PSB2000 Exam 1 Lecture Summary C.

Robison Instructor
Page 1 of 14

Lecture 2: Genes and Behavior
It is evident that a great deal of an animals behavior (including that of humans) is dependent upon
genetic factors. This is because genes code for proteins, which determine the function of cells. The
function of neurons in the CNS is what determines behavior. Therefore, genes influence behavior
but do not directly cause it.
Basic Genetics
Behavior is adaptive. Behaviors persist because they helped our ancestors survive.
o Those ancestors passed on their genes to us.
o Those shared genes shape and otherwise influence our brains.
Genes are stored as DNA in the nucleus of our cells.
o DNA is bundled into units called chromosomes.
o DNA codes for proteins complex workhorse biomolecules inside our cells.
o The DNA must be transcribed into copies of RNA molecules, which go outside of the
nucleus.
o These RNA templates are then translated into proteins.
You have two copies of each of your genes one from mom and one for dad.
o You get one copy of each chromosome from each parent.
If you have two copies of the same gene (i.e., mom and dad both gave you
the same gene), you are homozygous.
If the gene copies are different, you are heterozygous.
o Dominant traits are those that express in the heterozygous condition.
Ex: if you have one gene copy for brown hair and one copy for blond hair,
you will have brown hair since the brown gene is dominant.
o Recessive traits are those that express only in the homozygous condition.
Ex: if you have blue eyes, you must have received a copy of the blue-eyed
gene from each parent because the blue gene is recessive.
When DNA is transcribed to RNA, it is called gene expression.
When RNA is translated to protein, it is called protein expression.
Behavioral Genetics
You can tell if a behavioral trait is heritable (passed on through genes) by observing its
expression in families.
Twin studies are especially popular.
o Example: Examine identical versus fraternal twins.
Both identical and fraternal twins share the same environment.
But identical twins have 100% of the same gene but fraternal twins only
have 50%.
Traits that are more correlated between identical twins probably have a
genetic component.
There are some confounding effects (systematic problems) in twin studies:
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o Shared prenatal environment may account for some of the similarities.
o The multiplier effect may amplify small initial behavior differences.
Some traits are sex-linked. This means the gene for that trait is located on one of the sex
chromosomes (usually the X chromosome).
o One example is a form of red-green color-blindness.
Its gene is located on the X chromosome.
Females have 2 X chromosomes, so they are only color-blind if they have
two copies on the gene one on each X.
Males have only one X chromosome, so they are color-blind if they have one
copy of the gene, since they only get one copy via the X.
Some genes are sex-limited. These genes are present in both sexes but require something
that is present in only one of the sexes.
o For example, the genes for baldness can be present in both males and females.
o Baldness requires high circulating testosterone.
o Since females dont have high testosterone, they dont develop baldness, even if
they have the gene.
Epigenetics
Ultimately, it is gene expression that determines the heritability of traits.
You can change gene expression by making DNA more or less accessible.
o This is called epigenetics.
One example is high licking and grooming (HLG) versus low licking and grooming (LLG) rats.
o HLG rats have pups that grow up to be HLG and LLG rats have LLG pups.
o If you take a pup from an LLG mother and give it to an HLG mother, she will grow up
to be HLG.
But if you block epigenetics, you block this change and she will be LLG just like
her real mom.
Epigenetics is different from genetics since there is no actual change to the DNA, only how
the DNA is accessed by the cell.


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Lecture 3: Cells of the Nervous System
Cells are the basic building blocks of all tissues of the body, including the nervous system. The cells of
the nervous system can be broadly divided into two classes of cells: neurons, the main signaling units of
the nervous system, and glia, the main support cells.
Introduction to Cells
All cells have several distinct internal structures called organelles. The organelles include:
o The nucleus, a membrane-enclosed area where the DNA is located. The DNA is what
codes for most of a cells biochemical properties.
o The cell membrane, which keeps the inside of the cell separate from the outside and
controls the movement of molecules in and out.
o The mitochondria, which act as the cells main fuel producers.
o The endoplasmic reticulum which regulates the production and transport of proteins.
Each type of cells (e.g. muscle, neuron, liver) is distinct because the DNA in that cell expresses a
certain subset of its genes.
o Different genes = different tissue types.
o This causes different cell types to be shaped and behave differently.
The cell membrane controls the transport of ions.
o Only small, chargeless molecules (e.g., water and oxygen) can pass the membrane
without help.
o Ions are charged and need the help of special ion channels in the cell membrane to
cross.
Sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+), Chloride (Cl-), and Calcium (Ca2+) ion movement
is important to the function of all cells, especially neurons.
Neurons
Neurons are the cells responsible for conducting signals and processing info in the nervous
system (NS).
o They receive signals from other cells, process the info, and relay their signals to other
areas.
There are many different subtypes of neurons.
o They are categorized by their size, shape, neurotransmitters, and membrane receptors.
o Neurons connect into networks to perform complex calculations.
In addition to the normal organelles, neurons have several special features.
o Dendrites are long branchlike projections that get signals from other neurons.
Dendrite means tree they are shaped like branches.
They receive signals from the axon terminals of other neurons.
o Signals pass through the main body of the cell, called the soma.
The soma acts as the cells support system.
o The axon hillock is where the decision to activate the neuron is made.
o The axon is a long projection that the neurons action potential (signal) travels down.
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Some axons are insulated by a special substance called the myelin sheath. This
increases the speed of action potentials.
o The axon ends at the axon terminal, which forms the first part of the synapse.
This is the basic cycle of a neurons activity:
o Signals are received at the dendrite.
o Current from those signals travels through the soma.
o The decision to fire is made at the axon hillock.
o The action potential (signal) travels down the axon
o The action potential releases neurotransmitters into a synapse.
o This sends a signal to the dendrites of another neuron.
Glial Cells
Glia (glial cells) are mostly the support cells for the nervous system. There are three main types.
Astroglia provide nutrient support and maintain the blood-brain barrier (BBB).
o They are what let nutrients enter and wastes leave.
o Only water-soluble molecules can cross the BBB.
Microglia are small glial cells that act as the brains immune system.
Oligodendrocytes are special cells that form the myelin sheath around axons.
o Schwann Cells perform this task in the peripheral nervous system.

Note: The neuron doctrine was advanced by Santiago Ramon y Cajal. This doctrine states that
the brain is made out of individual cells called neurons and that they communicate chemically
via synapses. This theory is the basis for early modern neuroscience.

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Lecture 4: The Action Potential and the Cell Membrane
An action potential (AP) is the electrochemical signal that travels down the axons of a neuron to send
signals to another cell at the synapse. The unique properties of the neurons cell membrane are what let
this signal travel down the neuron. An action potential is caused by the movement of small charged
molecules called ions across the cell membrane.
Resting Potential and Ion Balance
In its resting (inactive) state, neurons have a slightly negative voltage (around -65 to -75
millivolts)
o This means more negative charges are inside than outside.
o Positive charges want to enter the cell to cancel out this charge difference.
This slight negative charge is called the cells polarity.
o If the cell becomes more negative (for instance, if negative ions enter the cell), it
becomes more polarized or hyperpolarized
o If the cell becomes less negative (for instance, if positive ions enter the cell), it becomes
less polarized or depolarized.
Chemicals want to move from areas of high to low concentration. Charged particles (ions) want
to move to regions of opposite charge (opposite charges attract). This is called the
electrochemical gradient.
At resting potential, Sodium (Na+) and Chloride (Cl-) are high outside the cell and Potassium (K+)
is high inside the cell.
Ion Channels and the Membrane Potential
Ion channels are proteins that provide a passageway for specific ions to pass through.
o They are normally closed but can be opened (for example, by a neurotransmitter signal).
Channels that are opened by other molecules are ligand-gated.
Channels that are opened by changes in membrane potential are voltage-gated.
You can change the cells polarity by opening selective ion channels.
o If you open Na+ channels, Na+ molecules flood into the cell, depolarizing it.
Na+ really wants to get into the cell.
o If you open Cl- channels, Cl- molecules flood into the cell, hyperpolarizing it.
o If you open K+ channels, K+ molecules flood out of the cell, hyperpolarizing it.
A sequence of ion channels opening and closing is what causes an action potential.
The Action Potential
The axon hillock has a high concentration of voltage-gated Sodium (Na+) channels.
A signal from another neuron depolarizes the cell at the axon hillock.
o This initial depolarization used ligand-gated Na+ channels.
This depolarization triggers voltage-gated Na+ channels, opening them.
o Na+ floods into the cell.
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o The cell membrane rapidly depolarizes.
This rapid depolarization triggers voltage-gated K+ channels, opening them.
Meanwhile the Na+ channels shut.
o K+ floods out of the cell.
o The cell membrane rapidly hyperpolarizes.
The K+ channels shut and the membrane goes back to its resting state.
You can think of the action potential as two waves, one following after the other:
o A wave of Na+ flooding into the cell, depolarizing the axon and triggering voltage-gated
channels in the next section down the axon.
o A following wave of K+ flooding out of the cell, hyperpolarizing the axon.
When the Na+ channels shut, they need a moment to reset, during which no APs can be fired.
This is the refractory period.
More on the Action Potential
You can measure the AP by sticking an electrode in the axon hillock. You will see four distinct
phases.
o A starting depolarizing hump caused by excitatory signals caused by ligand-gated Na+
channels.
o If the hump is high enough, the threshold for voltage-gated Na+ channels is reached and
the voltage spikes up rapidly.
o When the spike is high enough, the threshold for voltage-gated K+ channels is reached
and the voltage spikes down rapidly.
o During the refractory period something called the Sodium-Potassium pump gradually
returns the membrane to its original balance.
In myelinated axons, the action potential jumps from node to node.
o The nodes of Ranvier are the spaces in between myelin bundles.
o Myelin insulation strengthens the signal so the depolarization of one node can trigger
depolarization at the next node down.
o This is called salutatory conduction.
o This lets signals travel quickly over large distances.

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Lectures 5 7: Neuroanatomy Megablock!
Neuroanatomy is the study of the layout and general functions of different areas of the nervous system.
The nervous system consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. When
discussing neuroanatomy, its often useful to use anatomical directions.
Some Useful Terms
Medial toward the midline of the body (your spine is medial to your hands)
Lateral away from the midline of the body (your shoulders are lateral to your neck)
Anterior in front of (your nose is anterior to your ears).
Posterior behind (your ankles are posterior to your toes).
Dorsal toward the back (your spine is dorsal to your stomach)
Ventral toward the front (your sternum is ventral to your lungs)
Superior on top of (your chin is superior to your belly button)
Inferior below (your knees are inferior to your hips)
Protecting The Brain
The central nervous system (CNS) is protected by three layers of tissue called the meninges.
o The outermost layer is called the dura mater tough mother. It is tough and leathery.
o The middle layer is called the arachnoid mater spider mother. It is formed out of many
weblike filaments and anchors the nervous system (via the pia mater) to the tough dura
mater.
o The bottom layer is called the pia mater close mother. Blood vessels are anchored to
the pia mater, as are the arachnoid fibers.
All empty spaces in the brain are filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
o It is a mixture of salts, nutrients, and wastes.
o This is how food gets into the CNS and waste gets out.
o CSF also acts as a protective buffer for the brain.
The Peripheral Nervous System
The Peripheral NS can be divided into two main groups:
o Somatic nervous system all sensory (e.g., touch, sight, etc.) and motor (movement)
info goes in and out of the somatic system. You are usually aware of this system.
o Autonomic nervous system automatic nervous system activities.
Sympathetic nervous system (SNS) your fight or flight system, responsible
for making energy available and getting you out of danger.
Activates a set of chain ganglia to activate many organ systems at
once in times of stress.
Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) your rest and digest system,
responsible for storing energy and helping you rest.
The SNS and PNS often work opposite to each other but not always.
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Theres also an enteric nervous system in your gut to keep food moving on
through.
All nerve tissue outside the spinal cord, brain, and retina is peripheral nervous system.
The Spine and Cranial Nerves
Sensory signals enter the spinal cord at the back through the dorsal root.
o Sensory cells live in a clump known as the dorsal root ganglion.
o They enter into the dorsal horn of the spine.
Motor (movement) cells live in the ventral horn of the spinal cord.
o These cells send axons out the ventral root to the muscles.
When the sensory and motor fibers converge outside of the spinal cord, they form spinal nerves.
The spine can make complex operations without the brains help.
o For example, spinal reflex arcs that dont require brain input. To wit:
When you tap your knee, a sensor in your leg muscle registers the stretch.
This sends a signal into your spinal cord (via the dorsal root).
This synapses on a motor neuron in the spinal cord.
This sends a signal out of the spinal cord (via the ventral root).
This makes the leg muscle contract to counter the stretch.
Reflex arcs with one synapse (like this one) are monosynaptic. If more neurons
are involved, the arc is polysynaptic.
Signals travel up and down the spine in myelinated bundles of white matter.
Sensory signals that enter through the face and head (e.g., vision, hearing, etc.) go directly to
the brain. So do motor signals that travel out to the face/head.
o These signals are sent through the cranial nerves.
The Primitive Brain
You should know what the following areas do and be able to identify them on a simplified
picture of the CNS.
o Together, the medulla, pons, and midbrain form the brainstem.
o Medulla oblongata right on top of the spinal cord.
Sensory and motor signals go through here on their way to/from the brain.
Responsible for autonomic behaviors (e.g., breathing, heart rate).
o Pons the bridge between the medulla, cerebellum, and higher brain.
Many fibers decussate (cross over) from one side to the other in either the pons
or medulla.
o Midbrain in the middle of the brain (go figure).
Some sensory processing (e.g., visual and auditory reflexes) happen here.
Important centers for reward and movement are located here.
o Cerebellum little brain, the wrinkly bulge at the back of the brainstem.
It is important for motor coordination.
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It compares what you want to do with what you actually do and makes
adjustments.
You can live without it, though your coordination will always stink.
o Thalamus the relay station of the brain that sits atop the brainstem.
Sound, vision, and emotional processing.
Interacts with the hypothalamus.
Is an important part of memory loops with higher brain areas.
o Hypothalamus sits below the thalamus and controls the bodys hormone systems.
Connects to higher brain areas, especially emotional centers.
Connects to the pituitary gland, where it releases hormones out into the blood
stream to control glands. Also controls the SNS and PNS responses.
Important for instinctual behaviors such as feeding, sex, and aggression.
Higher Brain Areas
You should know what the following areas do. I will not ask you to find them on a picture. Note
that many of these areas are actually overlapping systems.
o Basal Ganglia are wrapped around the thalamus/hypothalamus.
Important for fine control of movement and thinking.
Impaired in Parkinson and Huntingtons diseases.
Contains reward and motivation systems.
Lots of connections with the thalamus and cortex.
o The Limbic System are a border system right below the cortex at the brains surface.
Major memory and emotion systems of the brain.
The hippocampus seahorse is important for storing and accessing
many memories.
o Also important for spatial memory & navigation.
The amygdala almond is a major fear and emotion center in the
brain.
o The amygdala activates the cortex when youre in an emotional
state.
o This is why you remember traumatic & emotional events so
well.
o The Cerebral Cortex is the big wrinkly expanse of tissue at the top of the brain. I expect
you to know the four main lobes.
The Cerebral Cortex
It is a thin layer of tissue at the top of the brain.
o Since it is thin, it is wrinkled in humans to increase surface area. This gives us more
cortical processing power.
o It is divided by a central longitudinal fissure.
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The two hemispheres (halves) communicate through a bundle of white matter
(axons) called the corpus callosum.
There are four main lobes to the cortex. You should know a bit about each and be able to locate
them on a picture.
o Frontal Lobe At the front of the brain in front of the central sulcus.
Contains the motor cortex to perform conscious movements.
Is important for logic, working memory, personality.
The prefrontal cortex is large and advanced in humans.
It is the last area of the brain to develop and is important for decision
making.
o Parietal Lobe Just behind the frontal lobe at the top of the brain.
Contains the somatosensory cortex where all touch sensation is processed.
Also important for vision and sound processing.
o Temporal Lobe At the side of the brain just inferior to the parietal lobe.
Contains the auditory cortex for hearing and language.
Important for memory storage, too.
o Occipital Lobe The smallest lobe at the very back of the brain.
The main visual center of the brain. Vision is processed here.
The cortex has six tissue layers.
o Each layer receives input and/or sends output to a different area of the brain.
o Info is processed up and down across these layers in a column.
Some cortical functions are lateralized.
o Language is the most obvious example. It is usually processed by the left hemisphere
only.
Sound is still processed by both hemispheres, but only one does language.
o This is possible because lots of info is sent between each hemisphere through the
corpus callosum.
Each sense gets its own area of cortex for processing called a sensory cortex.
o This info is combined in the association cortices.


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Lecture 8 The Synapse
The synapse is where the real magic of the brain happens. It is how neurons send signals to each other.
The strengthening and weakening of synapses over short or long periods of time are how memories are
formed ad maintained.
Synapse Structure
Synapses are formed by the junction of an axon terminal and a dendrite.
o Many dendrites have little spines knobby projections that jut out toward the axon
terminal.
o The space between the axon and the dendrite is called the synaptic cleft.
The axon terminal is part of the presynaptic cell.
The dendritic spine is part of the postsynaptic cell.
The transmission of a signal from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic cell happens when the
presynaptic cell releases neurotransmitters.
o These neurotransmitters are stored in little bubbles of membrane called synaptic
vesicles.
Receptors in the membrane of the postsynaptic cell receive the neurotransmitters.
Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses
Most synapses (~95%) are either excitatory or inhibitory.
o Excitatory synapses are where neurotransmitters make ligand-gated Sodium (Na+)
channels open. The influx of Na+ depolarizes the membrane.
o Inhibitory synapses are where neurotransmitters make ligand-gated Chloride (Cl-)
channels open. The influx of Cl- hyperpolarizes the membrane.
The membrane depolarization that happens at the postsynaptic cell is called a postsynaptic
potential (PSP).
o This is different from an action potential because it does not happen on the axon and
doesnt involve voltage-gated potassium channels.
o Excitatory postsynaptic potentials are called EPSPs.
o Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials are called IPSPs.
Excitatory and inhibitory signals add up at the axon hillock where the cell decides whether to
fire. These decisions are computed by spatial or temporal summation.
o Spatial summation is where many axons projecting to different parts of the
postsynaptic neuron send their signals at the same time.
o Temporal summation is when one axon sends many fast signals to the postsynaptic
neuron so the PSPs overlap, adding together.
o Thousands of signals may be flooding into a neuron every second. The grand sum of
these signals at the axon hillock determines the activity of the neuron.
If a neuron is already firing, EPSPs will make it speed up and IPSPs will make it slow down.
The Neurotransmitter Cycle
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Neurotransmitters are packaged in vesicles that are docked to (almost touching) the cell
membrane of the axon terminal.
An action potential (AP) makes the vesicles empty neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.
Neurotransmitter binds to receptors on the postsynaptic cell.
This causes an EPSP, IPSP, or metabotropic effect, depending on the receptor type.
o Metabotropic effects are where receptors cause slow cell-wide effects instead of acting
as ion channels.
Neurotransmitter unbinds from the receptor.
Special transporters pump it back into the presynaptic cell.
o Sometimes, enzymes degrade the neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft instead.
Neurotransmitter is repackaged in vesicles to the circle of (neurotransmitter) life can begin
anew.
Learning and Memory
Learning happens when our synapses get stronger or weaker in response to signals.
o It can also happen with the formation of new synapses synaptogenesis.
Cells that fire together wire together
o If the presynaptic cell makes the postsynaptic cell fire, the synapse gets stronger.
This is called Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
o If the presynaptic cell repeatedly fails to make the postsynaptic cell fire, the synapse
gets weaker.
This is called Long-Term Depression (LTD).
There are a few ways that a synapse can get stronger (or weaker if reversed).
o The presynaptic cell releases more neurotransmitter.
o The connection between the two cells gets bigger/closer.
o The postsynaptic cell gets more (or more active) receptors.
If a synapse is strengthened, the postsynaptic cell has bigger PSPs in response to the presynaptic
cell it learns to respond.
Receptors
Receptors are proteins embedded in the membrane of (usually) the postsynaptic cell.
o When neurotransmitter binds to the receptor, it causes a conformational change.
o This makes ion channels open or causes some other chemical reaction inside the cell.
Neurotransmitter receptors (usually on the postsynaptic cell) are what determine the effect of
neurotransmitter release.
o For example, Na+ influx will always be excitatory.
Many drugs work by blocking or activating ligand-gated ion channels.

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Lecture 9 Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters (NTs) are the chemical messengers that let one neuron talk to another. There are six
major neurotransmitters that Id like you to be familiar with, as well as three general classes of
neurotransmitter.
Types of Neurotransmitter
Small molecule neurotransmitters are small molecules (duh) derived from common molecules
found in the cell.
o They are often amino acids (e.g., glutamate) or derived from amino acids (e.g.,
serotonin).
o They are produced locally at the axon terminal.
o They are packaged into vesicles at the axon terminal.
o They may act by either ligand-gated ion channels or metabotropic receptors.
o They are often taken back up into the presynaptic cell by transporters.
Peptide neurotransmitters are long strings of amino acids similar to proteins and may be quite
large.
o They are made in the cell soma.
o They are packaged into large vesicles in the soma.
o The vesicles are transported down to the axon terminal.
o They act only on metabotropic (slow-acting) receptors.
o After release, they are broken down in the synaptic cleft.
o They have wide-ranging effects such as neuron growth, social behavior, etc.
Gaseous neurotransmitters are small gas molecules that zip around after creation and cant be
packaged in vesicles.
All neurons release at least one small molecule NT. Many of them release both a small molecule
and one or more peptide or gaseous NTs.
The Six Small Molecule Neurotransmitters (NTs)
Glutamate is the most common NT, found in more than half of all synapses.
o It is excitatory it opens ligand-gated Na+ channels.
o It is an amino acid found in all cells in the body.
GABA is the main inhibitory NT, found in more than a quarter of all synapses.
o It is inhibitory it opens ligand-gated Cl- channels.
o It is made from glutamate (!) and is found everywhere in the brain.
Acetylcholine (Ach) is an excitatory NT.
o It is the neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction that makes muscles contract.
o It opens ligand-gated Na+ channels (nicotinic receptors).
Serotonin (5-HT) is made from the amino acid tryptophan.
o It is important for mood and is disrupted in depression.
o Its major nuclei (centers) are in the brainstem.
Dopamine is made from the amino acid tyrosine.
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o It is associated with reward and movement and is disrupted in Parkinsons disease.
o Its major centers are in the midbrain.
Norepinephrine is made from dopamine.
o It is involved in mood and stress.
o It is also the major hormone of the SNS / stress response.
Note: Only glutamate, GABA, and ACh act through ion channels.
o They also act through metabotropic receptors.
o All other neurotransmitters are metabotropic only!
Hormones
Hormones share many similarities with neurotransmitters.
o They are signaling molecules released by cells.
o They act via receptors.
o They can be small molecules or peptides.
They are also different in some ways.
o They act via far distances, usually by circulating through the blood.
o They usually come from endocrine glands outside the NS.
There are several major classes of hormone:
o Steroid hormones (e.g., testosterone, estrogen, and corticosterone).
These are made from cholesterol.
Important roles for sexual behavior, fertility, and stress.
o Small molecule hormones (e.g., norepinephrine)
These are usually double as neurotransmitters (e.g. norepinephrine).
o Peptide hormones are large molecules with a variety of functions.
Oxytocin, LH, and insulin are all peptide hormones.
A single molecule of hormone can affect the response of an entire cell by undergoing a
cascade reaction.
o Each step of the reaction activates more molecules than in the previous step.