (!">>)* Essential "elativity (httpIPPbooks*google*comPFid:#Aadw8mb5hg8cpg:C5!7B) *
)irkhdser* p* T!,!! p* >* -S)< 42$7#2#>">#2W* httpIPPbooks*google*comPFid:#Aadw8mb5hg8cpg:C5!7B*
7* 3 5om Roberts and Siegmar Schleif (&ctober 3##>)* %What is the e.perimental basis of Special Relati(ityF%
(httpIPPwww*ed2obser(atory*orgPphysics2fa6PRelati(ityPSRPe.periments*html) * 1senet 5hysics ,A7*
httpIPPwww*ed2obser(atory*orgPphysics2fa6PRelati(ityPSRPe.periments*html* Retrie(ed 3##B2#"2!>*
$* 3 Albert Einstein (3##!)* "elativity: he Special and the 8eneral heory (httpIPPbooks*google*comPF
id:idb>wAi);Ss8cpg:CA$#) (Reprint of !"3# translation by Robert W* Dawson ed*)* Rotledge* p* 7B*
-S)< #27!$23$4B72$* httpIPPbooks*google*comPFid:idb>wAi);Ss8cpg:CA$#*
;* 3 Richard Chillips Feynman (!""B)* Six Not%so%easy 5ieces: Einstein#s relativity9 symmetry9 and space%time
(httpIPPbooks*google*comPFid:ipeBonHbWhc8cpg:CA;B) (Reprint of !""$ ed*)* )asic )ooks* p* ;B* -S)< #2
3#!243B732"* httpIPPbooks*google*comPFid:ipeBonHbWhc8cpg:CA;B*
>* 3 Albert Einstein, Relati(ityf1f5he Special and /eneral 5heory, chapter !B
(httpIPPwww*mar.ists*orgPreferenceParchi(ePeinsteinPworksP!"!#sPrelati(ePch!B*htm)
B* 3 8harles W* 'isner, Jip S* 5horne c Aohn A* Wheeler,8ravitation, pg !>3, ;*; he local coordinate system
of an accelerated observer, -S)< #2>!;>2#4772#
"* `
a

b
Einstein, Atobiographical <otes, !"7"*
!#* 3 Einstein, %Fndamental -deas and 'ethods of the 5heory of Relati(ity%, !"3#
!!* 3 For a sr(ey of sch deri(ations, see Dcas and Eodgson, Spacetime and Electromagnetism, !""#
!3* 3 Einstein, A*, Dorent?, E* A*, 'inkowski, E*, c Weyl, E* (!"$3)* he 5rinciple of "elativity: a collection of
original memoirs on the special and general theory of relativity (httpIPPbooks*google*comPF
id:yE8okh?sAe-8cpg:CA!!!) * 8orier Go(er Cblications* p* !!!* -S)< #27B;2;##B!2$*
httpIPPbooks*google*comPFid:yE8okh?sAe-8cpg:CA!!!*
!4* 3 Einstein, &n the Relati(ity Crinciple and the 8onclsions Grawn from -t, !"#>@ %5he Crinciple of Relati(ity
and -ts 8onse6ences in 'odern Chysics%, !"!#@ %5he 5heory of Relati(ity%, !"!!@ 'anscript on the Special
5heory of Relati(ity, !"!3@ 5heory of Relati(ity, !"!4@ Einstein, Relati(ity, the Special and /eneral 5heory,
!"!;@ 5he Crinciple -deas of the 5heory of Relati(ity, !"!;@ What -s 5he 5heory of Relati(ityF, !"!"@ 5he
Crinciple of Relati(ity (Crinceton Dectres), !"3!@ Chysics and Reality, !"4;@ 5he 5heory of Relati(ity, !"7"*
!7* 3 Gas, A*, 5he Special 5heory of Relati(ity, A 'athematical E.position, Springer, !""4*
!$* 3 Scht?, A*, -ndependent A.ioms for 'inkowski Spacetime, !"">*
!;* 3 eaako( Friedman, 5hysical Applications of :omogeneous ;alls, Crogress in 'athematical Chysics .4
)irkhdser, )oston, 3##7, pages !23!*
)irkhdser, )oston, 3##7, pages !23!*
!>* 3 Ga(id 'orin, 6ntroduction to (lassical Mechanics, 8ambridge Uni(ersity Cress, 8ambridge, 3##>, chapter
!!, Appendi. -
!B* 3 'ichael Colanyi, 5ersonal 3no!ledge: o!ards a 5ost%(ritical 5hilosophy, !">7, -S)< #233;2;>3BB24,
footnote page !#2!!I Einstein reports, (ia Gr < )al?as in response to Colanyi0s 6ery, that %5he 'ichelson9
'orely e.periment had no role in the fondation of the theory*% and %**the theory of relati(ity was not fonded
to e.plain its otcome at all*%+!, (httpIPPbooks*google*comPbooksF
id:#RtBk8p(?78clpg:CC!cpg:C5!"g(:onepagec6:cf:false)
!"* `
a

b
Gongen, Aeroen (an (3##")* %&n the role of the 'ichelson9'orley e.perimentI Einstein in 8hicago%
(httpIPPphilsci2archi(e*pitt*edP7>>BP!PEinsteina8hicagoaWeb3*pdf) * Eprint ar<iv:=>=?+@ABA 4546I !$7$*
arWi(I#"#B*!$7$ (httpIPPar.i(*orgPabsP#"#B*!$7$) * )ibcode 3##"arWi(#"#B*!$7$H
(httpIPPadsabs*har(ard*edPabsP3##"arWi(#"#B*!$7$H) * httpIPPphilsci2
archi(e*pitt*edP7>>BP!PEinsteina8hicagoaWeb3*pdf*
3#* 3 Resnick, Robert (!";B)* 6ntroduction to special relativity (httpIPPbooks*google*comPbooksF
id:fs-RAbAA-AAA) * Wiley* pp* ;39;4* httpIPPbooks*google*comPbooksFid:fs-RAbAA-AAA*
3!* 3 Jleppner, Ganiel@ Jolenkow, Ga(id (!">4)* An 6ntroduction to Mechanics* pp* 7;B9>#*
33* 3 Goes the inertia of a body depend pon its energy contentF
(httpIPPwww*formilab*chPete.tsPeinsteinPEamc3PwwwP) A* Einstein, Annalen der 5hysi-+ 76I;4", !"#$
(English translation by W* Cerrett and /*)* Aeffery)
34* 3 'a. Aammer (!"">)* (oncepts of Mass in (lassical and Modern 5hysics (httpIPPbooks*google*comPF
id:le(?#aBa/s'8cpg:CA!>>) * 8orier Go(er Cblications* pp* !>>9!>B* -S)< #27B;23"""B2B*
httpIPPbooks*google*comPFid:le(?#aBa/s'8cpg:CA!>>*
37* 3 Aohn A* Stachel (3##3)* Einstein from ) to h (httpIPPbooks*google*comPFid:&AsbahF=hrA8cpg:CA3!$) *
Springer* p* 33!* -S)< #2B!>;27!7423* httpIPPbooks*google*comPFid:&AsbahF=hrA8cpg:CA3!$*
3$* 3 Cn the 6nertia of Energy "e'uired by the "elativity 5rinciple (httpIPPwww*webcitation*orgP6eryF
rl:httpIPPwww*geocities*comPphysicsaworldPabstractsPEinsteina!"#>Aaabstract*htmcdate:3##"2!#2
3;O##I47I!") , A* Einstein, Annalen der Chysik 34 (!"#>)I 4>!24B7
3;* 3 -n a letter to 8arl Seelig in !"$$, Einstein wrote %- had already pre(iosly fond that 'a.well0s theory did not
accont for the micro2strctre of radiation and cold therefore ha(e no general (alidity*%, Einstein letter to
8arl Seelig, !"$$*
3>* 3 /ibbs, Chilip@ Joks, Gon* %5he Relati(istic Rocket%
(httpIPPmath*cr*edPhomePbae?PphysicsPRelati(ityPSRProcket*html) *
httpIPPmath*cr*edPhomePbae?PphysicsPRelati(ityPSRProcket*html* Retrie(ed 4# Agst 3#!3*
3B* 3 httpIPPlibrary*think6est*orgP8#!!;#74Pspecialtheoryte.t*htm 5hink6est org
3"* 3 R* 8* 5olman, he theory of the "elativity of Motion, ()erkeley !"!>), p* $7
4#* 3 /* A* )enford, G* D* )ook, and W* A* <ewcomb, he achyonic Antitelephone, Chys* Re(* G 8, 3;493;$
(!">#) article (httpIPPlink*aps*orgPabstractPCRGP(3Pp3;4)
4!* 3 Salmon, Wesley 8* (3##;)* ,our Decades of Scientific Explanation (httpIPPbooks*google*comPbooksF
id:FE6&W8d#;eB8) * Uni(ersity of Cittsbrgh* p* !#>* -S)< #2B33"2$"3;2>* httpIPPbooks*google*comPbooksF
id:FE6&W8d#;eB8*, Section 4*> page !#> (httpIPPbooks*google*comPbooksFid:FE6&W8d#;eB8cpg:CA!#>)
43* 3 F* Dow and C* 'ende, A <ote on the 5nneling 5ime Croblem, Ann* Chys* <e, 3!#, 4B#24B> (!""!)
44* 3 A* Enders and /* <imt?, &n sperlminal barrier tra(ersal, A* Chys* -, France 3, !;"42!;"B (!""3)
47* 3 S* Donghi et al*, 'easrement of sperlminal optical tnneling times in doble2barrier photonic band gaps,
Chys*Re(* E, ;$, #;;!# !2; (3##3)
4$* 3 C* Eckle et al*, Attosecond -oni?ation and 5nneling Gelay 5ime 'easrements in Eelim, Science, 433,
!$3$2!$3" (3##B)
4;* 3 /* <imt?, Go E(anescent 'odes Hiolate Relati(istic 8asalityF, Dect*<otes Chys* >#3, $#;2$4! (3##;)
4>* 3 /* <imt?, 5nneling Hiolates Special Relati(ity, arWi(I!##4*4"77(!
4B* 3 Eerbert Winfl (3##>2#"2!B)* %8omment on %'acroscopic (iolation of special relati(ity% by <imt? and
Stahlhofen%* arWi(I#>#"*3>4; (httpIPPar.i(*orgPabsP#>#"*3>4;) +6ant2ph (httpIPPar.i(*orgParchi(eP6ant2ph) ,*
4"* 3 8hris Dee (3##>2#B2!;)* %Datest %faster than the speed of light% claims wrong (again)%
(httpIPParstechnica*comPnews*arsPpostP3##>#B!;2faster2than2the2speed2of2light2no2i2dont2think2so*html) *
httpIPParstechnica*comPnews*arsPpostP3##>#B!;2faster2than2the2speed2of2light2no2i2dont2think2so*html*
7#* 3 Winfl, Eerbert /* (Gecember 3##;)* %5nneling time, the Eartman effect, and sperlminalityI A proposed
resoltion of an old parado.%
(httpIPPsitemaker*mich*edPherbert*winflPfilesPphysicsareportsare(iewaarticleaa3##;a*pdf) * 5hysics "eports
.,9 (!23)I !9;"* )ibcode 3##;ChR***74;****!W (httpIPPadsabs*har(ard*edPabsP3##;ChR***74;****!W) *
.,9 (!23)I !9;"* )ibcode 3##;ChR***74;****!W (httpIPPadsabs*har(ard*edPabsP3##;ChR***74;****!W) *
doiI!#*!#!;P=*physrep*3##;*#"*##3 (httpIPPd.*doi*orgP!#*!#!;i3F=*physrep*3##;*#"*##3) *
httpIPPsitemaker*mich*edPherbert*winflPfilesPphysicsareportsare(iewaarticleaa3##;a*pdf*
7!* 3 A*A* Wheeler, 8* 'isner, J*S* 5horne (!">4)* 8ravitation* W*E* Freeman c 8o* p* $B* -S)< #2>!;>2#4772
#*
73* 3 A*R* Forshaw, A*/* Smith (3##")* Dynamics and "elativity* Wiley* p* 37>* -S)< ">B2#27>#2#!7;#2B*
74* 3 R* Cenrose (3##>)* he "oad to "eality* Hintage books* -S)< #2;>"2>>;4!2!*
77* 3 Aean2)ernard hber c 8lade -t?ykson, 7uantum ,ield heory, pg $ , -S)< #2#>2#43#>!24
7$* 3 8harles W* 'isner, Jip S* 5horne c Aohn A* Wheeler,8ravitation, pg $!, -S)< #2>!;>2#4772#
7;* 3 /eorge Sterman, An 6ntroduction to 7uantum ,ield heory, pg 7 , -S)< #2$3!24!!4323
7>* 3 '* 8arroll, Sean (3##7)* Spacetime and 8eometry: An 6ntroduction to 8eneral "elativity
(httpIPPbooks*google*comPbooksFid:!SJFbgAA8AAA) (illstrated ed*)* Addison Wesley* p* 33* -S)< #2B#$42
B>4324* httpIPPbooks*google*comPbooksFid:!SJFbgAA8AAA*
7B* 3 E* A* Cost (!";3)* ,ormal Structure of Electromagnetics: 8eneral (ovariance and Electromagnetics* Go(er
Cblications -nc** -S)< #27B;2;$73>24*
7"* 3 /rjn, ky(ind@ Eer(ik, Sigb=jrn (3##>)* Einstein#s general theory of relativity: !ith modern applications in
cosmology (httpIPPbooks*google*comPbooksFid:-yAh8EAryU8) * Springer* p* !"$* -S)< #24B>2;"!""2$*
httpIPPbooks*google*comPbooksFid:-yAh8EAryU8*, E.tract of page !"$ (with nits where c:!)
(httpIPPbooks*google*comPbooksFid:-yAh8EAryU8cpg:CA!"$)
$#* 3 5he nmber of works is (ast, see as e.ampleI
Sidney 8oleman, Sheldon D* /lashow, (osmic "ay and Neutrino ests of Special "elativity, Chys* Dett* )7#$
(!"">) 37"23$3, online (httpIPPar.i(*orgPabsPhep2phP">#437#)
An o(er(iew can be fond on this page (httpIPPwww*ed2obser(atory*orgPphysics2
fa6PRelati(ityPSRPe.periments*html)
$!* 3 <orton, Aohn G*, Aohn G* (3##7), %Einstein0s -n(estigations of /alilean 8o(ariant Electrodynamics prior to
!"#$% (httpIPPphilsci2archi(e*pitt*edParchi(eP####!>74P) , Archive for :istory of Exact Sciences :5I 7$9!#$,
)ibcode 3##7AEES***$"***7$< (httpIPPadsabs*har(ard*edPabsP3##7AEES***$"***7$<) , doiI!#*!##>Ps##7#>2
##72##B$2; (httpIPPd.*doi*orgP!#*!##>i3Fs##7#>2##72##B$2;) , httpIPPphilsci2
archi(e*pitt*edParchi(eP####!>74P
$3* `
a

b
Girac, C*A*'* (!"4#)* %A 5heory of Electrons and Crotons%* 5roc+ "+ Soc+ ;789I 4;#* )ibcode
!"4#RSCSA*!3;**4;#G (httpIPPadsabs*har(ard*edPabsP!"4#RSCSA*!3;**4;#G) * doiI!#*!#"BPrspa*!"4#*##!4
(httpIPPd.*doi*orgP!#*!#"Bi3Frspa*!"4#*##!4) * AS5&R "$4$" (httpIPPwww*=stor*orgPstableP"$4$") *
$4* 3 8*G* AndersonI he 5ositive Electron* Chys* Re(* .,, 7"!27"7 (!"44)
Te+tbooks
Einstein, Albert (!"3#)* Relati(ityI 5he Special and /eneral 5heory*
Einstein, Albert (!"";)* he Meaning of "elativity* Fine 8ommnications* -S)< !2$;>4!2!4;2"
Frend, ASrgen (3##B) Special Relati(ity for )eginners 2 A 5e.tbook for Undergradates
(httpIPPwww*relati(ity*ch) World Scientific* -S)< "B!23>>2!;#24
Dogno(, Anatoly A* (3##$) Eenri CoincarK and the Relati(ity 5heory
(httpIPPar.i(*orgPpdfPphysicsP#7#B#>>) (transl* from Rssian by /* Contocor(o and H* &* Sole(ie(,
edited by H* A* Cetro() <aka, 'oscow*
8harles 'isner, Jip 5horne, and Aohn Archibald Wheeler (!">!) 8ravitation* W* E* Freeman c 8o*
-S)< #2>!;>2#44724
Cost, E*A*, !""> (!";3) ,ormal Structure of Electromagnetics: 8eneral (ovariance and
Electromagnetics* Go(er Cblications*
Wolfgang Rindler (!""!)* -ntrodction to Special Relati(ity (3nd ed*), &.ford Uni(ersity Cress* -S)<
">B2#2!"2B$4"$32#@ -S)< #2!"2B$4"$32$
Ear(ey R* )rown (3##$)* Chysical relati(ityI space2time strctre from a dynamical perspecti(e, &.ford
Uni(ersity Cress, -S)< #2!"2"3>$B42!@ -S)< ">B2#2!"2"3>$B42#
badir, Asghar (!"B")* "elativity: An 6ntroduction to the Special heory (httpIPPbooks*google*comPF
id:W$eofer6FoA8cprintsec:frontco(ercd6:Relati(ityIOAnO-ntrodctionOtoOtheOSpecialO5heoryOb
yOAsgharObadirg(:onepagec6cf:false) * SingaporeI World Scientific Cblications* pp* !3B*
yOAsgharObadirg(:onepagec6cf:false) * SingaporeI World Scientific Cblications* pp* !3B*
-S)< "">!2$2#;!323* httpIPPbooks*google*comPF
id:W$eofer6FoA8cprintsec:frontco(ercd6:Relati(ityIOAnO-ntrodctionOtoOtheOSpecialO5heoryOb
yOAsgharObadirg(:onepagec6cf:false*
Silberstein, Ddwik (!"!7) 5he 5heory of Relati(ity*
Dawrence Sklar (!">>)* Space9 ime and Spacetime (httpIPPbooks*google*comPF
id:cCDW6H4bw'8cpg:CA3#;) * Uni(ersity of 8alifornia Cress* -S)< #2$3#2#4!>72!*
httpIPPbooks*google*comPFid:cCDW6H4bw'8cpg:CA3#;*
Dawrence Sklar (!""3)* 5hilosophy of 5hysics (httpIPPbooks*google*comPF
id:D4ba"C/nk'w8cpg:CA>7) * West(iew Cress* -S)< #2B!442#;3$2;* httpIPPbooks*google*comPF
id:D4ba"C/nk'w8cpg:CA>7*
5aylor, Edwin, and Aohn Archibald Wheeler (!""3) Spacetime 5hysics (3nd ed*)* W*E* Freeman c
8o* -S)< #2>!;>2343>2!
5ipler, Cal, and Dlewellyn, Ralph (3##3)* Modern 5hysics (7th ed*)* W* E* Freeman c 8o* -S)< #2
>!;>2747$2#
<ournal articles
Al(ager, et al+@ Farley, F* A* '*@ J=ellman, A*@ Wallin, D* (!";7)* %5est of the Second Costlate of
Special Relati(ity in the /eH region%* 5hysics Letters 78 (4)I 3;#* )ibcode !";7ChD****!3**3;#A
(httpIPPadsabs*har(ard*edPabsP!";7ChD****!3**3;#A) * doiI!#*!#!;P##4!2"!;4(;7)"!#"$2"
(httpIPPd.*doi*orgP!#*!#!;i3F##4!2"!;4i3B;7i3""!#"$2") *
Garrigol, &li(ier (3##7)* %5he 'ystery of the CoincarK2Einstein 8onnection%* 6sis 5: (7)I ;!793;*
doiI!#*!#B;P74#;$3 (httpIPPd.*doi*orgP!#*!#B;i3F74#;$3) * C'-G !;#!!3">
(PPwww*ncbi*nlm*nih*go(PpbmedP!;#!!3">) *
Feigenbam, 'itchell (3##B)* %5he 5heory of Relati(ity 2 /alileo0s 8hild%* Eprint ar<iv:=?=E+@FGB
4649I !347* arWi(I#B#;*!347 (httpIPPar.i(*orgPabsP#B#;*!347) * )ibcode 3##BarWi(#B#;*!347F
(httpIPPadsabs*har(ard*edPabsP3##BarWi(#B#;*!347F) *
/le(ich, G* R* et al+@ Jsmartse(, F* H*@ Sa(el0E(, Sergey@ eampol0Skii, H* A*@ <ori, Franco (3##B)*
%Shape wa(es in 3G Aosephson =nctionsI E.act soltions and time dilation%* 5hys+ "ev+ Lett+ 747 (!3)I
!3>##3* arWi(I#B#B*!$!7 (httpIPPar.i(*orgPabsP#B#B*!$!7) * )ibcode 3##BChR(D*!#!l>##3/
(httpIPPadsabs*har(ard*edPabsP3##BChR(D*!#!l>##3/) * doiI!#*!!#4PChysRe(Dett*!#!*!3>##3
(httpIPPd.*doi*orgP!#*!!#4i3FChysRe(Dett*!#!*!3>##3) * C'-G !BB$!7#7
(PPwww*ncbi*nlm*nih*go(PpbmedP!BB$!7#7) *
Ri??i, /* et al+ (3##$)* %Synchroni?ation /ages and the Crinciples of Special Relati(ity%* ,ound+ 5hys
,.I !B4$9B>* arWi(Igr26cP#7#"!#$ (httpIPPar.i(*orgPabsPgr26cP#7#"!#$) * )ibcode
3##7FoCh***47*!B4$R (httpIPPadsabs*har(ard*edPabsP3##7FoCh***47*!B4$R) * doiI!#*!##>Ps!#>#!2
##72!;3724 (httpIPPd.*doi*orgP!#*!##>i3Fs!#>#!2##72!;3724) *
Wolf, Ceter@ Cetit, /erard (!"">)* %Satellite test of Special Relati(ity sing the /lobal Cositioning
System%* 5hysical "evie! A :9 (;)I 77#$9#"* )ibcode !"">ChR(A**$;*77#$W
(httpIPPadsabs*har(ard*edPabsP!"">ChR(A**$;*77#$W) * doiI!#*!!#4PChysRe(A*$;*77#$
(httpIPPd.*doi*orgP!#*!!#4i3FChysRe(A*$;*77#$) *
#+ternal links
"ri!inal %orks
2ur Ele-trodynami- be!egter 34rper (httpIPPwww*physik*ni2agsbrg*dePannalenPhistoryPeinstein2
papersP!"#$a!>aB"!2"3!*pdf) Einstein0s original work in /erman, Annalen der Chysik, )ern !"#$
papersP!"#$a!>aB"!2"3!*pdf) Einstein0s original work in /erman, Annalen der Chysik, )ern !"#$
Cn the Electrodynamics of Moving ;odies
(httpIPPwww*formilab*chPete.tsPeinsteinPspecrelPspecrel*pdf) English 5ranslation as pblished in the !"34
book he 5rinciple of "elativity*
Special relativity for a !eneral audience =no math kno%led!e reuired>
WikibooksI Special Relati(ity (httpIPPen*wikibooks*orgPwikiPSpecialaRelati(ity)
Einstein Dight (httpIPPwww*phys*nsw*ed*aPeinsteinlight) An award (httpIPPwww*sciam*comParticle*cfmF
chan-G:sa##7carticle-G:###$8FF"2$37F2!47#2"37FB47!7)>F####) 2winning, non2technical
introdction (film clips and demonstrations) spported by do?ens of pages of frther e.planations and
animations, at le(els with or withot mathematics*
Einstein &nline (httpIPPwww*einstein2online*infoPenPelementaryPinde.*html) -ntrodction to relati(ity theory,
from the 'a. Clanck -nstitte for /ra(itational Chysics*
AdioI 8ainP/ay (3##;) 2 Astronomy 8ast (httpIPPwww*astronomycast*comPastronomyPeinsteins2theory2
of2special2relati(ityP) * Einstein0s 5heory of Special Relati(ity
Special relativity e+plained =usin! simple or more advanced math>
/reg Egan0s ,oundations
(httpIPPgregegan*cstomer*netspace*net*aPF&U<GA5-&<SP#!Pfond#!*html) *
5he Eogg <otes on Special Relati(ity (httpIPPcosmo*ny*edPhoggPsrP) A good introdction to special
relati(ity at the ndergradate le(el, sing calcls*
'otion 'ontain, Holme -- (httpIPPwww*motionmontain*netPdownload*html) 2 A modern introdction
to relati(ity, inclding its (isal effects*
'athCages 2 Reflections on Relati(ity (httpIPPwww*mathpages*comPrrPrrtoc*htm) A complete online book
on relati(ity with an e.tensi(e bibliography*
Relati(ity (httpIPPwww*lightandmatter*comPhtmlabooksP#snPch#>Pch#>*html) An introdction to special
relati(ity at the ndergradate le(el, withot calcls*
"elativity: the Special and 8eneral heory (httpIPPwww*gtenberg*orgPete.tP$##!) at Cro=ect
/tenberg, by Albert Einstein
Special Relati(ity Dectre <otes (httpIPPwww*phys*(t*edPltakechiPrelati(ityPnotes) is a standard
introdction to special relati(ity containing illstrati(e e.planations based on drawings and spacetime
diagrams from Hirginia Colytechnic -nstitte and State Uni(ersity*
Understanding Special Relati(ity (httpIPPwww*rafimoor*comPenglishPSRE*htm) 5he theory of special
relati(ity in an easily nderstandable way*
An -ntrodction to the Special 5heory of Relati(ity (httpIPPdigitalcommons*nl*edPphysicskat?P7"P)
(!";7) by Robert Jat?, %an introdction *** that is accessible to any stdent who has had an introdction
to general physics and some slight ac6aintance with the calcls*% (!4# pp@ pdf format)
Dectre <otes on Special Relati(ity
(httpIPPwww*physics*m6*ed*aPl=cresserPChys4>BPDectre<otesPHectors5ensorsSR*pdf) by A G
8resser Gepartment of Chysics 'ac6arie Uni(ersity
0isualization
Raytracing Special Relati(ity (httpIPPwww*hakenberg*dePdiffgeoPspecialarelati(ity*htm) Software
(isali?ing se(eral scenarios nder the inflence of special relati(ity*
Real 5ime Relati(ity (httpIPPwww*an*ed*aPChysicsPSa(agePR5RP) 5he Astralian <ational Uni(ersity*
Relati(istic (isal effects e.perienced throgh an interacti(e program*
Spacetime tra(el (httpIPPwww*spacetimetra(el*org) A (ariety of (isali?ations of relati(istic effects, from
Spacetime tra(el (httpIPPwww*spacetimetra(el*org) A (ariety of (isali?ations of relati(istic effects, from
relati(istic motion to black holes*
5hrogh Einstein0s Eyes (httpIPPwww*an*ed*aPChysicsPSa(ageP5EEP) 5he Astralian <ational
Uni(ersity* Relati(istic (isal effects e.plained with mo(ies and images*
Warp Special Relati(ity Simlator (httpIPPwww*adamaton*comPwarpP) A compter program to show the
effects of tra(eling close to the speed of light*
Animation clip (httpIPPwww*yotbe*comPwatchF(:83H'&>pcWhg) (isali?ing the Dorent?
transformation*
&riginal interacti(e FDASE Animations (httpIPPmath*cr*edPl=dpPRelati(ityPSpecialRelati(ity*html) from
Aohn de Cillis illstrating Dorent? and /alilean frames, 5rain and 5nnel Carado., the 5win Carado.,
Wa(e Cropagation, 8lock Synchroni?ation, etc*
Relati(istic &ptics at the A<U (httpIPPwww*an*ed*aPphysicsPSearleP)
Retrie(ed from %httpIPPen*wikipedia*orgPwPinde.*phpFtitle:Specialarelati(itycoldid:$!>>>$>>$%
8ategoriesI Special relati(ity 8oncepts in physics
5his page was last modified on !7 &ctober 3#!3 at !>I$B*
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