Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 1

(9/22)
Motivation
Why do we need the concept?
Sometimes same stimulus leads to different responses.
Sometimes different stimuli lead to same response.

Stimulus ---------Organism----------Response

Emotions

Energize behavior\motivators
Direct behavior

Elements of an emotion
1. stimulus
2. conscious experience
3. physiological arousal
4. behavior

Where do emotions come from?

*Dames-Lange Theory
A stimulus
A perception
A message to the body
The body responds
A message to the brain
Person is aware of the body changes

Emotion: the awareness of the bodily changes

*Cannon-Bard Theory
A stimulus
A perception
A message to an emotion center in the brain
Person experiences emotion

Emotion: bodily responses not important

*Schacther an Singer
A stimulus
A perception
A message to an emotion center in the brain
Person experiences emotion but…..
Also a message to the body
 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 2

The body responds

A message to brain

Emotion: Brain interprets bodily sensory

Browns Propoisitions on Fear

1. Fear an innate response to some stimulu (loud noise, loss of support)
2. Fear can be conditioned to many stimuli (Watson and Rayner: Albert)
3. Conditioned fear will generalize
4. Fear has motivating characteristics
5. Fear produces internal stimuli that can be associated with other stimuli and
responses

(9/26)
Theoretical Conceptions of Aggression

Aggression as Innate

I. Freud
a. “death instinct” redirected

II. Lorenz
a. “fighting instinct” disperses populations

III. sociobiology (Wilson)

a. aggression was adaptive

Drive Theories

External conditions such as frustration give rise to motive to hurt.

Example: Wal-mart parking lot, last spot being taken

Two Kinds of Goals

I. Goals you want to move forward -> graduation

II. Goals you want to move away from -> wearing seat belt

Positive and Negative Goals

 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 3

Block
Positive Goal

Block
Negative Goal

When a goal is blocked, you get frustrated.

Frustration – negative emotion that happens when a goal is blocked. Frustration leads to
aggression.

Conflict occurs when the goal blocker is a person’s behavior. Not the person, but their
behavior

Types of Conflict

I. Conflicts over resources

II. Conflicts over behavior

a. You want someone to start something

b. You want someone to stop something
c. Someone wants you to start something
d. Someone wants you to stop something

Attempts to Remove Frustration

I. Remove the frustrator

II. Remove the goal

III. Evacuate the scene

Types of Aggression
 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 4

I. Outward (displacement) (placing on someone else)

II. Inward

III. Ignore (major civilization skill) (Having dad in house helps)

Unemployed husbands are more frustrated so the severity of domestic violence with them
is high.

Conflict

I. Competing response tendencies

II. Conflict is frustrating

III. Goals as positive or negative

IV. Types of Conflict (Kurt Lewin)

a. Approach – Approach (Between 2 good things, not seen in therapy)

b. Avoidance – Avoidance (Between 2 negative goals)

c. Approach – Avoidance ( have good but you add negative component to it.
You add anxiety, fear, or guilt. Seen in therapy. Example you get job at
top of Clark Tower but you are scared of elevators.)

d. Double Approach – Avoidance (2 goals both positive that you add

negative aspects to)

(9/29)
Stress

I. Stress
a. body’s response to stressors

II. Stressors
a. Physiological or psychological threat to body

The worst stressors are those that last many many years.

Drill sergeant prepares people to deal with stress.

Two Approaches to Stress

 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 5

I. Change attitude about it

II. Change something about the situation

Stressors can be positive. Being really excited can be a physiological stressor.

Stress Reduction

Social Learning Theories

Agression is a learned social behavior that can be altered. (Children see that aggression
and violence lead to “desirable” outcomes. Even if those outcomes have consequences, it
doesn’t matter because we only pay attention to immediate re-inforcement)

Learning

Ultimate and proximate causes

Learning is relatively permanent change in behavior or behavior potential that results

from experience.

Instinct is an unlearned complex behavior pattern (building a web).

Humans have unlearned reflexive behavior but no instincts.

Critical Period is the period of time after birth when an instinct kicks in. Baby ducks
believe the first thing that moves near them is their mother.

Reflex arc is a behavior that is not learned, but not complex. (Feeling something hot.)

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist

Discovered classical conditioning while studying dogs saliva in 1927. Found he didn’t
have to put food in dogs mouth after while to get saliva.

(Example: Girl associates sex with anxiety because strict dad who would pull panties
down and spank her.)

Something + Food = Salivation

 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 6

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) (food) elicits salivation, but Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
(tone) does not.

CS is pairs with UCS.

After while

CS alone elicits salivation.

(10/1)
Classical conditioning is done at the reflexive level. Neutral stimulus is paired with the
unconditioned stimulus to elicit the unconditioned response. After while, neutral stimulus
elicits the unconditioned response without presence of unconditioned stimulus. The
neutral stimulus is now the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned response is now
the conditioned response.

Classical Conditioning Paradigm

Unconditioned stimulus  unconditioned response

Conditioned stimulus + unconditioned stimulus  unconditioned response

Conditioned stimulus  conditional response

In psychology, a lot of emotions are classically conditioned.

Acquisition is the progressive increase in strength of a conditioned response with

presentation of CS and UCS.

Extinction is the progressive decrease in strength in a previously conditioned response

with presentation of the CS only.

Spontaneous Recovery is the recurrence of a previously extinguished response after a

period of rest. The recurrence is not as strong as the initial acquisition.

Speaking in public - audience is cs and there is not ucs

If you want to get over it, you have to speak in public. If you won’t do that, you can start
by just standing in front a large group of people.

Stimulus generalization is when a response classically conditioned to a particular cs will

be elicited by a similar cs.

I. Classical Conditioning
a. Involves the temporal relationship between two stimuli
b. Involves simple reflexive response
c. The response does not have an effect on the outcome
 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 7

Instrumental Learning

I. Instrumental Learning (operative learning)

a. Involves the relationship between a response and the stimulus that follows
b. The response has an effect on the outcome

I. Instrumental Conditioning
a. Thorndike’s Puzzle Box (Cat, string, door open, food outside)
b. Trial and error learning (Cat takes time to pull string)
c. Thorndike’s “law of effect”
i. If behavior is followed by a reward it will increase the probability
that the behavior will occur again. If the behavior is followed by a
negative it will decrease the probability that the behavior will
occur again.

Therefore…

What causes behavior?

The Behaviorist’s perspective

Behavior is determined by its natural and probably consequences.

Skinner: “Selection by consequences”

No free will.

In other words….

Behavior is motivated by the perceived events and conditions that follow it.

Importance of “perceieved”

Example: The TN lottery (a tax on the stupid)

A – B – C Model

Antecedents are persons, places, things, or events occurring before a behavior that
encourage a person to perform a behavior.

Behavior is any behavior.

Consequences are the events that follow behavior and change the probability that the
behavior will occur again.

Antecedents only work when they signal consequences.

 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 8

Behaviorists believe that consequences are what determine behavior.

Antecedents are valuable only to the extent that that signal those consquences.

The problem with Humanism

Humanism = people believe that people grow towards perfection

Implication = an over-emphasis on antecedents and under-emphasis on consequences.

(10/3)
Types of Consequences

Rewards: Positive
Events and conditions that strengthen behavior.

Penalties: Negative
Events and conditions that weaken behavior.

Rewards and penalties defined by the recipient.

4 Consequences of Behavior

Increase behavior

-get something you want (positive reinforcement)

-avoid or escape something you don’t want (negative reinforcement) (example: be on

time or you are fired)

Decrease Behavior

-Get something you don’t want (Positive Punishment bc you are given something)

-Don’t get something you want (extinction) (negative punishment)

Controlling Behavior

4 ways

Positive Stimulus Aversive Stimulus

 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 9

Positive Positive
Reinforcement Punishment
Present (apply)

Negative Negative
Punishment Reinforcement
Withdraw

When controlling behavior, do I have the consquences and do you have the behavior
in your repotr.

When someone is killed or capital punishment, they are punished. Punishment only
happens when you decrease the likelihood that someone will behave a certain way.

Capital punishment = negative reinforcement

How positive reinforcement is different from the rest

Usually tried first

Usually associated with glad

Positive reinforcement will maximize performance

For the other three, a person will do only enough to avoid the negative consequences
(and do it as late as possible).

The other three are usually cheaper.

3 types of tangible reinforcement

Tangible – money
Social – spending time with someone
Activity – allow someone to engage in an activity

Combination of consequences usually best, not just positive reinforcement

Positive reinforcement = dutch urinal aim at fake fly to reduce messy bathrooms

The Power of Immediate Consequences

They have an excessive influence on behavior

 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 10

The Contingency Trap is being controlled by the immediate consequences although

the consequences down the road are bigger. (Example: Smoking)

Platt’s “Social Trap Theory” (1973)

Biggest reinforcers are soon, certain, and sizable

Wisdom is making decisions in the short-term that will have positive consequences in
the long term.

Foolishness is responding to the contingency trap.

Most powerful consequences are soon, certain, and sizable.

(10/6)
Categorizing Consequences

Positive/Negative = P/N

Immediate/In the Future = I/F

Certain/Uncertain = C/U
The most effective consequences are PIC and NIC. The least effective consequences
are NFU and PFU.

Never ask someone why they did something. Ask what happens to someone when
they do something.

If you can’t enforce consequences you are NOT the consequence manager.

Importance of Reinforcement History

Past experiences with rewards and punishments.

Burrhus Frederic Skinner

Harvard
Operant Conditioning
Operant Chamber/Skinner box

Instrumental Conditioning

Trial and error learning?

Or
 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 11

Behavior shaping?
(rewarding partially correct behavior)

Behavior shaping – reinforcing successive approximations.

What does it mean to be responsible for your behavior?

(10/8)
Important Dimensions of Consequences

I. Magnitude
II. Dimension
III. Timing

Schedules of Reinforcements

Continuous reinforcement (CFR) – everytime you do it, you get rewarded

Intermittent reinforcement (INT) – don’t reward every response

Types of Intermittent reinforcement

I. Fixed
a. Fixed Ratio (FR)
b. Fixed Interval (FV)
II. Variable
a. Variable Ratio (VR)
b. Variable Interval (VI)

Ratio strainis too much or too little VR or VI.

Social Learning Theory

Observational Learning

What is required for modeling? (The Model, a conucive motivational state, and an
opportunity)

Sexual Behavior

Why do psychologists study sexual behavior? It is a major problem brought into therapy.
(Ex. Inhibited sexual syndrome, sexual dysfunction, and sexual identity problems)

Abnormal (harmful) sexual behaviors

Rape, sexual assault, harassment

 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 12

Excessive promiscuity
AIDS and STDS
Teen pregnancy

(10/10)
Not putting sexual behavior in perspective

Separating sex from affection and commitment

Two Sources

I. Topless joints, pornography, movies, TV, ads, access to infected peers

II. Inhibited (non-parenting) parents – 11% talk to kids about sexuality. By

talking, what are they “saying”? How can sexual behavior be reconnected
with love, affection, and commitment?

Methods of Studying Sexual Behavior

I. Survey Techniques (Alfred Kinsey 1950s)

II. Observational Studies (Masters and Johnson 1960s) (700 men and women age
18-89 mostly married)

III. Problems – are voluntary represenatives? Lab setting can be artificial, ehthical
concerns prohibit some research.

Sexual Response Cycle *Book

*plateau
*about 1/3 of women achieve orgasms

(10/13)
Sex and education? Once a week. In general, the more education the less sex. Those who
have been to grad school = 52 acts.

Teen Pregnancy – over 500,000, major cause of poverty

Managing Adolescent Sexuality

Who’s supposed to do it?

Can manage it
Parents give up and monitor adolescents
Schools asked to teach: knowledge, decision making, abstinence, skill development
 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 13

When parents are involved

Unfortunately abstinence only programs do not result in abstinence. Kids are 3 times
more likely to use condoms after them though. Adolescents who use condoms first are 20
times more likely to later.

(10/15)
Abortion

Other cultural practices

Female genital mutilation

Chlitoridectomies “to control womens sexual desires and keep them virtuous.”

Psychosexual Disorders

Any problem that persistently prevents a person from engaging in sexual relations or
from reaching orgasm during sex.

Male erectile disorder: primary, secondary

Premature ejaculation
Inhibited male orgasm
Vaginismus
Inhibited female orgasm: primary, secondary
Surviving Marriage

Do opposites attract? Generally no, people similar do

Partner either a pouter or a nagger – nagger better because they at least communicate

Nothing accomplished pouting

Predicting Marital Success

Some factors

I. Past/Present problems with alcohol or drugs

II. Past/Present aggression/abuse problems

III. Past unsuccessful marriages/relationships

IV. Past experience with handling stress

V. Single parent upbringing (lack of spousal models)

 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 14

VI. Product of dysfunctional home (lack of spousal model)

VII. Adult relationship with parents

VIII. How disagreements are handled? ****

(10/17)
More Factors

I. ability to articulate feelings

II. scripts from childhood: how does the person relate to parents

III. development of self identity Me-You-Us

IV. Age (too young) (too different)

V. Finances, not enough

VI. Degree of similarity in: outlook, values, the way process the world, expression
of feelings, attitudes, attitudes towards sex, expectations

VII. Method of processing/handling anger

When the wolf comes to the door, the dove flies out the window.

Secrets to success

I. Understanding male and female communication differences

a. Male: rational, hierarchical
b. Female: relational

II. Understanding pursuer – distancer relationship

III. Understanding “change-change back” and the real marriage vows

IV. Intimacy and self identity are not mutually exclusive

V. Understanding different types of love: Agape (unconditional, true love), Eros

(erotic, sexual love), Philos (brotherly love, like people who like you), storge
(just comfortable in relationship, don’t want to rock the boat)

Early in marriage in eros. Others develop through the years. Or you should hope they do.
Marriage becomes better than ever when children leave house.
 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 15

(10/20)
Psychological & Behavioral Disorders

*Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV

Approaches toward abnormality

-biomedical model (people as physical systems that are products of evolution)

- psychoanalytical model (people as energy systems)

-cognitive behavioral model (people as information-processing systems)

Causes of Disorders

Humanistic – Incongruence between one’s actual self and public self as a consequence of
trying to live up to the demands of others.

Diasthesis Stress- a biological predisposition interacting with stressful life experiences.

Anxiety Disorders

I. Generalized Anxiety Disorders

a. Source of anxiety unknown

II. Panic Disorder

a. Panic Attacks

III. Phobia Disorders

a. Specific, irrational fear of object

IV. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

a. Obsessive thoughts
b. Compulsive behavior

V. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

a. 10% female, 5% male
b. Sleep problems
c. Lose appetite and sexual drive
d. Self doubts
e. Problems concentrating
f. Crying, depression
g. Over diagnosed, fad diagnosis
h. Cure is talking about traumatic in group immediately afterwards about
how it made you feel
 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 16

2 kinds of anxiety disorders

OCD – negative reinforcement
OCD – Everything orderly, get anxious when not in control

(10/22)
Somatoform Disorders (psychological disorders with some physical link)

I. Hypochondriasis – obsession with being sick or unhealthy

II. Conversion Disorder – (Freud called hysteria) symptoms that appear to have a
physical basis but don’t: blindness, deafness, lameness, anesthesia. Negatively
reinforced

III. Anorexia Nervosa (related to OCD)

a. The highest mortality rate of all psychological disorders.

b. Their eating is the one part of their life they can control
c. Changing concepts of “feminine”
d. Distorted body image
e. Causes?
i. Desire for control?
ii. Trying to be noticed?

IV. Bulimia
a. Eat and purge (princess dianna)
b. Is there help?
i. Stop reinforcing (catch early)
ii. Stop enabling
iii. Hospitalization
iv. Constant vigilance

(10/24)
Dissociative Disorders (dissociate self from current life or personality) (negatively
reinforced)

I. Amnesia and Fugue

a. forgetting
b. leaving

II. Multiple Personality

a. “The Three Faces of Eve”
b. NOT Schizophrenia
c. Develop different identities
 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 17

Most dissociative disorders have anxiety underpinning.

Substance Abuse Disorders

Psychological or Physiological?

Disease?

VERY HARD TO FIX!

STAY AWAY FROM PEOPLE WITH THESE DISORDERS!

Not much sense in debating psychological or physiological addiction. It makes no

difference. Calling it a disease makes finding solutions easier.

Symptoms
1. progressive (you drink more today than you did six months ago)
2. denial
3. defense
4. reduction of productivity

The floor for drunks is death. You have to raise the floor for them. They like people
around them that deny they are drunks and enable them. Very Co-dependent. They find
excuses. They will shop around for someone who will enable them.

50% first time DUI offenders are alcoholics

92% second time offenders are alcoholics

Using your cell phone in the car is equal to being drunk because it divides your attention.

(10/27)

Why drunks can’t walk?

Alcohol messes with balance center of the brain in the cerebellum.

Treatment – prognosis is not good

Most of the talk out of a drunks mouth is useless, they may believe what they are saying
at the time however.

Send to hospital for 6 weeks

After they leave hospital, they need to attend AA twice a week. (AA never uses the word
cure)

Problem is you can’t make someone go to the hospital. Spouse or boss are the two people
that can influence someone enough to make them go. Those that don’t leave are co-
 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 18

dependent on the drunk psychologically. When someone does finally leave the drunk,
they find someone else who will enable them.

(10/29)
Psychological and Behavioral Disorders cont’d

Personality Disorders
I. Moderate Impairment
a. Dependent
b. Histrionic
i. Overly emotional
c. Narcissistic
i. Totally focused on self
d. Anti-social
i. MOST DANGEROUS IN DSM-IV
ii. Old psychopathic and sociopathic personality
iii. They have no super ego
iv. Impulsive, inadequately motivated behavior
v. Lack of conscience
vi. No depth of feeling
vii. Unable to learn from experience
viii. Able to maintain pleasant, impressive exterior
ix. Boston Strangler, Charles Manson, Jeffrey Dahmer
x. They are not crazy or insane
xi. They are not treatable.
II. High Impairment
a. Obsessive-compulsive behavior
i. No anxiety associated with it
b. Passive-aggressive
i. Keeps head down and they don’t look at people
ii. Used when active aggression might get someone in trouble
c. Schizoid
i. Less and less contact with other people
d. Avoidant
i. Avoid other people but not because you are depressed
ii. Not anti-social, anti-social people can carry on a conversation
III. Severe Impairment
a. Borderline
i. delusional
b. Paranoid
i. Will not listen to logic
c. Schizotypal

As you go down the line of personality disorders from moderate, high, to sever; each
disorder is one step closer schizophrenia or being totally insane.
 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 19

Psychosexual Disorders
Two branches: Sexual Dysfunction and Paraphilias

I. Sexual Dysfunctions
a. Desire phase problems
i. “inhibited sexual desire”
b. excitement phase problems
i. Erections (Viagra)
ii. Vaginismus
1. vagina hurts when having sex
c. orgasmic phase problems
i. Premature orgasm
ii. Retarded orgasm
II. Paraphilias (Literally means close to love)
a. Not dangerous, and generally cause no harm
i. Fetishism
1. sexual attraction to a non-sexual body part or object
ii. voyeurism
1. people looking at people naked or getting undressed
2. introverted, too introverted to get relationships of their own
iii. frotteurism
1. thrill out of bumping into someone and touching someone
with the bump
2. very inhibited
iv. exhibitionism
1. thrill out of exposing own bodies
2. they like drive-bys
3. has to be motivated sexually
b. Harmful and more disconnected
i. Transvestic Fetishism
1. wearing the clothes of the opposite sex
2. mostly male
3. culture allows females to wear men’s clothes
ii. sadism
1. thrill out of inflicting pain on someone
2. do not mix well with masochist because they like when the
person does not want the pain
iii. masochism
1. thrill out of having pain inflicted on themselves
iv. pedophilia
1. thrill from sexualizing kids
v. Beastiality
1. thrill from having sex with animals
2. a lot of vanerial diseases arose from people having sex with
animals
vi. Transsexualism
 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 20

1. cross-sex
2. they believe that they are trapped in the body of the
opposite sex
3. have tremendous drive to surgically change their sex
vii. Necrophelia
1. sexual attraction to dead bodies
2. a lot of rape/murders are actually murder/rapes because
people enjoy having sex with dead bodies

Paraphilias lack the normal I like you and you like me. The prognosis is not good for
helping them. Homosexuality used to be in the list but society didn’t want to call it a
disorder. It is not normal, but not abnormal like the others. Homosexuals are very
promiscuous.

Rape and Sexual Assault (It’s a behavior and not a disorder)

Not a category in DSM

Two kinds of rapists: those that gain your “confidence” before the act and those that
“blitz” you. With the confidence rapist, the woman is a “victim” and thought she was
friends with a guy. With the blitz rape, the woman did not know the person and was not a
participant.

Types of Rapists
1. Power Rapists – don’t treat women as people, think women enjoy it most of the
time. Most rapists are power rapists. They plan it all out.
2. Anger Rapists – do the act because they are angry at the world. They are easy to
catch because they don’t plan it out. These are the most fixable.
3. Sadistic Rapists – Boston Strangler. Rape women because they enjoy seeing them
in pain. It turns them on sexually.

(10/31)

Paraphilias in anti-social league but it’s not a category but a behavior.

Violence in the home: The problem of domestic violence.

Do you know someone who is a victim of domestic violence?

Women from 7th grade through the second year of marriage are often the aggressors

Aggression always takes place in context

What are some indicators?

(Avoid jealous people)

It is the victims fought

 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 21

Its not jealous persons fought because they are nutty.

Isolated
No control
Low self – esteem

The progression of violence

Pre-battery volience – hitting walls

Beginning levels – pushing

Moderate levels – slapping

Severe levels – choking, rape, murder

When battering occurs

Heavy involvement occurs

Best to get out of relationship but seek help in doing so

Target-Hardening Potential Victim

Violence occurs in context

Examine the context

There is a lot of domestic violence in lesbian relationships.

Criminal Insanity

System of justice based on free will. Everyone is free to do good and evil.

Mens Rea = guilty mind, guilty intent.

Mens Rea + Doing the crime = guilt

You will be punished so you do penitence. (You go to penitentiary)

Someone crazy does not have free will. Psychiatrists test person.

Who is criminally insane?

- lack the cognitive capacity to know right and wrong (usually certain
psychotics)
- temporary insanity
- temporary diminished responsibility
(last two are used very little today)
 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 22

(to be found insane, you almost always have to schizophrenic)

Schizophrenia

“Split from reality”

When your reality check bounces.

I. Major Symptoms
a. Cognitive
i. Fragmented, illogical thinking
ii. Illusion of vaguely associated thoughts into speech
iii. Info-processing disturbances
iv. Lowered intellectual ability
v. Delusions
vi. Disoriented as to time and space
b. Emotional (affect)
i. Flat affect
ii. Ambivalence
c. Perceptual
i. Hallucinations
ii. Twisted and distorted perception of body
d. social
i. catatonic (doesn’t move)
ii. withdrawn, self-absorbed
iii. generally, not in contact with reality

II. Major classifications of schizophrenia

a. Disorganized
i. Inappropriate behavior and emotions
ii. Incoherent speech, disorganized thoughts
iii. “hebephrenic”
b. catatonic
i. withdrawal
ii. motor behavior is frozen and rigid
c. paranoid
i. delusions of persecution or grandeur
ii. hallucinations
d. undifferentiated ***
i. mixed set of symptoms
ii. most commonly used diagnosis in court
e. residual
i. showed symptoms at point in life but no longer does
ii. currently no psychotic symptoms

Major Depressions
 Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes Two 23

We know the gene that causes bipolar.

I. Unipolar Disorder
a. Severe depression
II. bipolar disorder (manic depression)
a. sever depression
b. mania (extreme elation)

Individuals with bipolar take lithium. It masks symptoms, doesn’t cure them. Bipolar not
cognitively as bad as schizophrenia.

People tend to commit suicide when on the way out of depression. In depths, they lack
the energy to go through with it. On the way up, they tell themselves they never want to
go so low again and kill themselves.