International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 2006, 28, 61–68

Investigating hair properties relevant for hair

‘handle’. Part I: hair diameter, bending and
frictional properties1

F.-J. Wortmann* and A. Schwan-Jonczyk 

In cooperation with the working group2 ‘Hair Care Products’ of the DGK (Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer
Wissenschaftliche und Angewandte Kosmetik e.V.: German Association for Scientific and Applied Cosmetics)
*DWI at RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstrasse 8, D-52074 Aachen, Germany and  Wella AG, Berliner Allee 65,
64274 Darmstadt, Germany

Received 2 February 2005, Accepted 5 December 2005

Keywords: bending stiffness, diameter, feel, friction, handle, human hair

1
Dedicated to the memory of our revered teacher, colleague and friend Prof. Dr Dres. h.c. Helmut Zahn.
2
Members of the DGK Working Group ‘Hair Care Products’: H. Schmidt-Lewerkuehne, Chairman (Beiers-
dorf), H. Leidreiter, Deputy Chairman (Degussa), U. Assmus (Fresenius), H. Hensen (Cognis), P. Hoessel
(BASF), G. Lang (Wella), A. Markowetz (Procter & Gamble), V. Martin (Zschimmer & Schwarz), B. Noecker
(KPSS), E. Poppe (Henkel-Schwarzkopf), E. Schulze-zur-Wiesche (Henkel-Schwarzkopf), A. Schwan-Jonczyk
(Wella), A. Wendt (National Starch & Chemicals), J. Wood (KPSS), F.-J. Wortmann (DWI).

the capstan method in the root, middle and tip

Synopsis
The expert working group ‘Hair Care Products’ of
the DGK currently conducts a wide study to contrib-
ute to the understanding of how single hair fibre
and hair collective properties contribute towards
hair ‘handle’ and ‘feel’. During the first stage of this
study four hair types were selected from a large
group of individual European hair braids, according
to either similar or widely different panel ratings for
handle. Against the background of the panel test
and the state of the literature the working group
readily identified the bending properties of single
fibres interacting in the tress as a fibre collective
and fibre friction as being of central relevance for
hair ‘handle’ and ‘feel’. Fibre diameters of the hair
types were determined by Optical Fibre Diameter
Analyzer and by weighing. From these data mean
ellipticity and bending stiffness distributions were
calculated. Single fibre friction was determined by
Correspondence: F.-J. Wortmann, University of Manche-
ster, Dep. Textiles & Paper, Sackville Street, Manchester
M60 1QD, UK, Tel.: +44 (0) 161 306 4158; fax: +44 (0)
161 306 4153; E-mail: f-j.wortmann@manchester.ac.uk
regions. Significant differences were determined
between the hair types in diameters, ellipticity,
bending stiffness and friction. The results lead to
conclude that ‘handle’ is perceived as inferior when
the hair is thick and bending stiffness thus high. For
such hair differences in handle rating are related to
differences in friction, namely in the tip region. For
thin and thus ‘soft’ hair fibre friction seems to play
only a minor role.
Résumé
Le groupe d’experts ‘Hair Care Products’ du DGK
entreprend actuellement une large étude afin de
contribuer à comprendre de la façon dont la fibre
simple, aussi bien que les propriétés de collective
de cheveux, contribuent vers la ‘main’ et ‘sensa-
tion’ des cheveux. Pendant la première étape de
l’étude, quatre types des cheveux ont été choisis
parmi un grand groupe de différentes tresses
européennes de cheveux, selon les estimations
semblables ou largement différentes de panneau
pour la main. Selon l’expertise de panneau, aussi
bien que la littérature, le groupe de travail a

ª 2006 Society of Cosmetic Scientists and the Société Française de Cosmétologie 61

Investigation of hair handle
aisément identifié les propriétés de recourbement
des fibres simples agissant l’un sur l’autre dans les
tresses comme une collective des fibres, et le frotte-
ment de fibre, qu’étant de l’importance centrale
pour la ‘main’ et ‘sensation’ des cheveux. Les di-
amétres des fibres des cheveux ont été déterminés
par OFDA et en pesant. De ces données nous av-
ons calculées les distributions d’ellipticité moyenne
et de la rigidité à la flexion. Le frottement de fibre
simple a été déterminé par la méthode de cabestan
pour les régions de racine, milieu, et de bout. Des
différences significatives ont été déterminées entre
les différents types de cheveux saisit des diamétres,
l’ellipticité, la rigidité à la flexion et le frottement.
Les résultats ménent à conclure que la ‘main’ est
perçue en tant que subordonné, quand les fibres
de cheveu sont épaisses, donc la rigidité à la flex-
ion est haute. Pour un tel cheveu les différences
dans l’estimation de main sont liées aux différences
dans le frottement, particuliérement, dans la
région de bout. Pour les fibres minces, donc ‘doux’,
le frottement de fibre de cheveux semble jouer
seulement un rôle mineur.
Introduction
The expert working group ‘Hair Care Products’ of
the DGK (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Wissenschaftli-
che und Angewandte Kosmetik: German Associ-
ation for Scientific and Applied Cosmetics)
currently conducts a wide study to contribute to
the understanding of how single hair fibre and
hair collective properties contribute towards hair
‘handle’ and ‘feel’.
During the first stage of this study a large group
of European hair braids from individuals, made up
into tresses, was assessed for handle. From this
group four braids were selected, for which experts
and experienced consumer panels in various com-
panies had determined either similar or widely dif-
ferent ratings, respectively, for their overall
handle.
Discussing, against the background of the panel
test and the state of the literature [1–3], the con-
tributions of specific physical and mechanical
properties of hair towards ‘handle’ and ‘feel’, the
working group readily identified the bending prop-
erties of single fibres interacting in the tress as a
fibre collective and fibre friction as being of central
relevance.
This paper describes investigations of the diam-
eter and the cross-sectional geometry of the hair
62
F.-J. Wortmann and A. Schwan-Jonczyk
in the selected tresses, the conclusions that can be
drawn thereof for their bending properties and
results for single fibre friction. The results are con-
sidered in relation to panel ratings for handle.
Materials and methods
Material
This study is based on hair tresses derived from
four individual braids that were cosmetically
unprocessed. The hair types were selected by the
members of the working group as reflecting
extremes in ‘hair handle’ and were derived from a
larger collective on the basis of panel tests conduc-
ted in various companies, represented in the work-
ing group. The hair types were coded for the
context of this report as H1, H2, GA1 and GC3.
H1 and H2 were medium brown, GA1 and GC3
light brown in colour. The tresses derived from
hair cut about 10 cm above the scalp. They were
rather long (25 cm long, 4 cm wide, approxi-
mately 4 g) for hair types H1, GA1 and GC3 and
somewhat shorter (approximately 20 cm) for H2.
For the tests described below, the hair was gener-
ally considered in three segments, referred to for
ease of semantics as root/middle/tip, irrespective of
the fact that the hair material was obviously
obtained at some distance from the scalp.
Handle determination
The hair types were handled by panels comprising
an overall of about 30 experienced consumers and
experts and were rated simply as either ‘good’ or
‘bad’. Table I summarizes the percentages of posit-
ive ratings associated with each hair type.
Diameter determination
Determining the diameter of human hair is not a
straightforward task, due to hair ellipticity, variabil-
ity between hairs on a head and along an individual
fibre [4]. Against this background the diameter
measurement by means of an Optical Fibre Diam-
eter Analyzer (OFDA 100, BSC Electronics, Myaree,
WA, Australia) was chosen. This technique is based
on the principles of light microscopy and well estab-
lished for wool [5]. The method enables to measure
within a few minutes a large number of fibre snip-
pets (approximately 2000) and thus to determine a
highly accurate diameter value for the collective.
ª 2006 International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 28, 61–68
Investigation of hair handle F.-J. Wortmann and A. Schwan-Jonczyk

Table I Positive ratings from panels

(n»30) for four selected hair types Hair Panel (n » 30) Diameter Diameter
and hair diameter type positive ratings in % (OFDA) in lm* CV  in % (weight) in lm* Ellipticity

H1 41 93.1 ± 0.64 17 79.7 ± 2.0 1.36

H2 69 96.1 ± 0.76 16 83.4 ± 1.7 1.33
GA1 94 89.5 ± 0.75 20 74.5 ± 2.5 1.45
GC3 94 89.3 ± 0.59 17 75.1 ± 1.7 1.42

Mean fibre diameter and coefficient of variation (CV) determined by Optical Fibre Diameter
Analyzer (OFDA) (n»2000). Diameter determined by weighing (n ¼ 6) and the ellipticity
value derived according to Eq. (2).
*±95% confidence range.
 CV ¼ standard deviation/mean·100%

For the OFDA measurement 2 mm fibre snippets are
spread under standard climatic conditions (20
C,
65% rh) thinly on a microscopic slide. Under these
conditions the generally elliptical snippets will tend
to lie on the long axis, so that the diameter values
will be strongly biased towards the long axis of the
hair fibre cross-section.
For the measurements fibre snippets were
obtained by means of a microtome at three posi-
tions along a tress (root, middle and tip). The snip-
pets were pooled and the mean hair diameter was
determined under standard climatic conditions
(20
C, 65% rh).
In parallel, mean fibre diameter was determined
through weighing bundles of fibres of known num-
bers and length under standard climatic conditions.
This determination was conducted for each of the
braids six-fold and for samples taken from the root
and the tip section of a given braid. The results were
pooled to give the overall result for a hair type,
namely the diameter of the circle with an area equal
to that of the generally elliptical hair fibres.
Calculation of bending stiffness
On the assumption that the OFDA measurement
yields the value close to that for the long axis of
the ellipse and the weight determination of the area
and diameter of the equivalent circle, ellipticity e,
being the ratio of the long and the short axis of
the ellipse:
equivalent area. Bending stiffness (flexural
stiffness, bending rigidity) of a hair is given by:
B¼E
I ð3Þ
where E is the elastic or Young’s modulus and I
the moment of inertia of the cross-section or more
precisely the second moment of the area.
It is reasonable to assume that hairs on a head
in reality will preferentially bend about their minor
elliptic axis [3], so that
I ¼
ab3 =4 ð4Þ
With Eq. (1) this yields:
I ¼
a4 =ð4"3 Þ ð5Þ
so that Eq. (3) becomes:
B ¼ E
a4 =ð4"3 Þ: ð6Þ
For the current argument it is assumed that the
Young’s modulus is homogeneous over the cross-
section and is equal for compressional and exten-
sional deformations as they occur in bending.
While the latter assumption is reasonable in view
of the small deformations of hair during handling,
the first assumption has to be viewed with some
care [6], namely due to the potentially substantial
contribution of the cuticle [3, 7, 8]. A reasonable
estimate for the extensional modulus of hair under
standard climatic conditions (20
C, 65% rh) is
E ¼ 5.5 GPa [9].

" ¼ a=b ð1Þ

is given by:
" ¼ ð2aÞ2 =d 2
where a is the long, b the short half-axis of the
ellipse and d the diameter of the circle of
Measurement of single fibre friction
Twenty-five hairs were removed at random from
ð2Þ
the tresses and washed with lauryl ether sulfate
solution (LES 15%, pH 6.8). The hairs were dried
under a hood-type drier and stored under standard

ª 2006 International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 28, 61–68 63

Investigation of hair handle
climatic conditions (22
C, 55% rh) for 24 h. Fric-
tion was measured in a tensile tester (Zwick 1425,
Ulm, Germany) by a variation of the high-load
capstan test, described by Scott and Robbins [10].
For the friction measurement a hair was clamped
at the root end. The free end was wound com-
pletely around a PVC-cylinder (4.5 cm circumfer-
ence) and a weight of 500 mg was attached. After
pulling the fibre over the cylinder over a distance
of 1 cm (10 cm min)1) for positioning purposes,
the force was recorded over a further distance of
6–15 cm, depending on the hair type. Subse-
quently, the hair was clamped at the tip end and
the test repeated. For each tress 25 hairs were
measured. After every fourth test the cylinder was
thoroughly cleaned with isopropanol to remove
potential surface deposits.
From the recorded force curves the mean
frictional force for the root-to-tip (RT) and for the
tip-to-root (TR) direction were determined. Further-
more, the curves were separated into three
segments, termed for ease of semantics as ‘root’,
‘middle’ and ‘tip’, to arrive at frictional data for
these parts of a hair. For each of these segments the
‘local’ RT- and TR-frictional forces were determined.
According to theory and experiment [9] the results
are expected to be independent of hair diameter.
Results and discussion
Table I summarizes the percentages of positive rat-
ings of hair handle for the four hair types. The
widely differing ratings lead to assigning the hair
types to three classes, one with a low percentage
of positive ratings (H1, 41%), one in the medium
range (H2, 69%) and two very similar ones in the
high range (GA1 and GC3, 94%).
The observation of ‘good handle’ was associated
by the panel members with the adjectives
‘smooth’, ‘soft’ and ‘flexible’. Negative adjectives
associated with ‘bad handle’ were stated much less
frequent, however, ‘coarse’ and ‘blunt’ were used.
In the context of the present study it is interesting
to note, that the terms associated by the panel mem-
bers with handle fell into four groups. The first and
largest group of terms with a quotation rate of 39%
was genuinely connected to handle and could be
linked to geometrical hair properties, such as diam-
eter. The second group (26%) comprised terms rela-
ted to fibre mechanical properties, namely bending.
Through the dependence of the bending properties
on fibre diameter (see Eq. 6), this group is directly
64
F.-J. Wortmann and A. Schwan-Jonczyk
connected to the first. The third group of terms
(23%) described the tactile properties of hair, that is
the perception of surface roughness and thus fric-
tion. The fourth and least quoted group of terms
(12%) comprised descriptions associated with hair
collective properties. The details of this part of the
investigation will be reported elsewhere.
Diameter
Due to the obvious relevance of hair bending prop-
erties for ‘handle’, which in turn is largely con-
trolled by hair diameter, special emphasis was
placed on the consideration of this fibre property
for the different hair types. Table I gives the diam-
eters and the coefficients of variation of the hair
types as determined by OFDA and thus based on a
large number of measurements. Judging by the
confidence range and confirmed by the statistically
non-conservative Least Significant Difference (LSD)
test [11] it turned out that, with the exception of
the pair GA1 and GC3 (P ¼ 0.8), the other diame-
ters are significantly different from each other.
Figure 1 summarizes the results for the OFDA
diameters in the form of a box-and-whisker plot,
characterized by the mean (symbol), the 95% con-
fidence range (box) and the standard deviation
(whisker). Due to the large number of diameter
values the confidence ranges are very small com-
pared to the standard deviations. The diameter dis-
tributions overlap in fact very considerably.
To further document this observation, Fig. 2
gives the experimental diameter distributions for
hair types H2 and GA1 that have the largest and
lowest diameter, respectively, and the normal dis-
tributions fitted to the data. Corroborating the
results in Table I and Fig. 1, the peaks are separ-
ated for the distributions, though fibre diameters
are spread over a range between 40 and 140 lm.
This leads to a strong overlap of the distributions,
making the differences determined through the
statistical analysis, even for these extreme hair
types, not so very obvious.
In Table I, in addition the material diameter
determined by weighing under standard climatic
conditions is given. Again GA1 and GC3 appear as
very similar, with pronounced differences compared
to H1 and H2. The ellipticity values derived by
means of Eq. (2) are at the low end but still well
within the range expected for European hair [12].
However, despite the wide overlap between the
diameter distributions, the results support and
ª 2006 International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 28, 61–68
Investigation of hair handle
Figure 1 Hair diameters for the
four hair types as determined by
Optical Fibre Diameter Analyzer (left
y-axis), described by the arithmetic
mean ( ), the 95% confidence limits
(box) and the standard deviation
(whisker). Decadic logarithms of
bending stiffness ( ) for the hair
types (right y-axis). The units for
bending stiffness, not included in the
logarithm for reasons of simplicity,
are given. For the statistical signifi-
cance of differences see text.
Figure 2 Diameter distributions for hair types H2 ( )
and GA1 (•), as determined by Optical Fibre Diameter
Analyzer (n»2000).
corroborate the initial hypothesis, that the differ-
ences in handle as perceived between the groups
H1 and H2 versus GA1 and GC3, are connected
with lower diameters and with the higher elliptici-
ties of the latter.
Bending
The differences between hair types become more
pronounced when bending stiffness is considered,
where with Eq. (6) the diameter of the long axis,
as determined by OFDA, and ellipticity enter with
high powers. Figure 3 shows the estimated stiff-
ness distributions when bending hairs of types H2
and GA1 over their short axis, while the long axis
defines the neutral plane. Again the distributions
strongly overlap though the differences are much
ª 2006 International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 28, 61–68
F.-J. Wortmann and A. Schwan-Jonczyk
Figure 3 Bending stiffness distributions for hair types
H2 ( ) and GA1 (•). The lines through the data points
derive from moving average smoothing and approach
log-normal distributions.
more pronounced than those for the related diam-
eters (Fig. 2).
It is readily shown that the data are not nor-
mally, but largely log-normally distributed. The
means, the 95% confidence limits and the coeffi-
cients of variation (CV) of bending stiffness on the
log10-scale are given in Table II. The data are
graphically summarized in Fig. 1. Judging by the
95% confidence limits all differences between the
means on the log scale are statistically significant.
This observation is corroborated by the LSD test. It
is interesting to note from Table II that the width
of the distribution, as given by the CV value, is in
fact substantially higher for the ‘good handle’ G-
pair compared to the ‘bad handle’ H-pair. This
means that the G-types, already having lower
diameters and bending stiffness, furthermore
65
Investigation of hair handle F.-J. Wortmann and A. Schwan-Jonczyk

Table II Hair bending properties

Hair Panel (n » 30) B: geometric
type positive ratings in % log B* CV in % mean (10)9 Nm2)

H1 41 0.88 ± 0.012 35 7.59

H2 69 0.97 ± 0.015 31 9.25
GA1 94 0.72 ± 0.015 49 5.23
GC3 94 0.75 ± 0.011 40 5.66

Positive ratings from panels (n ¼ 30) for the four hair types. Arithmetic mean for
log10(bending stiffness) and coefficient of variation (CV) determined according to Eq. (6)
and on the basis of Optical Fibre Diameter Analyzer measurements combined with the
ellipticity values in Table I. The units for bending stiffness are 10)9 Nm2, which for reasons
of simplicity are not included in log B. Geometric mean for the bending stiffness calculated
thereof.
B, bending stiffness.
*±95% confidence range.

contain, besides rather stiff hairs, a comparatively

large population of hairs with very low diameter
and bending stiffness.
The geometric means for bending stiffness are
given in Table II, showing differences that are con-
siderably more pronounced between the H- and
the G-pair than just for diameter. The results show
that, namely H2 has a bending stiffness that is
about 80% higher than for GA1, which in turn is
similar to GC3. The general difference between the
H- and the G-pair of hairs for this property corres-
ponds to the panel ratings.
In the context of this investigation it is interest-
ing to note that H2 has a significantly higher
bending stiffness than H1, but still a substantially
better rating. This indicates that the second
parameter investigated in this study, namely fric-
tion, is expected to play a major role for this more
subtle facet of handle.
Friction
Figure 4 shows the experimental curves from
frictional measurements for the RT and TR direc-
tions, respectively, on a hair fibre taken from
hair type H1. The curve for the RT direction,
that is with the cuticle scales, is comparatively
smooth and shows a minor tendency for an
increase towards the tip end. Starting the meas-
urement in the tip region and for the against-
scales direction (TR) generates a frictional force
that is roughly twice as high. It is interesting to
note that the frictional force drops considerably
when approaching the middle region to a con-
stant level that is just about 50% higher than
for the with-scales (RT) measurement. These
high frictional forces in the tip region indicate
strong hair surface damage, either by cosmetic
or natural influences.

Figure 4 Experimental curve for

frictional force for a fibre of hair
type H1, measured in the cuticle
scales, root-to-tip (RT) direction
(lower curve) and the against cuti-
cle scales, tip-to-root (TR) direction
(upper curve) respectively.

66 ª 2006 International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 28, 61–68

Investigation of hair handle F.-J. Wortmann and A. Schwan-Jonczyk

Table III Mean frictional forces of single hairs for the root, middle and tip segments

Frictional force*, cN

RT direction TR direction

Hair
type Root Middle Tip Root Middle Tip

H1 0.64 ± 0.02 0.64 ± 0.02 0.64 ± 0.03 0.97 ± 0.04 1.06 ± 0.04 1.19 ± 0.05
H2 0.62 ± 0.02 – 0.58 ± 0.02 0.96 ± 0.04 – 1.08 ± 0.04
GA1 0.67 ± 0.02 0.65 ± 0.02 0.63 ± 0.02 0.98 ± 0.03 1.09 ± 0.02 1.38 ± 0.04
GC3 0.81 ± 0.05 0.79 ± 0.04 0.81 ± 0.04 1.20 ± 0.07 1.29 ± 0.06 1.52 ± 0.07

Tests were conducted on 25 hairs for each hair type for the RT and TR directions under conditions of standard climate (22
C, 55% rh).
*±95% confidence range.

Table III summarizes the results for frictional
forces in the RT and TR directions for the four
hair types, differentiating between root–middle–tip
regions. Hair type H2 was somewhat shorter than
the other hair types so that only the differentiation
between tip and root section was possible.
Figure 5 summarizes the results for the RT
direction in the form of a box-and-whisker plot. It
is quite obvious that H1, H2 and GA1 exhibit sim-
ilar frictional forces for this test design, all being
around 0.65 cN and with a rather small and con-
sistent variability. For H1 no change along fibre
length is observed, while for the RT direction there
is a significant decrease towards the tip for H2 and
GA1 respectively. The level of frictional forces is
significantly and about 20–25% higher for GC3
compared to all other hair types.
As was to be expected, frictional forces are sub-
stantially higher for the TR direction compared to
the RT direction, that is against rather than with
the cuticle scales. The data are summarized in
Table III and illustrated in Fig. 6. Hair types H1,
H2 and GA1 again show obvious similarities,
namely for the root and the middle segment, while
GC3 shows significantly higher frictional forces.
For H1, H2 and GA1 all differences between the
frictional forces along the hair and for the TR
direction are significant on the 95% level. For GC3
the level still reaches 90%. Friction thus increases
systematically and, as Fig. 4 shows, also discontin-
uously from root to tip.
It is interesting to note that the slightly higher
values of stiffness and frictional forces for GC3
compared to GA1 do not lead to lower ratings for

Figure 5 Arithmetic means (sym-

bol), standard errors (box), and 95%
confidence limits (whisker) for the
frictional forces in root-to-tip (RT)
direction for the four hair types
(n ¼ 25).

ª 2006 International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 28, 61–68 67

Investigation of hair handle
GC3. However, frictional forces for GA1 and GC3
are very similar in the tip region (Fig. 6) which
the experts consider as very important for the
overall handle rating of a tress.
Conclusions
For the present study four braids were selected on
the basis of a panel test by a group of experts for
similar and dissimilar handle ratings. These were
investigated in detail for their geometrical and the
derived bending and frictional properties.
When considering the general difference in the
handle ratings for H1 and H2 on the one hand
and GA1 and GC3 on the other, the lower diame-
ters, higher ellipticity and thus low bending stiff-
ness of the latter appear to play an overriding role.
H2 has a better rating than H1, though H2 has a
significantly higher diameter and bending stiffness.
But it shows lower friction, namely in the tip
region. On this basis it may be speculated that in
a context where the panel perceives the hair gen-
erally as ‘thick’ and ‘strong’ with a generally infer-
ior handle lower frictional forces, namely, in the
tip region make an overriding contribution
towards improved handle ratings. For thin and
thus ‘soft’ hair fibre friction seems to play only a
minor role.
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68
F.-J. Wortmann and A. Schwan-Jonczyk
Figure 6 Arithmetic means (sym-
bol), standard errors (box), and 95%
confidence limits (whisker) for the
frictional forces in tip-to-root (TR)
direction for the four hair types
(n ¼ 25).
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ª 2006 International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 28, 61–68