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What is a problem?
It’s only a problem if someone considers it to be a problem. It’s not a problem if no one
considers it to be a problem.
Genocides
2. Problem
1. Problem Definition (find
Perception real problem)
(diagnostic)
3. Causal
6. Evaluate Determination
Intervention (real cause of
problem)
4. Select
Alternative
5. Implement
Interventions
intervention
(changes to
make)
Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 2
Or
Attribution = cause
Fundamental Attribution Error –If it’s good and you did it, you assign dispositional
attribute. If it’s bad and you did it, you assign situational attribute. It is just the opposite
when describing someone else.
If you apply wrong cause to human behavior, you will get the wrong solutions.
Causes of behavior
Ultimate causes – evolutionary events and conditions that over generations, have slowly
shaped some of our behaviors and behavioral dispositions. Influence of evolution,
survival of the fittest, natural selection of physical characteristics and psychological
predispositions. Once you are born nature doesn’t change, nurture does.
Proximate causes – variables in the immediate (or recent past) environment that affect
behavior. (parenting, drugs, education, health, associates, neighborhood, work,
government, climate, models)
Ultimate causes are advantageous to our genes. You inherit behavior propensities. We
don’t inherit instincts or complex behavior patterns.
Most behavior problems are caused by a mix of ultimate and proximate attributes. Nature
vs. Nurture.
Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 3
4 major emotions
1. mad
2. sad
3. glad
4. scared
Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt (1880’s)
Leipzig, Germany
Structure of consciousness
Introspection
Edwaard Titchener, Cornell
Functionalism
William James
Late 1800’s
Influenced by Darwin
Studied functions of the mind
Not its elements
Introspection
Dewey, Hall
Gestalt Psychology
Wertheimer, Kohler, Kofka
Germany early 1900’s
“the whole is more than the sum of its parts”
Studied perceptual phenomena
Perceptual demonstrations phi
Phenomenom
Insight (Sultan the Chimpanzee with Kohler on island)
Gestalt in Germany means form
Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud, Vienna late 1800’s
Studied abnormal behavior
Emphasis on unconscious determinants of behavior and importance of childhood in
determining “personality”
Psychotherapy
Jung, Rank, Horney, Anna Freud, Adler, Brill
Father of personality theory and psychotherapy
Behaviorism
Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 4
Humanistic Psychology
Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, Perls
Emphasis on growth of “self” and notion that people are basically perfectable and have
natural tendency towards personal growth
“self-actualization”
Psychotherapy
Individual Differences
B=f (R)
Scientific Method
Hypothesis – a testable prediction or proposition that attempts to explain some observable
phenomena
Theory- An attempt to fit all the currently known facts about a subject into an integrated
and logical whole
Theoretical construct -> operational contruct -> study -> findings -> theoretical construct
Correlation Method – something related to something (as height goes up so does weight),
scatter plot, correlation range from 0 (no relation) to 1.0 (perfect relationship), NOT
causation, correlation lets us predict, correlation does not mean causation
Types of Psychologists
57 Areas
Clinical/counseling
Industrial/organizational
School
Cognitive and learning
Sensation and perception
Social/personality
Developmental
Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 6
Applied
Health behavior medicine
Biopsychology
Basic Research (in lab) – What causes the way things are?
Applied Research (in real world) – What causes the way things should be?
As we evolved from Apes, our frontal lobes developed and brain box got bigger.
-nervous system
-endocrine system
Nervous System
Peripheral
Central Nervous
Nervous System
System (CNS)
(PNS)
Sympathetic
Nervous System
(arousing)
Parasympathetic
Nervous System
(Calming)
Autonomic Nervous System
Parasympathetic Sympathetic
Division Division
Relax Fight or Flight
Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 7
Types of Neurons
Cell body
Dendrites – pick up information for neuron
Axon – send information
Axon terminal is the final sender. Myelin sheath surrounds most axons to insulate it and
speed transmission. If axon is cut, it may grow back if myelin sheath is in tact. A neuron
itself will not grow back. Axons know where to grow to because of myelin sheath.
Dendrites – toward the cell body; Generator Potentials (bow and arrow); don’t fire just
building potential
Axon – away from cell body, action potentials (rifle), myelin (sometimes)
Neurotransmitters – a chemical, at the end of axon called axon terminal like little buttons,
there is a space between axon terminal and next dendrite (synapse), terminal buttons
release and chemicals flow into synapse and like lock and key stimulate next neurons
Hindbrain
Midbrain
Forebrain
Cerebral Cortex
Language areas
Broca’s Area
Werhicke’s Area
We have the same brain as lizards and rats, but ours is more complicated.
Endocrine System
Chemical Communication
Glands produce chemicals that flow through blood stream that affect body. Main one is
pituitary gland. Adrenal gland produces adrenaline. Thyroid gland affects metabolism.
Parathyroid affects calcium level. The pancreas handles sugar level.
Somatic
Psychoanalysis
Trait
Learning
Situational
It is study of personality based on the body. People change their bodies because they
believe it will change their interactions with the world. Bodybuilding.
William H. Sheldon
1898-1977 Harvard
Somatotyping
3 Body Types
People would rate picture and see if their was a relationship between personality.
Somatotyping didn’t really work but it kept alive the biological basis for personality.
Risk Taking
Trait Approach
Allport – cardinal (can’t change), central (possible to change), secondary (change all the
time); proprium: sense of self, unifying core of personality
Cattell – factor analysis, 16 source trait dimensions, 16 pf, pf = personality factor 16 pf,
pf = personality factor
Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 11
unstable
extra
intro
stable
Humanistic Approach
Carl Rogers
People always tend to be perfect. If they don’t, there is a block in the environment.
Most never
get past the Esteem Needs
esteem and
belongingnes
s levels
Belongingness Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
Sigmund Freud
1856-1939
Psychoanalysis
Mesmerism (hypnosis)
1. some exceptions
2. spontaneous recurrence
3. symptom substitution
Freud got abnormal behavior into psychology. He found cocaine did not cure hysteria.
Talked to Charcot about mesmerizing hysteria patients. Mesmerism had problems. There
were exceptions. Mesmerism is merely suggestions. Its affect did not last and there were
frequent symptom substitutions. Freud found that mesmerism did not work and there was
something deeper in personality causing problem. Franz Anton Mesmer was the first
hypnotist.
Joseph Breurer
Vienna
“talking cure”
“studies of hysteria” 1896
“Anna O.” aka Bertha Pappenkim
Psychoanalysis
Iceberg analogy
1. Id
a. libido “pleasure principle”
b. inherited biological needs and instincts
c. source of mental (psychic) energy
d. operates according to pleasure principle
e. ineffective in dealing with the outside world, in the unconscious
2. Superego
a. conscience
b. sense of right and wrong
c. internalized norms, rules, parent’s wishes
d. “Ego ideal”
e. Not reality oriented (can’t always turn other cheek)
3. Ego
a. “reality principle”
b. Self identity
c. Mediates between id and superego
d. Connection to the world
e. Its underdevelopment is typically cause of emotional disorders
Psychosexual Stages
1. Oral Stage – birth through 2 yrs. – Fixations at oral stage = oral dependent or oral
aggressive
2. Anal Stage – 2 through 4 yrs. – fixations at anal stage = anal retentive (ocd) or
anal expulsive (slobs)
Each stage, your ego gets stronger and stronger. Environments holds people up at stages.
Freud’s contributions
2. importance of conflict
3. biological basis of behavior
4. emphasis on childhood
5. ego defense mechanisms
6. significant writings
7. important disciples (“The Secret Committee” each member given a ring)
1. denial
2. repression
3. regression
4. projection
5. rationalization
6. compensation
7. reaction formation
8. identification
9. atonement
10. sublimation * (Only positive one) ( you take sex drive and put the energy into
something else. You can do this and not get into trouble)
A lot of Freud’s concepts are not testable. Carl Jung was his main disciple.
Carl Jung
1875-1961
Emphasized introversion and extraversion
Alfred Adler
Karen Horney
1885-1952
1. Neo-Freudian
2. need for security, not sex or aggression
Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 16
3. basic anxiety
Otis Rank
1. Birth trauma
Behavioral Theories
B.F. Skinner
Albert Bandura
1. observational learning
2. “Bo-Bo-doll” studies
3. modeling (seeing consequences or behaviors of others and behaving similarly)
a. the model
b. the motivational state
c. the opportunity
4. children often model bad examples
1. Objective
a. Person a measures person b
b. Rating scale
2. Subjective
a. Interview (you tell others about you)
Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 17
3. Projective
a. Project personality onto something
b. Rorschach ink blots
i. Themes over a number of cards with ink blots
c. Thematic Apperception Test
i. Not ink blots but actual pictures
ii. With picture, you have to tell what is going on