Possibility

We use the modal can to make general statements about what is possible:
It can be very cold in winter. (= It is sometimes very cold in winter)
You can easily lose your way in the dark. (= People often lose their way in the dark)
We use could as the past tense of can:
It could be very cold in winter. (=Sometimes it was very cold in winter.)
You could lose your way in the dark. (=People often lost their way in the dark)
We use could to show that something is possible in the future, but not certain:
If we dont hurry we could be late. (=Perhaps/Maybe we will be late)
We use could have to show that something is/was possible now or at some time in the past:
Its ten oclock. They could have arrived now.
They could have arrived hours ago.
Impossibility:
We use the negative cant or cannot to show that something is impossible:
That cant be true.
You cannot be serious.
We use couldnt/could not to talk about the past:
We knew it could not be true.
He was obviously joking. He could not be serious.
Ability:
We use can to talk about someones skill or general abilities:
She can speak several languages.
He can swim like a fish.
They cant dance very well.
We use can to talk about the ability to do something at a given time in the present or future:
You can make a lot of money if you are lucky.
Help. I cant breathe.
They can run but they cant hide.


We use could to talk about past time:
She could speak several languages.
They couldnt dance very well.
Permission:
We use can to ask for permission to do something:
Can I ask a question, please?
Can we go home now?
could is more formal and polite than can:
Could I ask a question please?
Could we go home now?
We use can to give permission:
You can go home now if you like.
You can borrow my pen if you like.
We use can to say that someone has permission to do something:
We can go out whenever we want.
Students can travel free.
Instructions and requests:
We use could you and as a polite way of telling or asking someone to do something:
Could you take a message please?
Could I have my bill please?
can is less polite:
Can you take a message please?
Offers and invitations:
We use can I to make offers:
Can I help you?
Can I do that for you?
We sometimes say I can ... or I could ... to make an offer:
I can do that for you if you like.
I can give you a lift to the station.
Questions and negatives:
We make questions by putting the subject after can/could:
Can I ? Can you ? Could I Could you ? and so on.
The negative form is cant in spoken English and cannot in written English.
We sometimes say cannot, but it is very emphatic.
The negative form of could is couldnt in spoken English and could not in written English.
We sometimes say could not.
We use can and cant :
To talk about ability:
Maria can speak four languages.
I cant swim, but my sister can.
To say that something is possible or impossible:
Learning English can be difficult [= Learning English is sometimes difficult.]
Children can be very naughty [= Children are sometimes very naughty.]
Its still light. It cant be bedtime.

For requests and refusals of requests
Can I go home now?
You can go whenever you like.
You can borrow the car today, but you cant have it tomorrow.
To offer to help someone:
Can I help you?
Can I carry that bag for you?
We use could and couldnt as the past tense of can/cant:
To talk about ability:
I could run very fast when I was younger.
She couldnt get a job anywhere.
To say that something was possible or impossible:
Our teacher could be very strict when we were at school. [= Some teachers were very strict.]
People could starve in those days. [= People sometimes starved.]
You couldnt use computers in the nineteenth century.
To make a polite request:
Could I go now please?
Could you lend me a dictionary please?
To make a polite offer:
Could I give you a lift?
I could carry that for you.
We use could have:
to show that something is possible now or was possible at some time in the past:
Its ten oclock. They could have arrived now.
They could have arrived hours ago.


















Questions and negatives:
We make questions by putting the subject after may/might:
May I ? Could I Might I ? Etc.
The negative forms are may not and might not..
We use may:
when we are not sure about something:
Jack may be coming to see us tomorrow.
Oh dear! Its half past ten. We may be late for the meeting.
There may not be very many people there.
to make polite requests:
May I borrow the car tomorrow?
May we come a bit later?
When we use may not for a refusal it is emphatic:
You may not!
You may not borrow the car until you can be more careful with it.
We use might:
when we are not sure about something:
I might see you tomorrow.
It looks nice, but it might be very expensive.
Its quite bright. It might not rain today.
As the past tense of may for requests:
He asked if he might borrow the car.
They wanted to know if they might come later.
For very polite requests:
Might I ask you a question?
Might we just interrupt for a moment?
We use may have and might have to show that something has possibly happened now or happened at some time in
the past:
Its ten oclock. They might have arrived now.[= Perhaps they have arrived]
They may have arrived hours ago. [= Perhaps they arrived hours ago.]

We use will:
to talk about the future to say what we believe will happen
to talk about what people want to do or are willing to do
to make promises and offers
would is the past tense form of will. Because it is a past tense it is used:
to talk about the past.
to talk about hypotheses things that are imagined rather than true.
for politeness.
Beliefs
We use will
to say what we believe will happen in the future:
We'll be late.
We will have to take the train.
We use would as the past tense of will:
to say what we believed would happen:
I thought I would be late so I would have to take the train.
Offers and promises
We use I will or We will to make offers and promises:
Ill give you a lift home after the party.
We will come and see you next week.
Willingness
to talk about what people want to do or are willing to do:
Well see you tomorrow.
Perhaps dad will lend me the car.
We use would as the past tense of will:
to talk about what people wanted to do or were willing to do:
We had a terrible night. The baby wouldnt go to sleep. He kept waking up and crying.
Dad wouldnt lend me the car, so we had to take the train.
to talk about something that we did often in the past because we wanted to do it:
When they were children they used to spend their holidays at their grandmothers at the seaside. They would
get up early every morning and theyd have a quick breakfast then they would run across the road to the
beach.
Conditionals
We use will in conditionals with if and unless to say what we think will happen in the future or present:
Ill give her a call if I can find her number.
You wont get in unless you have a ticket.
We use would to talk about hypotheses, about something which is possible but not real:
to talk about the result or effect of a possible situation:
It would be very expensive to stay in a hotel.
in conditionals with words like if and what if. In these sentences the main verb is usually in the past tense:
I would give her a call if I could find her number.
If I had the money I'd buy a new car.
You would lose weight if you took more exercise.
If he got a new job he would probably make more money.
What if he lost his job. What would happen then?
We use conditionals to give advice:
Dan will help you if you ask him.
Past tenses are more polite:
Dan would help you if you asked him.
Phrases with would:
would you, would you mind (not) -ing, for requests:
Would you carry this for me please?
Would you mind carrying this?
Would you mind not telling him that?
would you like ...; would you like to ..., for offers and invitations:
Would you like to come round to morrow?
Would you like another drink?
I would like ; Id like (you)(to) ..., to say what we want or what we want to do:
Id like that one please.
Id like to go home now.
Id rather (I would rather) to say what we prefer:
Id rather have that one.
Id rather go home now.
I would think, I would imagine, I'd guess, to give an opinion when we are not sure or when we want to be polite:
Its very difficult I would imagine.
I would think thats the right answer.





















We use the perfective will have when we are looking back from a point in time when something will have happened.
By the end of the decade scientists will have discovered a cure for influenza.
I will phone at six oclock. He will have got home by then.
or looking "back" from the present:
Look at the time. The match will have started.
Its half past five. Dad will have finished work.
We use would have as the past tense form of will have:
I phoned at six oclock. I knew he would have got home by then.
It was half past five. Dad would have finished work.
We use would have in past conditionals to talk about something that did not happen:
If it had been a little warmer we would have gone for a swim.
He would have been very angry if he had seen you.















The modal verbs are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will and would.
The modals are used to do things like talking about ability, asking permission making requests, and so on.
Ability:
We use can to talk about someones skill or general abilities:
She can speak several languages.
He can swim like a fish.
They cant dance very well.
We use can to talk about the ability to do something at a given time in the present or future:
You can make a lot of money if you are lucky.
Help. I cant breathe.
They can run but they cant hide.
We use could to talk about past time:
She could speak several languages.
They couldnt dance very well.
We use could have to say that someone had the ability/opportunity to do something, but did not do it:
She could have learned Swahili, but she didnt have time.
I could have danced all night [but didn't].
Permission:
We use can to ask for permission to do something:
Can I ask a question, please?
Can we go home now.
could is more formal and polite than can:
Could I ask a question please?
Could we go home now?
may is another more formal and polite way of asking for permission:
May I ask a question please?
May we go home now?
We use can to give permission:
You can go home now if you like.
You can borrow my pen if you like.
may is a more formal and polite way of giving permission:
You may go home now, if you like.
We use can to say that someone has permission to do something:
We can go out whenever we want.
Students can travel free.
may is a more formal and polite way of saying that someone has permission:
Students may travel free.
Instructions and requests:
We use could you and would you as polite ways of telling or asking someone to do something:
Could you take a message please?
Would you carry this for me please?
Could I have my bill please?
can and will are less polite:
Can you take a message please?
Will you carry this for me please?
Suggestions and advice:
We use should to make suggestions and give advice:
You should send an email.
We should go by train.
We use could to make suggestions:
We could meet at the weekend.
You could eat out tonight.
We use conditionals to give advice:
Dan will help you if you ask him.
Past tenses are more polite:
Dan would help you if you asked him.
Offers and invitations:
We use can I and to make offers:
Can I help you?
Can I do that for you?
We can also use shall I
Shall I help you with that?
Shall I call you on your mobile?
We sometime say I can ... or I could ... or Ill (I will) ... to make an offer:
I can do that for you if you like.
I can give you a lift to the station.
Ill do that for you if you like.
Ill give you a lift to the station.
We use would you like (to) ... for invitations:
Would you like to come round to morrow?
Would you like another drink?
We use you must or we must for a very polite invitation:
You must come round and see us.
We must meet again soon.
Obligation and necessity
We use must to say that it is necessary to do something:
You must stop at a red light.
Everyone must bring something to eat.
You can wear what you like, but you must look neat and tidy.
Im sorry, but you mustnt make a noise in here.
We use had to for this if we are talking about the past:
Everyone had to bring something to eat.
We could wear what we liked, but we had to look neat and tidy.






The modal verbs are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will and would.
The modals are used to show that we believe something is certain, probable or possible:
Possibility:
We use the modals could, might and may to show that something is possible in the future, but not certain:
They might come later. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come later.)
They may come by car. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come by car.)
If we dont hurry we could be late. (= Perhaps/Maybe we will be late)
We use could have, might have and may have to show that something was possible now or at some time in
the past:
Its ten oclock. They might have arrived now.
They could have arrived hours ago.
We use the modal can to make general statements about what is possible:
It can be very cold in winter. (= It is sometimes very cold in winter)
You can easily lose your way in the dark. (= People often lose their way in the dark)
We use the modal could as the past tense of can:
It could be very cold in winter. (= Sometimes it was very cold in winter.)
You could lose your way in the dark. (= People often lost their way in the dark)
Impossibility:
We use the negative cant or cannot to show that something is impossible:
That cant be true.
You cannot be serious.
We use couldnt/could not to talk about the past:
We knew it could not be true.
He was obviously joking. He could not be serious.
Probability:
We use the modal must to show we are sure something to be true and we have reasons for our belief:
Its getting dark. It must be quite late.
You havent eaten all day. You must be hungry.
We use must have for the past:
They hadnt eaten all day. They must have been hungry.
You look happy. You must have heard the good news.
We use the modal should to suggest that something is true or will be true in the future, and to show you have
reasons for your suggestion:
Ask Miranda. She should know.
It's nearly six o'clock. They should arrive soon.
We use should have to talk about the past:
It's nearly eleven o'clock. They should have arrived by now.



















Why do we use this and these?
We use this (singular) and these (plural) as pronouns:
- to talk about people or things near us:
This is a nice cup of tea.
Whose shoes are these?
- to introduce people:
This is Janet.
These are my friends, John and Michael.
WARNING:
We dont say These are John and Michael.
We say This is John and this is Michael.
- to introduce ourselves to begin a conversation on the phone:
Hello, this is David, Can I speak to Sally?
Why do we use that and those?
We use that (singular) and those (plural):
- to talk about things that are not near us:
Whats that?
This is our house, and thats Rebeccas house over there.
Those are very expensive shoes.
- We also use that to refer back to something someone said or did:
- Shall we go to the cinema?
- Yes, thats a good idea.
- Ive got a new job.
- Thats great.
- Im very tired.
- Why is that?
this, these, that, those with nouns
We also use this, these, that and those with nouns to show proximity
We use this and these for people or things near us:
We have lived in this house for twenty years.
Have you read all of these books?
and that and those for people or things that are not near us:
We use one (singular) and ones (plural) to avoid unnecessary repetition.
See those two girls? Helen is the tall one and Jane is the short one.
Which is your car, the red one or the blue one?
My trousers are torn. I need some new ones.
See those two girls. Helen is the one on the left.
Lets look at the photographs. The ones you took in Paris.
We often use them after Which ... in questions:
You can borrow a book. Which one do you want?
There are lots of books here. Which ones are yours?

Which question word to use?
We use who to ask questions about people:
Who is that?
Who lives here?
Who did you see?
We use whose to ask about possession:
Whose coat is this? [or] Whose is this coat?
Whose book is that? [or] Whose is that book?
Whose bags are those? [or] Whose are those bags?
We use what to ask questions about things:
What is that?
What do you want?
We use which to ask someone to choose something:
Which came first, the chicken or the egg?
Ive got two books. Which do you want?
We can also use what and which with nouns:
What subjects did you study at school?
What newspaper do you read?
Which newspaper do you read the Times or the Guardian?
Which book do you want?
Which one is yours?
Questions with prepositions:
Questions ending in prepositions are very common in English. After Who, Which or What we often have a
preposition at the end of the sentence:
Who does this book belong to?
What are you looking for?
Which university did you go to?
What country do you come from?























Singular: myself - yourself - himself - herself - itself
Plural: ourselves - yourselves - themselves


When we use a reflexive pronoun
We use a reflexive pronoun:
as a direct object when the object is the same as the subject of the verb:
I am teaching myself to play the piano.
Be careful with that knife. You might cut yourself.
We can use a reflexive pronoun as direct object with most transitive verbs, but these are the most common:

amuse blame cut dry enjoy help
hurt introduce kill prepare satisfy teach


Some verbs change their meaning slightly when they have a reflexive pronoun as direct object:
Would you like to help yourself to another drink?
= Would you like to take another drink.
I wish the children would behave themselves.
= I wish the children would behave well.
He found himself lying by the side of the road.
= He was surprised when he realised that he was at the side of the road.
I saw myself as a famous actor.
= I imagined that I was a famous actor.
She applied herself to the job of mending the lights.
= She worked very hard to mend the lights.
He busied himself in the kitchen.
= He worked busily in the kitchen.
I had to content myself with a few Euros.
= I had to be satisfied with a few Euros.
We do not use a reflexive pronoun after verbs which describe things people usually do for themselves, such
as wash,shave, dress:
He washed [himself] in cold water.
He always shaved [himself] before going out in the evening.
Michael dressed [himself] and got ready for the party.
We only use reflexives with these verbs for emphasis:
He dressed himself in spite of his injuries.
Shes old enough to wash herself.
as indirect object when the indirect object is the same as the subject of the verb:
Would you like to pour yourself a drink.
Weve brought ourselves something to eat.
as the object of a preposition when the object refers to the subject of the clause:
They had to cook for themselves.
He was feeling very sorry for himself.

Warning
But we use personal pronouns, not reflexives, after prepositions of place...
He had a suitcase beside him.
and after with when it means "accompanied by":
She had a few friends with her.

We use a reflexive pronoun...
with the preposition by when we want to show that someone did something alone and/or without any help:
He lived by himself in an enormous house.
She walked home by herself.
The children got dressed by themselves.
I prepared the whole meal by myself.
to emphasise the person or thing we are referring to:
Kendal itself is quite a small town.
especially if we are talking about someone very famous:
Sir Paul McCartney himself sang the final song.
We often put the reflexive pronoun at the end of the clause when we are using it for emphasis:
I baked the bread myself.
She mended the car herself

















We use the reciprocal pronouns each other and one another when two or more people do the same thing.
Traditionally, each other refers to two people and one another refers to more than two people, but this distinction is
disappearing in modern English.
Peter and Mary helped one another.
= Peter helped Mary and Mary helped Peter.
We sent each other Christmas cards.
= We sent them a Christmas card and they sent us a Christmas card.
They didnt look at one another.
= He didn't look at her and she didn't look at him.
We also use the possessive forms each others and one anothers:
They helped to look after each others children.
We often stayed in one anothers houses.
NOTE: We do not use reciprocal pronouns as the subject of a clause.

















The indefinite pronouns are:

somebody someone something
anybody anyone anything
nobody no one nothing
everybody everyone everything

We use indefinite pronouns to refer to people or things without saying exactly who or what they are. We use
pronouns ending in -body or -one for people, and pronouns ending in -thing for things:
Everybody enjoyed the concert.
I opened the door but there was no one at home.
It was a very clear day. We could see everything.
We use a singular verb after an indefinite pronoun:
Everybody loves Sally.
Everything was ready for the party.
When we refer back to an indefinite pronoun we normally use a plural pronoun:
Everybody enjoyed the concert. They stood up and clapped.
I will tell somebody that dinner is ready. They have been waiting a long time.
We can add -'s to an indefinite pronoun to make a possessive.
They were staying in somebodys house.
Is this anybodys coat?
We use indefinite pronouns with no- as the subject in negative clauses (not pronouns with any.)
Anybody didnt come >> Nobody came.
We do not use another negative in a clause with nobody, no one or nothing:
Nobody came.
Nothing happened.
We use else after indefinite pronouns to refer to people or things in addition to the ones we already mentioned.
All the family came, but no one else.
If Michael cant come well ask somebody else.
So that's eggs, peas and chips. Do you want anything else?





















The relative pronouns are:

Subject Object Possessive
who who(m) whose
which which whose
that that


We use who and whom for people, and which for things.
Or we can use that for people or things.
We use relative pronouns:
after a noun, to make it clear which person or thing we are talking about:
the house that Jack built
the woman who discovered radium
an eight-year-old boy who attempted to rob a sweet shop
to tell us more about a person or thing:
My mother, who was born overseas, has always been a great traveller.
Lord Thompson, who is 76, has just retired.
We had fish and chips, which is my favourite meal.
But we do not use that as a subject in this kind of relative clause.
We use whose as the possessive form of who:
This is George, whose brother went to school with me.
We sometimes use whom as the object of a verb or preposition:
This is George, whom you met at our house last year.
This is Georges brother, with whom I went to school.
But nowadays we normally use who:
This is George, who you met at our house last year.
This is Georges brother, who I went to school with.
When whom or which have a preposition the preposition can come at the beginning of the clause...
I had an uncle in Germany, from who[m] I inherited a bit of money.
We bought a chainsaw, with which we cut up all the wood.
or at the end of the clause:
I had an uncle in Germany who[m] I inherited a bit of money from.
We bought a chainsaw, which we cut all the wood up with.
We can use that at the beginning of the clause:
I had an uncle in Germany that I inherited a bit of money from.
We bought a chainsaw that we cut all the wood up with.