2011 Combat Infections Guideline J Trauma

REVIEW ARTICLE
Guidelines for the Prevention of Infections Associated With

Combat-Related Injuries: 2011 Update
Endorsed by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Surgical
Infection Society
Duane R. Hospenthal, MD, PhD, FACP, FIDSA, Clinton K. Murray, MD, FACP, FIDSA, Romney C. Andersen, MD,
R. Bryan Bell, DDS, MD, FACS, Jason H. Calhoun, MD, FACS, Leopoldo C. Cancio, MD, FACS,
John M. Cho, MD, FACS, FCCP, Kevin K. Chung, MD, FACP, Jon C. Clasper, MBA, DPhil, DM, FRCSEd (Orth),
Marcus H. Colyer, MD, Nicholas G. Conger, MD, George P. Costanzo, MD, MS, Helen K. Crouch, RN, MPH, CIC,
Thomas K. Curry, MD, FACS, Laurie C. DAvignon, MD, Warren C. Dorlac, MD, FACS, James R. Dunne, MD, FACS,
Brian J. Eastridge, MD, James R. Ficke, MD, Mark E. Fleming, DO, Michael A. Forgione, MD, FACP,
Andrew D. Green, MB, BS, FRCPath, FFPH, FFTravMed, RCPS, DTM&H, Robert G. Hale, DDS,
David K. Hayes, MD, FACS, John B. Holcomb, MD, FACS, Joseph R. Hsu, MD, Kent E. Kester, MD, FACP, FIDSA,
Gregory J. Martin, MD, FACP, FIDSA, Leon E. Moores, MD, FACS, William T. Obremskey, MD, MPH,
Kyle Petersen, DO, FACP, FIDSA, Evan M. Renz, MD, FACS, Jeffrey R. Safe, MD, FACS,
Joseph S. Solomkin, MD, FACS, FIDSA, Deena E. Sutter, MD, FAAP, David R. Tribble, MD, DrPH, FIDSA,
Joseph C. Wenke, PhD, Timothy J. Whitman, DO, Andrew R. Wiesen, MD, MPH, FACP, FACPM, and
Glenn W. Wortmann, MD, FACP, FIDSA
Abstract: Despite advances in resuscitation and surgical management of com-
bat wounds, infection remains a concerning and potentially preventable compli-
cation of combat-related injuries. Interventions currently used to prevent these
infections have not been either clearly dened or subjected to rigorous clinical
trials. Current infection prevention measures and wound management practices
are derived from retrospective review of wartime experiences, from civilian
trauma data, and from in vitro and animal data. This update to the guidelines
published in 2008 incorporates evidence that has become available since 2007.
These guidelines focus on care provided within hours to days of injury, chiey
within the combat zone, to those combat-injured patients with open wounds or
burns. New in this update are a consolidation of antimicrobial agent recommen-
dations to a backbone of high-dose cefazolin with or without metronidazole for
most postinjury indications, and recommendations for redosing of antimicrobial
agents, for use of negative pressure wound therapy, and for oxygen supplemen-
tation in ight.
Key Words: Guidelines, Infection, Combat, Trauma, Prevention.
(J Trauma. 2011;71: S210S234)
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Infectious complications of combat trauma have
plagued man throughout the ages. Advances in body armor
and in the medical care provided from the point-of-injury to
denitive care have allowed injured personnel to survive
what previously would have been fatal injuries. Personnel
surviving these severe injuries, which are often complex and
associated with extensive tissue destruction, are at high risk
for both early and remote infectious complications. Strategies
Submitted for publication April 26, 2011.
Accepted for publication June 3, 2011.
Copyright 2011 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
From the San Antonio Military Medical Center (D.R.H., C.K.M., H.K.C., J.R.F., D.K.H.,
D.E.S.), US Army Institute of Surgical Research (L.C.C., K.K.C., G.P.C., B.J.E.,
R.G.H, J.R.H., E.M.R., J.C.W), Fort Sam Houston, Texas; Walter Reed National
Military Medical Center Bethesda (R.C.A., M.H.C., J.R.D., M.E.F., G.J.M., T.J.W.,
G.W.W.), Infectious Disease Clinical Research Program (D.R.T.), Bethesda, Mary-
land; Oregon Health & Science University (R.B.B.), Portland, Oregon; The Ohio
State University (J.H.C.), Columbus, Ohio; Landstuhl Regional Medical Center
(J.M.C.), Landstuhl, Germany; Royal Centre for Defence Medicine, Institute of
Research and Development (J.C.C., A.D.G.), Birmingham, United Kingdom; Keesler
Medical Center (N.G.C., M.A.F.), Keesler Air Force Base, Mississippi; Madigan
Army Medical Center (T.K.C.), Western Regional Medical Command (A.R.W.), Fort
Lewis, Washington; US Air Force Medical Support Agency (L.C.D.), Lackland Air
Force Base, Texas; University of Cincinnati (W.C.D., J.S.S), Cincinnati, Ohio;
University of Texas Health Science Center (J.B.H.), Houston, Texas; Walter Reed
Army Institute of Research (K.E.K.), Silver Spring, Maryland; Kimbrough Ambula-
tory Care Center (L.E.M.), Fort Meade, Maryland; Vanderbilt University School of
Medicine (W.T.O.), Nashville, Tennessee; Naval Medical Research Center (K.P.),
Silver Spring, Maryland; and University of Utah (J.R.S.), Salt Lake City, Utah.
Financial support for the consensus conference and publication of the Journal of
Trauma supplement was provided by the US Army Medical Command.
The opinions or assertions contained herein are the private views of the authors and
are not to be construed as ofcial or reecting the views of the Department of the
Air Force, Department of the Army, Department of the Navy, or Department of
Defense, or the US Government. This work was prepared as part of their ofcial
duties; and, as such, there is no copyright to be transferred.
Guideline Disclaimer: It is important to realize that guidelines cannot always account for
individual variation among patients. They are not intended to supplant physician
judgment with respect to particular patients or special clinical situations. Adherence to
these guidelines is voluntary, with the ultimate determination regarding their applica-
tion to be made by the physician in the light of each patients individual circumstances.
Address for reprints: Duane R. Hospenthal, MD, PhD, FACP, FIDSA, Infectious Disease
Service (MCHE-MDI), San Antonio Military Medical Center, 3851 Roger Brooke
Drive, Fort Sam Houston, TX 78234; email: duane.hospenthal@us.army.mil.
DOI: 10.1097/TA.0b013e318227ac4b
S210 The Journal of TRAUMA
Injury, Infection, and Critical Care Volume 71, Number 2, August Supplement 2, 2011
to prevent these infections are chiey derived from retrospec-
tive review of experiences in past and current conicts, from
civilian trauma data, and from in vitro and animal data. The
best clinical practices to prevent infections in combat injuries
have not been fully established. The following guidelines
integrate available evidence and expert opinion, from the
military and civilian medical community, both within and
outside of the United States. These updated guidelines pro-
vide recommendations to healthcare providers for the man-
agement of combat-injured patients with open wounds or
burns to prevent infectious complications. They focus on care
from point-of-injury until arrival to tertiary care facilities
outside of the combat zone. Postinjury antimicrobials, early
wound cleansing (irrigation) and surgical debridement, de-
layed closure, and bony stabilization, with emphasis on main-
tenance of infection control measures,
1
are the essential
components in reducing the incidence of these infections.
New in this update are a consolidation of antimicrobial agent
recommendations to a backbone of high-dose cefazolin with
or without metronidazole for most postinjury indications and
recommendations for redosing of antimicrobial agents, for
use of negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT), and for
oxygen supplementation in ight. Although focused on pre-
vention of infections after injuries produced by combat, these
guidelines may be applicable to noncombat traumatic injuries
under certain circumstances.
Each section begins with a question and is followed by
numbered recommendations from the panel with strength and
quality of supporting evidence ratings (Table 1). In addition,
a table is included to guide use of these recommendations
based on the (US military) level of medical care (Table 2).
Recommendations are supported by the ve evidence-based
reviews included in this Journal of Trauma supplement: (1)
Prevention of infections associated with combat-related ex-
tremity injuries,
2
(2) Prevention of infections associated with
combat-related central nervous system injuries,
3
(3) Preven-
tion of infections associated with combat-related eye, maxil-
lofacial, and neck injuries,
4
(4) Prevention of infections
associated with combat-related thoracic and abdominal cav-
ity injuries,
5
and (5) Prevention of infections associated with
combat-related burn injuries.
6
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE PREVENTION
OF INFECTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH
COMBAT-RELATED INJURIES
A. Initial Care in the Field
I. What Initial Care/Stabilization Should be
Provided to the Injured Patient in the Field Before
Evacuation to a Medical Care Facility (Medical
Treatment Facilities)?
1. Wounds should be bandaged with sterile dressing and
fractures stabilized before transportation to higher level
of care (IB) (Table 2).
2. Dressing covering the eye should provide protection
while avoiding producing pressure on the orbit (IB). A
Fox shield or other such device should be employed.
TABLE 1. GRADE* Systematic Weighting of the Quality of Evidence and Grading of Recommendations
Strength of Recommendation and
Quality of Evidence
Methodological Quality of
Supporting Evidence (Examples)
Clarity of Balance Between
Desirable and Undesirable Effects
IA Strong recommendation, high-quality
evidence
Consistent evidence from well-performed RCTs or exceptionally
strong evidence from unbiased observational studies
Desirable effects clearly outweigh
undesirable effects or vice versa
IB Strong recommendation, moderate-
quality evidence
Evidence from RCTs with important limitations (inconsistent
results, methodological aws, indirect, or imprecise) or
exceptionally strong evidence from unbiased observational
studies
IC Strong recommendation, low-quality
evidence
Evidence for at least one critical outcome from observational
studies, RCTs with serious aws or indirect evidence
ID Strong recommendation, very low-
quality evidence
Evidence for at least one critical outcome from unsystematic
clinical observations or very indirect evidence
IIA Weak recommendation, high-quality
evidence
Consistent evidence from well-performed RCTs or exceptionally
strong evidence from unbiased observational studies
Desirable effects closely balanced with
undesirable effects
IIB Weak recommendation, moderate-
quality evidence
Evidence from RCTs with important limitations (inconsistent
results, methodological aws, indirect, or imprecise) or
exceptionally strong evidence from unbiased observational
studies
Desirable effects closely balanced with
undesirable effects
IIC Weak recommendation, low-quality
evidence
Evidence for at least one critical outcome from observational
studies, from RCTs with serious aws or indirect evidence
Uncertainty in the estimates of
desirable effects, harms, and burden;
desirable effects, harms, and burden
may be closely balanced
IID Weak recommendation, very low-
quality evidence
Evidence for at least one critical outcome from unsystematic
clinical observations or very indirect evidence
Major uncertainty in the estimates of
desirable effects, harms, and burden;
Desirable effects may or may not be
balanced with undesirable effects
may be closely balanced
RCTs, randomized controlled trials.
* Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE), www.gradeworkinggroup.org.
The Journal of TRAUMA
Injury, Infection, and Critical Care Volume 71, Number 2, August Supplement 2, 2011 Prevention of Infection in Combat Injury
Guidelines
2011 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins S211
TABLE 2. Recommendations to Prevent Infections Associated With Combat-Related Injuries Based on Level of Care
Level of Care* Care Category Recommendations
Role 1/Level I
(prehospital)
Initial care in the eld -Bandage wounds with sterile dressings (avoid pressure over eye wounds) (IB)
Stabilize fractures (IB)
Transfer to surgical support as soon as feasible (IB)
Postinjury antimicrobials Provide single-dose point-of-injury antimicrobials (Table 3) if evacuation is delayed or expected to be
delayed (IC)
Role 1/Level II /
Role 2/Level II
without surgical
support (IIa)
Postinjury antimicrobials Provide IV antimicrobials (Table 3) as soon as possible (within 3 h) (IB)
Provide tetanus toxoid and immune globulin as appropriate
Enhance gram-negative coverage with aminoglycoside or uoroquinolone not recommended (IB)
Addition of penicillin to prevent clostridial gangrene or streptococcal infection is not recommended (IC)
Redose antimicrobials if large volume blood produce resuscitation (IC)
Use only topical antimicrobials for burns (IB)
Debridement and irrigation Irrigate wounds to remove gross contamination with normal saline, sterile, or potable water, under low
pressure (bulb syringe or equivalent) without additives (IB)
Do not attempt to remove retained deep soft tissue fragments if criteria met (IB).
Provide cefazolin
2 g IV 1 dose
Role 2/Level II
with surgical
support (IIb)/
Role 3/
Level III
Postinjury antimicrobials Provide IV antimicrobials (Table 3) as soon as possible (within 3 h) (IB)
Provide tetanus toxoid and immune globulin as appropriate
Enhance gram-negative coverage with aminoglycoside or uoroquinolone not recommended (IB)
Addition of penicillin to prevent clostridial gangrene or streptococcal infection is not recommended (IC)
Redose antimicrobials if large volume blood produce resuscitation (IC)
Use only topical antimicrobials for burns (IB)
Antimicrobial beads or pouches may be used (IB)
Provide postsplenectomy immunizations if indicated (IB)
Debridement and irrigation Irrigate wounds to remove contamination with normal saline or sterile water, under low pressure (510
PSI, e.g., bulb syringe or gravity ow) without additives (use 3 L for each Type I, 6 L for each Type
II, and 9 L for each Type III extremity fractures) (IB)
Provide cefazolin
2 g IV 1 dose
Do not obtain cultures unless infection is suspected (IB)
Surgical wound management Surgical evaluation as soon as possible (IB)
Only dural and facial wounds should undergo primary closure (IB)
NPWT can be used (IB)
External xation (temporary spanning) of femur/tibia fractures (IB)
External xation (temporary spanning) or splint immobilization of open humerus/forearm fractures (IB)
Role 4/Level IV Postinjury antimicrobials Complete course of postinjury antimicrobials (Table 3)
Antimicrobial beads or pouches may be used (IB)
Provide postsplenectomy immunizations if indicated (IB)
Debridement and irrigation Irrigate wounds to remove contamination with normal saline or sterile water, under low pressure (510
PSI, e.g., bulb syringe or gravity ow) without additives (use 3 L for each Type I, 6 L for each Type
II, and 9 L for each Type III extremity fractures) (IB)
Provide cefazolin
2 g IV 1 dose
Do not obtain cultures unless infection is suspected (IB)
Surgical wound management Wounds should not be closed until 35 d postinjury (IB)
Only dural and facial wounds should undergo primary closure (IB)
NPWT can be used (IB)
External xation (temporary spanning) of femur/tibia fractures (IB)
External xation (temporary spanning) or splint immobilization of open humerus/forearm fractures (IB)
IV, intravenous; PSI, pounds per square inch.
* Role of care, level of care, and echelon of care are considered synonymous with role currently the preferred US military term. Denitions of role/level/echelon of care: Role
1self-aid, buddy aid, combat lifesaver, and combat medic/corpsman care at the point-of-injury; physician/physician assistant care at battalion aid station (BAS; US Army) or shock
trauma platoon (US Marine Corps USMC); no patient holding capacity; Role 2medical company (includes forward support medical company, main support medical company,
and area support medical company in US Army) or expeditionary medical support (EMEDS, US Air Force USAF); 72 h patient holding capacity, basic blood transfusion,
radiography, and laboratory support. May be supplemented with surgical assets (2b) (forward surgical team, US Army; mobile eld surgical team, USAF; forward resuscitative
surgical system, USMC); Role 3combat support hospital (CSH, US Army), Air Force theater hospital (AFTH, USAF), or casualty receiving ships (USN); full inpatient capacity
with intensive care units and operating rooms; Role 4regional hospital (Landstuhl Regional Medical Center, Germany) or USNS hospital ships (USN), typically outside of the
combat zone; general and specialized inpatient medical and surgical care; Role 5care facilities within United States, typically tertiary care medical centers.
Criteria for allowing retained fragments to remain behind: entry/exit wounds 2 cm; no bone, joint, vascular, and body cavity involvement; no high-risk etiology (e.g., mine);
no obvious infection; and assessable by X-ray.
Hospenthal et al. The Journal of TRAUMA
3. Patients should be transferred to a facility with surgical
support as soon as feasible (IB) (see recommendation 44).
4. Given the unpredictable nature of casualty evacuation in
a combat zone, point-of-injury antimicrobial agents (see
recommendation 20) should be provided if evacuation is
delayed or expected to be delayed (IC).
B. Postinjury Antimicrobials
II. Should Systemic Antimicrobials be Given to
Patients With Combat-Related Injuries
Immediately Postinjury?
5. Systemic antimicrobials should be administered as soon
as possible after injury to prevent early infectious com-
plications, including sepsis, caused by common bacterial
ora. Ideally, postinjury antimicrobials should be given
within 3 hours of injury (IB).
III. Which Antimicrobials (and What Dosing
Regimens) Should be Employed for Postinjury
Use?
6. Antimicrobial selection should focus on providing the nar-
rowest spectrum of activity required, providing coverage of
expected common bacterial ora. If multiple injuries are
present, the antimicrobial agent selection should be based
on the narrowest spectrum needed to cover all wound
sites/types (IB). Postinjury antimicrobials are provided to
prevent early infectious complications, including sepsis.
These recommended antimicrobials are not meant to treat
established infections where nosocomial pathogens, includ-
ing multidrug-resistant (MDR), may be the infecting agents
(Table 3).
7. Selected agents should be dosed to maximize pharmaco-
kinetics and pharmacodynamics. Logistical consider-
ations, including limiting number of agents to be stocked
and maintaining sufcient quantities in the combat zone,
should also be considered.
Extremity Wounds
8. Cefazolin, 2 g intravenously (IV) every 6 hours to 8 hours,
should be used as the antimicrobial of choice in extremity
injuries (skin, soft tissue, and/or bone) (IB). Clindamycin
may be given as an alternate agent if previous documented
anaphylaxis to -lactam antimicrobials.
9. Enhanced gram-negative coverage should not be
employed (IB).
10. Addition of penicillin to provide antimicrobial coverage
of clostridial gangrene and group A -hemolytic Strep-
tococcus infections is not required (IC).
Central Nervous System Wounds
11. Cefazolin, 2 g IV every 6 hours to 8 hours, should be
employed for central nervous system (CNS) injuries (IB).
12. Add metronidazole, 500 mg IV every 8 hours to 12 hours,
if brain grossly contaminated with organic debris (ID).
13. Add metronidazole, 500 mg IV every 8 hours to 12
hours, if spinal cord injury associated with concomitant
abdominal cavity penetration (IC).
Eye, Maxillofacial, and Neck Wounds
14. For penetrating eye injuries, levooxacin, 500 mg IV or
orally every 24 hours, should be provided (IB).
15. For maxillofacial and neck injuries, cefazolin, 2 g IV
every 6 hours to 8 hours, should be provided (IC).
Clindamycin, 600 mg IV every 8 hours, may be used as
an alternate (IC).
Thoracic and Abdominal Cavity Wounds
16. For thoracic cavity injuries without disruption of the
esophagus, cefazolin, 2 g IV every 6 hours to 8 hours,
should be used (IIB).
17. Cefazolin, 2 g IV every 6 hours to 8 hours, with metro-
nidazole, 500 mg IV every 8 hours to 12 hours, should be
provided for penetrating wounds to the abdomen and
penetrating wounds to the thorax that result in esopha-
geal injury (IIB). Alternate regimens include single-dose
ertapenem (1 g IV) or moxioxacin (400 mg IV) (IIB).
Burns
18. Topical antimicrobial agents should be used for burn
wounds in conjunction with debridement (IB). Silver
sulfadiazine cream alternating with mafenide acetate
cream is preferred. Debridement may not be feasible at
lower levels of care; in this situation, clean, dry dressing
should be applied to burn wound until the patient is
transferred to a higher level of care.
19. Systemic antimicrobials are not indicated for postinjury
therapy (IC), or for debridement performed as part of
routine wound care (IB), unless required for concomitant
traumatic injuries. Systemic antimicrobials may be con-
sidered for perioperative prophylaxis during excision and
grafting procedures (IC). Cefazolin, 2 g IV every 6 hours
to 8 hours for 24 hours, is sufcient for coverage of skin
ora. However, antimicrobial agents effective against
Pseudomonas should be considered if wounds are
grossly colonized or older than 5 days.
Point-of-Injury Antimicrobial Selection
20. Point-of-injury antimicrobials as suggested by the Tacti-
cal Combat Casualty Care (TCCC) Committee currently
include moxioxacin, 400 mg orally, if casualty does not
have penetrating abdominal trauma, is not in shock, and
can take oral medications. In patients who do not meet
these criteria, single-dose ertapenem (1 g IV or intramus-
cularly [IM]) or cefotetan (2 g IV or IM) every 12 hours
has been suggested. IV therapy is preferred over IM.
Pediatric Considerations
21. Children should be treated with the same antimicrobial
agents as those suggested for adults, including those
topical antimicrobials suggested for burns. Dosing of
antimicrobials in children weighing less than 40 kg
should be weight-based. Cefazolin should be dosed at 20
mg/kg to 30 mg/kg IV every 6 hours to 8 hours (up to
maximum of 100 mg/kg/d). Metronidazole should be
dosed at 30 mg/kg/d IV in four divided doses.
Guidelines
T
A
B
L
E
3
.
P
o
s
t
i
n
j
u
r
y
A
n
t
i
m
i
c
r
o
b
i
a
l
A
g
e
n
t
S
e
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
n
d
D
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
B
a
s
e
d
U
p
o
n
I
n
j
u
r
y
P
a
t
t
e
r
n
*
I
n
j
u
r
y
P
r
e
f
e
r
r
e
d
A
g
e
n
t
(
s
)
A
l
t
e
r
n
a
t
e
A
g
e
n
t
(
s
)
D
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
E
x
t
r
e
m
i
t
y
w
o
u
n
d
s
(
i
n
c
l
u
d
e
s
s
k
i
n
,
s
o
f
t
t
i
s
s
u
e
,
a
n
d
b
o
n
e
)
S
k
i
n
,
s
o
f
t
t
i
s
s
u
e
,
n
o
o
p
e
n
f
r
a
c
t
u
r
e
s
C
e
f
a
z
o
l
i
n
2
g
I
V
q
6
8
h
C
l
i
n
d
a
m
y
c
i
n
(
3
0
0
4
5
0
m
g
P
O
T
I
D
o
r
6
0
0
m
g
I
V
q
8
h
)
1
3
d
S
k
i
n
,
s
o
f
t
t
i
s
s
u
e
,
w
i
t
h
o
p
e
n
f
r
a
c
t
u
r
e
s
,
e
x
p
o
s
e
d
b
o
n
e
,
o
r
o
p
e
n
j
o
i
n
t
s
C
e
f
a
z
o
l
i
n
2
g
I
V
q
6
8
h
C
l
i
n
d
a
m
y
c
i
n
6
0
0
m
g
I
V
q
8
h
1
3
d
T
h
o
r
a
c
i
c
w
o
u
n
d
s
P
e
n
e
t
r
a
t
i
n
g
c
h
e
s
t
i
n
j
u
r
y
w
i
t
h
o
u
t
e
s
o
p
h
a
g
e
a
l
d
i
s
r
u
p
t
i
o
n
C
e
f
a
z
o
l
i
n
2
g
I
V
q
6
8
h
C
l
i
n
d
a
m
y
c
i
n
(
3
0
0
4
5
0
m
g
P
O
T
I
D
o
r
6
0
0
m
g
I
V
q
8
h
)
1
d
P
e
n
e
t
r
a
t
i
n
g
c
h
e
s
t
i
n
j
u
r
y
w
i
t
h
e
s
o
p
h
a
g
e
a
l
d
i
s
r
u
p
t
i
o
n
C
e
f
a
z
o
l
i
n
2
g
I
V
q
6
8
h
p
l
u
s
m
e
t
r
o
n
i
d
a
z
o
l
e
5
0
0
m
g
I
V
q
8
1
2
h
E
r
t
a
p
e
n
e
m
1
g
I
V
1
d
o
s
e
o
r
m
o
x
i
o
x
a
c
i
n
4
0
0
m
g
I
V
1
d
o
s
e
1
d
a
f
t
e
r
d
e
n
i
t
i
v
e
w
a
s
h
o
u
t
A
b
d
o
m
i
n
a
l
w
o
u
n
d
s
P
e
n
e
t
r
a
t
i
n
g
a
b
d
o
m
i
n
a
l
i
n
j
u
r
y
w
i
t
h
s
u
s
p
e
c
t
e
d
/
k
n
o
w
n
h
o
l
l
o
w
v
i
s
c
u
s
i
n
j
u
r
y
a
n
d
s
o
i
l
a
g
e
;
m
a
y
a
p
p
l
y
t
o
r
e
c
t
a
l
/
p
e
r
i
n
e
a
l
i
n
j
u
r
i
e
s
a
s
w
e
l
l
C
e
f
a
z
o
l
i
n
2
g
I
V
q
6
8
h
p
l
u
s
m
e
t
r
o
n
i
d
a
z
o
l
e
5
0
0
m
g
I
V
q
8
1
2
h
E
r
t
a
p
e
n
e
m
1
g
I
V
1
d
o
s
e
o
r
m
o
x
i
o
x
a
c
i
n
4
0
0
m
g
I
V
1
d
o
s
e
1
d
a
f
t
e
r
d
e
n
i
t
i
v
e
w
a
s
h
o
u
t
M
a
x
i
l
l
o
f
a
c
i
a
l
a
n
d
n
e
c
k
w
o
u
n
d
s
O
p
e
n
m
a
x
i
l
l
o
f
a
c
i
a
l
f
r
a
c
t
u
r
e
s
,
o
r
m
a
x
i
l
l
o
f
a
c
i
a
l
f
r
a
c
t
u
r
e
s
w
i
t
h
f
o
r
e
i
g
n
b
o
d
y
o
r
x
a
t
i
o
n
d
e
v
i
c
e
C
e
f
a
z
o
l
i
n
2
g
I
V
q
6
8
h
C
l
i
n
d
a
m
y
c
i
n
6
0
0
m
g
I
V
q
8
h
1
d
C
e
n
t
r
a
l
n
e
r
v
o
u
s
s
y
s
t
e
m
w
o
u
n
d
s
P
e
n
e
t
r
a
t
i
n
g
b
r
a
i
n
i
n
j
u
r
y
C
e
f
a
z
o
l
i
n
2
g
I
V
q
6
8
h
.
C
o
n
s
i
d
e
r
a
d
d
i
n
g
m
e
t
r
o
n
i
d
a
z
o
l
e
5
0
0
m
g
I
V
q
8
1
2
h
i
f
g
r
o
s
s
c
o
n
t
a
m
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
w
i
t
h
o
r
g
a
n
i
c
d
e
b
r
i
s
C
e
f
t
r
i
a
x
o
n
e
2
g
I
V
q
2
4
h
.
C
o
n
s
i
d
e
r
a
d
d
i
n
g
m
e
t
r
o
n
i
d
a
z
o
l
e
5
0
0
m
g
I
V
q
8
1
2
h
i
f
g
r
o
s
s
c
o
n
t
a
m
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
w
i
t
h
o
r
g
a
n
i
c
d
e
b
r
i
s
.
F
o
r
p
e
n
i
c
i
l
l
i
n
a
l
l
e
r
g
i
c
p
a
t
i
e
n
t
s
,
v
a
n
c
o
m
y
c
i
n
1
g
I
V
q
1
2
h
p
l
u
s
c
i
p
r
o
o
x
a
c
i
n
4
0
0
m
g
I
V
q
8
1
2
h
5
d
o
r
u
n
t
i
l
C
S
F
l
e
a
k
i
s
c
l
o
s
e
d
,
w
h
i
c
h
e
v
e
r
i
s
l
o
n
g
e
r
P
e
n
e
t
r
a
t
i
n
g
s
p
i
n
a
l
c
o
r
d
i
n
j
u
r
y
C
e
f
a
z
o
l
i
n
2
g
I
V
q
6
8
h
.
A
D
D
m
e
t
r
o
n
i
d
a
z
o
l
e
5
0
0
m
g
I
V
q
8
1
2
h
i
f
a
b
d
o
m
i
n
a
l
c
a
v
i
t
y
i
s
i
n
v
o
l
v
e
d
A
s
a
b
o
v
e
.
A
D
D
m
e
t
r
o
n
i
d
a
z
o
l
e
5
0
0
m
g
I
V
q
8
1
2
h
i
f
a
b
d
o
m
i
n
a
l
c
a
v
i
t
y
i
s
i
n
v
o
l
v
e
d
5
d
o
r
u
n
t
i
l
C
S
F
l
e
a
k
i
s
c
l
o
s
e
d
,
w
h
i
c
h
e
v
e
r
i
s
l
o
n
g
e
r
E
y
e
W
o
u
n
d
s
E
y
e
i
n
j
u
r
y
,
b
u
r
n
o
r
a
b
r
a
s
i
o
n
T
o
p
i
c
a
l
:
E
r
y
t
h
r
o
m
y
c
i
n
o
r
B
a
c
i
t
r
a
c
i
n
o
p
h
t
h
a
l
m
i
c
o
i
n
t
m
e
n
t
Q
I
D
a
n
d
P
R
N
f
o
r
s
y
m
p
t
o
m
a
t
i
c
r
e
l
i
e
f
F
l
u
o
r
o
q
u
i
n
o
l
o
n
e
1
d
r
o
p
Q
I
D
U
n
t
i
l
e
p
i
t
h
e
l
i
u
m
h
e
a
l
e
d
(
n
o
u
o
r
e
s
c
e
i
n
s
t
a
i
n
i
n
g
)
S
y
s
t
e
m
i
c
:
N
o
s
y
s
t
e
m
i
c
t
r
e
a
t
m
e
n
t
r
e
q
u
i
r
e
d
E
y
e
i
n
j
u
r
y
,
p
e
n
e
t
r
a
t
i
n
g
L
e
v
o
o
x
a
c
i
n
5
0
0
m
g
I
V
/
P
O
o
n
c
e
d
a
i
l
y
.
B
e
f
o
r
e
p
r
i
m
a
r
y
r
e
p
a
i
r
,
n
o
t
o
p
i
c
a
l
a
g
e
n
t
s
s
h
o
u
l
d
b
e
u
s
e
d
u
n
l
e
s
s
d
i
r
e
c
t
e
d
b
y
o
p
h
t
h
a
l
m
o
l
o
g
y
7
d
o
r
u
n
t
i
l
e
v
a
l
u
a
t
e
d
b
y
a
r
e
t
i
n
a
l
s
p
e
c
i
a
l
i
s
t
B
u
r
n
s
S
u
p
e
r
c
i
a
l
b
u
r
n
s
T
o
p
i
c
a
l
a
n
t
i
m
i
c
r
o
b
i
a
l
s
w
i
t
h
t
w
i
c
e
d
a
i
l
y
d
r
e
s
s
i
n
g
c
h
a
n
g
e
s
(
i
n
c
l
u
d
e
m
a
f
e
n
i
d
e
a
c
e
t
a
t
e
o
r
s
i
l
v
e
r
s
u
l
f
a
d
i
a
z
i
n
e
;
m
a
y
a
l
t
e
r
n
a
t
e
b
e
t
w
e
e
n
t
h
e
t
w
o
)
,
s
i
l
v
e
r
-
i
m
p
r
e
g
n
a
t
e
d
d
r
e
s
s
i
n
g
c
h
a
n
g
e
d
q
3
5
d
,
o
r
B
i
o
b
r
a
n
e
S
i
l
v
e
r
n
i
t
r
a
t
e
s
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
a
p
p
l
i
e
d
t
o
d
r
e
s
s
i
n
g
s
U
n
t
i
l
h
e
a
l
e
d
D
e
e
p
p
a
r
t
i
a
l
-
t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s
b
u
r
n
s
T
o
p
i
c
a
l
a
n
t
i
m
i
c
r
o
b
i
a
l
s
w
i
t
h
t
w
i
c
e
d
a
i
l
y
d
r
e
s
s
i
n
g
c
h
a
n
g
e
s
,
o
r
s
i
l
v
e
r
-
i
m
p
r
e
g
n
a
t
e
d
d
r
e
s
s
i
n
g
c
h
a
n
g
e
d
q
3
5
d
,
p
l
u
s
e
x
c
i
s
i
o
n
a
n
d
g
r
a
f
t
i
n
g
S
i
l
v
e
r
n
i
t
r
a
t
e
s
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
a
p
p
l
i
e
d
t
o
d
r
e
s
s
i
n
g
s
p
l
u
s
e
x
c
i
s
i
o
n
a
n
d
g
r
a
f
t
i
n
g
U
n
t
i
l
h
e
a
l
e
d
o
r
g
r
a
f
t
e
d
F
u
l
l
-
t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s
b
u
r
n
s
T
o
p
i
c
a
l
a
n
t
i
m
i
c
r
o
b
i
a
l
s
w
i
t
h
t
w
i
c
e
d
a
i
l
y
d
r
e
s
s
i
n
g
c
h
a
n
g
e
s
p
l
u
s
e
x
c
i
s
i
o
n
a
n
d
g
r
a
f
t
i
n
g
S
i
l
v
e
r
n
i
t
r
a
t
e
s
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
a
p
p
l
i
e
d
t
o
d
r
e
s
s
i
n
g
s
p
l
u
s
e
x
c
i
s
i
o
n
a
n
d
g
r
a
f
t
i
n
g
U
n
t
i
l
h
e
a
l
e
d
o
r
g
r
a
f
t
e
d
IV. What Duration of Antimicrobials Should be
Given to Patients After Combat-Related Injuries?
22. The shortest course of postinjury antimicrobial therapy
should be used (IB) (Table 3). If multiple wounds are
present, the duration of antimicrobials is dictated by the
injury pattern requiring the longest duration of therapy.
Duration should not be extended for open wounds,
drains, or external xation devices. Wounds should be
continually reassessed for evidence of infection and an-
timicrobials directed specically at known or empirically
suspected infecting pathogens provided if infection is
suspected or proven.
Extremity Wounds
23. Antimicrobials should be provided for 1 day to 3 days for
all extremity wounds (IB).
CNS Wounds
24. Antimicrobials are recommended for 5 days or until
cerebrospinal uid (CSF) leak is closed, whichever time
period is longer (ID).
25. For penetrating eye injuries, antimicrobials should be
provided for a total of 7 days or until a thorough evalu-
ation by a retinal specialist with adequate capabilities has
been performed (IC).
26. For maxillofacial and neck injuries, 1 day of antimicro-
bial coverage should be provided (IC).
27. Thoracic injuries with esophageal injury should also
receive a total of 1 day of antimicrobials after denitive
operative washout (IB).
28. Casualties should receive a total of 1 day of antimicro-
bials after denitive operative washout for abdominal
cavity injuries (IB).
Burns
29. Topical antimicrobial agents should be used for burns
until wounds are successfully covered with healed skin,
whether spontaneously or following successful skin
grafting (IC).
V. Should Antimicrobials be Redosed Before Next
Schedule Dosing Interval if Patients Require
Substantial Blood Product Support, Require Large
Volume Resuscitation, or Have Severe Acidosis?
30. Redosing of antimicrobials should be performed after large
volume blood product resuscitation (1,5002,000 mL of
blood loss) has been completed, regardless of when the last
dose of antimicrobial was administered (IC). T
A
B
L
E
3
.
P
o
s
t
i
n
j
u
r
y
A
n
t
i
m
i
c
r
o
b
i
a
l
A
g
e
n
t
S
e
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
n
d
D
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
B
a
s
e
d
U
p
o
n
I
n
j
u
r
y
P
a
t
t
e
r
n
*
(
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
)
I
n
j
u
r
y
P
r
e
f
e
r
r
e
d
A
g
e
n
t
(
s
)
A
l
t
e
r
n
a
t
e
A
g
e
n
t
(
s
)
D
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
P
o
i
n
t
-
o
f
-
i
n
j
u
r
y
/
d
e
l
a
y
e
d
e
v
a
c
u
a
t
i
o
n
E
x
p
e
c
t
e
d
d
e
l
a
y
t
o
r
e
a
c
h
s
u
r
g
i
c
a
l
c
a
r
e
M
o
x
i
o
x
a
c
i
n
4
0
0
m
g
P
O
1
d
o
s
e
.
E
r
t
a
p
e
n
e
m
1
g
I
V
o
r
I
M
i
f
p
e
n
e
t
r
a
t
i
n
g
a
b
d
o
m
i
n
a
l
i
n
j
u
r
y
,
s
h
o
c
k
,
o
r
u
n
a
b
l
e
t
o
t
o
l
e
r
a
t
e
P
O
m
e
d
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s
L
e
v
o
o
x
a
c
i
n
5
0
0
m
g
P
O
1
d
o
s
e
.
C
e
f
o
t
e
t
a
n
2
g
I
V
o
r
I
M
q
1
2
h
i
f
p
e
n
e
t
r
a
t
i
n
g
a
b
d
o
m
i
n
a
l
i
n
j
u
r
y
,
s
h
o
c
k
,
o
r
u
n
a
b
l
e
t
o
t
o
l
e
r
a
t
e
P
O
m
e
d
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s
S
i
n
g
l
e
-
d
o
s
e
t
h
e
r
a
p
y
I
V
,
i
n
t
r
a
v
e
n
o
u
s
;
P
O
,
o
r
a
l
l
y
;
I
M
,
i
n
t
r
a
m
u
s
c
u
l
a
r
l
y
;
T
I
D
,
t
h
r
e
e
t
i
m
e
s
d
a
i
l
y
;
Q
I
D
,
f
o
u
r
t
i
m
e
s
d
a
i
l
y
;
P
R
N
,
a
s
n
e
e
d
e
d
;
C
S
F
,
c
e
r
e
b
r
o
s
p
i
n
a
l
u
i
d
.
*
P
o
s
t
i
n
j
u
r
y
a
n
t
i
m
i
c
r
o
b
i
a
l
a
g
e
n
t
s
a
r
e
r
e
c
o
m
m
e
n
d
e
d
t
o
p
r
e
v
e
n
t
e
a
r
l
y
p
o
s
t
t
r
a
u
m
a
t
i
c
i
n
f
e
c
t
i
o
u
s
c
o
m
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s
,
i
n
c
l
u
d
i
n
g
s
e
p
s
i
s
,
s
e
c
o
n
d
a
r
y
t
o
c
o
m
m
o
n
b
a
c
t
e
r
i
a
l
o
r
a
.
S
e
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
i
s
b
a
s
e
d
o
n
n
a
r
r
o
w
e
s
t
s
p
e
c
t
r
u
m
a
n
d
d
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
r
e
q
u
i
r
e
d
t
o
p
r
e
v
e
n
t
e
a
r
l
y
i
n
f
e
c
t
i
o
n
s
b
e
f
o
r
e
a
d
e
q
u
a
t
e
s
u
r
g
i
c
a
l
w
o
u
n
d
m
a
n
a
g
e
m
e
n
t
.
T
h
i
s
n
a
r
r
o
w
s
p
e
c
t
r
u
m
i
s
s
e
l
e
c
t
e
d
t
o
a
v
o
i
d
s
e
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
o
f
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
t
b
a
c
t
e
r
i
a
.
T
h
e
a
n
t
i
m
i
c
r
o
b
i
a
l
s
l
i
s
t
e
d
a
r
e
n
o
t
i
n
t
e
n
d
e
d
f
o
r
u
s
e
i
n
e
s
t
a
b
l
i
s
h
e
d
i
n
f
e
c
t
i
o
n
s
,
w
h
e
r
e
m
u
l
t
i
d
r
u
g
-
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
t
o
r
o
t
h
e
r
n
o
s
o
c
o
m
i
a
l
p
a
t
h
o
g
e
n
s
m
a
y
b
e
c
a
u
s
i
n
g
i
n
f
e
c
t
i
o
n
.
C
e
f
a
z
o
l
i
n
m
a
y
b
e
d
o
s
e
d
b
a
s
e
d
o
n
b
o
d
y
m
a
s
s
:
1
g
i
f
w
e
i
g
h
t
8
0
k
g
(
1
7
6
l
b
s
)
,
2
g
i
f
w
e
i
g
h
t
8
1
1
6
0
k
g
(
1
7
7
3
5
2
l
b
s
)
,
3
g
i
f
w
e
i
g
h
t
1
6
0
k
g
(
3
5
2
l
b
s
)
;
d
o
s
e
s
u
p
t
o
1
2
g
d
a
i
l
y
a
r
e
s
u
p
p
o
r
t
e
d
b
y
F
D
A
-
a
p
p
r
o
v
e
d
p
a
c
k
a
g
e
i
n
s
e
r
t
.
P
e
d
i
a
t
r
i
c
d
o
s
i
n
g
:
c
e
f
a
z
o
l
i
n
,
2
0
3
0
m
g
/
k
g
I
V
q
6
8
h
(
m
a
x
i
m
u
m
,
1
0
0
m
g
/
k
g
/
d
)
;
m
e
t
r
o
n
i
d
a
z
o
l
e
,
7
.
5
m
g
/
k
g
I
V
q
6
h
;
c
l
i
n
d
a
m
y
c
i
n
2
5
4
0
m
g
/
k
g
/
d
I
V
d
i
v
i
d
e
d
q
6
8
h
;
e
r
t
a
p
e
n
e
m
,
1
5
m
g
/
k
g
I
V
o
r
I
M
q
1
2
h
(
c
h
i
l
d
r
e
n
u
p
t
o
1
2
y
r
)
o
r
2
0
m
g
/
k
g
I
V
o
r
I
M
o
n
c
e
d
a
i
l
y
(
c
h
i
l
d
r
e
n
o
v
e
r
1
2
y
r
;
m
a
x
i
m
u
m
,
1
g
/
d
)
;
c
e
f
t
r
i
a
x
o
n
e
,
1
0
0
m
g
/
k
g
/
d
I
V
d
i
v
i
d
e
d
q
1
2
2
4
h
(
d
o
s
i
n
g
f
o
r
C
N
S
i
n
j
u
r
y
)
;
l
e
v
o
o
x
a
c
i
n
,
8
m
g
/
k
g
I
V
o
r
P
O
q
1
2
h
(
l
e
v
o
o
x
a
c
i
n
i
s
o
n
l
y
F
D
A
-
a
p
p
r
o
v
e
d
i
n
c
h
i
l
d
r
e
n
f
o
r
p
r
o
p
h
y
l
a
x
i
s
o
f
i
n
h
a
l
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
a
n
t
h
r
a
x
i
n
c
h
i
l
d
r
e
n
o
l
d
e
r
t
h
a
n
6
m
o
,
b
u
t
t
h
i
s
d
o
s
e
i
s
c
o
m
m
o
n
l
y
u
s
e
d
f
o
r
o
t
h
e
r
i
n
d
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s
)
;
v
a
n
c
o
m
y
c
i
n
,
6
0
m
g
/
k
g
/
d
I
V
d
i
v
i
d
e
d
q
6
h
(
d
o
s
i
n
g
f
o
r
C
N
S
i
n
j
u
r
y
)
;
c
i
p
r
o
o
x
a
c
i
n
,
1
0
m
g
/
k
g
I
V
(
o
r
1
0
2
0
m
g
/
k
g
P
O
)
q
1
2
h
.
T
h
e
s
e
g
u
i
d
e
l
i
n
e
s
d
o
n
o
t
a
d
v
o
c
a
t
e
a
d
d
i
n
g
e
n
h
a
n
c
e
d
g
r
a
m
-
n
e
g
a
t
i
v
e
b
a
c
t
e
r
i
a
c
o
v
e
r
a
g
e
(
i
.
e
.
,
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
o
f
u
o
r
o
q
u
i
n
o
l
o
n
e
o
r
a
m
i
n
o
g
l
y
c
o
s
i
d
e
a
n
t
i
m
i
c
r
o
b
i
a
l
s
)
i
n
T
y
p
e
I
I
I
f
r
a
c
t
u
r
e
s
.
M
a
f
e
n
i
d
e
a
c
e
t
a
t
e
i
s
c
o
n
t
r
a
i
n
d
i
c
a
t
e
d
i
n
i
n
f
a
n
t
s
y
o
u
n
g
e
r
t
h
a
n
2
m
o
.
P
o
s
t
i
n
j
u
r
y
a
n
t
i
m
i
c
r
o
b
i
a
l
t
h
e
r
a
p
y
a
s
s
u
g
g
e
s
t
e
d
b
y
t
h
e
T
a
c
t
i
c
a
l
C
o
m
b
a
t
C
a
s
u
a
l
t
y
C
a
r
e
C
o
m
m
i
t
t
e
e
.
Guidelines
VI. Should Local Delivery of Antimicrobials Through
Topical Application or Beads (Bead Pouches) be
Implemented in the Care of Combat-Related Injuries?
31. Local delivery of topical antimicrobials may be provided
for extremity infections in the form of antimicrobial
beads or pouches as long as the emphasis is still on
surgical debridement and irrigation (IB).
32. Local delivery of other antimicrobials (other than in
burn care), to include powders or soaking of wet to dry
dressing with antimicrobials, should not be used
routinely (IB).
VII. What Vaccines or Other Immunotherapy
Should be Provided Postinjury?
Tetanus Toxoid or Immune Globulin
33. Patients who have been previously immunized against
tetanus (received 3 or more doses of toxoid) do not
require booster dose of vaccine unless it has been more
than 5 years since their last dose. They do not require
tetanus immune globulin (TIG) (IB).
34. Unimmunized patients, and those with unknown vacci-
nation status, should receive TIG and vaccine (with
additional doses of vaccine given at 4 weeks and 6
months) postinjury (IC).
35. Early surgical debridement and irrigation in addition
to postinjury antimicrobials and vaccine may be effec-
tive in the prevention of tetanus in the absence of TIG
administration (IID).
Postsplenectomy Immunization
36. Patients who have had their spleens removed should
receive immunization against Streptococcus pneu-
moniae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Hemophilus
inuenza serotype B (IB). Immunization should be
provided within 14 days of splenectomy.
C. Debridement and Irrigation
VIII. When Should Irrigation Fluid be
Implemented in the Management of
Combat-Related Injuries?
37. Wound irrigation should be initiated as soon as clinically
possible by appropriately trained personnel (ID).
IX. Should Additives Supplement Irrigation Fluid
for Combat-Related Injuries?
38. Additives should not be included in standard irrigation
uid as normal saline (or alternately, sterile water or
potable water) is adequate (IB).
X. What Volume of Fluid Should be Used to
Irrigate Wounds Associated With Combat
Injuries?
39. Sufcient volume to remove debris should be employed
(IB). For extremity injuries, standard volumes of 3 L, 6
L, and 9 L should be provided for type I, II, and III
fractures, respectively; however, larger volumes might
be required for more severe injuries (IB).
XI. What Pressure Should be Used to Deliver
Irrigation in the Management of Combat-Related
Injuries?
40. Irrigation uid should be delivered at low pressure (510
PSI [pounds per square inch] may be delivered by bulb
syringe or gravity irrigation) (IB).
XII. Should Pre- and/or Postdebridement Bacterial
Culture of Combat-Related Wounds be
Performed?
41. Clinicians should obtain bacterial cultures only when
there are concerns for an ongoing wound infection based
upon systemic signs or symptoms of infection, local
appearance of wounds, and laboratory or radiographic
imaging studies (IB).
42. Results from infection control surveillance cultures
should not be used for initiation of therapy (IC).
XIII. Can Retained Soft Tissue Fragments Remain
in a Combat-Related Injury Wound?
43. Casualties with isolated retained deep extremity soft
tissue metal fragments meeting certain clinical and ra-
diographic criteria should be treated with a single dose of
cefazolin, 2 g IV, without fragment removal (IB). Pa-
tients should be monitored for evidence of subsequent
infection.
D. Surgical Wound Management
XIV. When Should Patients With Combat-Related
Injuries Undergo Initial Surgical Management?
44. Patients should be evacuated to surgical care as soon as
possible based upon a risk-benet analysis of the combat
environment (IB).
45. Penetrating injuries of the eye (IB) and spine without
neurologic compromise (IC) should await surgical debride-
ment until appropriate surgical expertise is available.
46. Foreign material embedded in the brain, which are
not readily accessible, should not be removed by
non-neurosurgeons (IB).
47. All burn injuries should undergo thorough cleansing and
debridement, estimation of extent and depth, and cover-
age with appropriate topical antimicrobial agents within
8 hours of injury (IC). Early (within 5 days) excision and
grafting is suggested for deep partial-thickness and full-
thickness burns (IA). This should ideally be performed
outside of the combat zone by surgeons with appropriate
training and experience.
XV. When Should Combat-Related Wounds be
Closed?
48. Wounds, to include open fractures, should not be closed
early; typical closure should be performed 3 days to 5
days after injury if there is no evidence of infection (IB).
49. For injuries that involve the face or dura, primary closure
should be performed (IB).
50. For abdominal and thoracic injuries, the skin should not be
closed if there is a colon injury or extensive devitalized
tissue due to excessive infectious complications (IB).
51. Early primary repair of complex or destructive colonic
injuries should not be performed especially if associated
with massive blood transfusion, ongoing hypotension,
hypoxia, reperfusion injury, multiple other injuries, high-
velocity injury, or extensive local tissue damage (IB).
52. If the abdomen is left open, the possibility of partial or
complete closure should be considered at each subse-
quent laparotomy (IB).
53. Scheduled laparotomies should be performed in this
group at 24-hour to 48-hour intervals (IB).
XVI. Should External Fixation be Standard for
Stabilization of Fracture?
54. Temporary spanning external xation should be placed
for femoral and tibial fractures (IB). Use of external
xation in the current conicts allows stabilization dur-
ing long evacuations to the United States, easy observa-
tion of wounds (over use of plaster), and potentially less
chronic infections (over early open reduction and internal
xation).
55. Temporary spanning external xation or splint immobiliza-
tion placement with transition to open plate and screw
osteosynthesis should be employed for open humerus and
forearm fractures after soft tissue stabilization (IB).
XVII. Can NPWT be Used in the Management of
Combat-Related Wounds?
56. NPWT should be used in the management of open
wounds (excluding CNS injuries) to include during aero-
medical evacuation of patients (IB).
57. Use of intermittent suction or instillation of normal saline
in conjunction with NPWT is discouraged in most situ-
ations based upon preliminary animal studies (ID).
58. Local delivery of antimicrobials using beads or pouches
might be effective in combination with NPWT and could
be considered (IID).
XVIII. Should Supplemental Oxygen be Provided
During Transportation of the Wounded to Medical
Facilities Outside the Combat Zone?
59. During aeromedical evacuation, supplemental oxygen (to
maintain oxygen saturation 92%) may be benecial in
patients with combat-related injuries (IIC).
E. Facility Infection Control and Prevention
XIX. What Infection Control and Prevention
Measures Should be Implemented in Deployed
Medical Treatment Facilities?
60. Basic infection control and prevention measures should be
employed at all deployed medical treatment facilities
(MTF). These should include hand hygiene, with compli-
ance monitoring. Infection control and prevention should
include MTF Commander oversight and emphasis (IB).
61. Transmission-based (isolation) precautions should be
implemented (IB).
62. Cohorting (i.e., physically separating patients expected to
be hospitalized for less than 72 hours from those ex-
pected to be hospitalized longer) should be used (IC).
63. An infection control ofcer should be assigned to each
deployed MTF that provides inpatient care. This ofcer
should have adequate training and experience to lead the
infection control program at the MTF.
64. All deployed MTF should practice antimicrobial stew-
ardship (IC). Clinical microbiology assets are crucial to
antimicrobial stewardship and should be available at
MTF which hospitalize patients for more than 72 hours.
INTRODUCTION
Battleeld trauma management emphasizes early deliv-
ery of medical care that includes hemorrhage control, hypo-
tensive and hemostatic resuscitation, and administration of
antimicrobial therapy with a goal to minimize excess mor-
bidity and mortality.
710
Historically, infections have been
major complications of combat-related injuries, with an in-
fection rate of 3.9% among 17,726 wounded in the Vietnam
War. This rate signicantly underestimates the true burden of
infection because only data from care provided within the
combat zone and during the rst 7 days after injury were
included.
11
Sepsis, or likely multisystem organ failure, was
the third leading overall cause of death and the most common
cause of death for those casualties who survived the rst 24
hours after injury.
12,13
Studies from the current wars in Iraq
and Afghanistan have similarly reported that in those who do
die of their wounds, a high incidence die from sepsis or
multisystem organ failure secondary to infection.
14,15
Wounds incurred during combat have resulted in infec-
tious complications to include sepsis and death. These com-
plications continue to be common among recent combat
casualties, including those secondary to MDR bacteria such
as Acinetobacter baumannii-calcoaceticus complex, Pseu-
domonas aeruginosa, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus, and extended-spectrum -lactamase-producing or-
ganisms such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneu-
moniae.
1619
Severe injuries and admission to an intensive
care unit have been shown to be associated with higher
infection rates during the current conicts in Iraq and Af-
ghanistan.
16,20
Gram-negative bacteria infect and colonize
casualties in the period immediately after injury, whereas
gram-positive bacteria infect and colonize patients during the
rehabilitative period.
1719
Increasing colonization with MDR
bacteria throughout the evacuation chain from the combat
zone, through Germany, to the United States supports the
concept that most MDR bacteria colonization and infection is
healthcare-associated.
2124
The nosocomial spread of MDR
bacterial infections throughout the evacuation chain also
supports the need for limiting the overuse of broad spectrum
antimicrobial agents and emphasizes the need for compliance
with infection control measures.
Guidelines
The primary injury patterns associated with combat-
related injuries is extremity damage, with increasing rates of
maxillofacial and neck injuries and relatively stable number
of burn patients during the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.
2533
Infection rates have been noted to be 15% to 25% in the
current wars in Iraq and Afghanistan with substantial associ-
ated morbidity and mortality.
16,17,34
This rate reaches more
than 40% in those wounded who require intensive care unit
admission.
35
The goals of combat-related injury care include
preventing infection, promoting healing, and restoring func-
tion. The Guidelines for the Prevention of Infection after
Combat-Related Injuries published in 2008 and supporting
evidence-based reviews focused on initial stabilization, sys-
temic antimicrobial therapy, wound debridement and irriga-
tion, timely wound closure, and appropriate follow-up.
3641
In these guidelines, the previous evidence-based rec-
ommendations are updated, using military and civilian data to
optimally minimize infections after combat-related trauma.
Efforts were made to ensure that these recommendations
could be applied across all levels of medical care in a combat
zone and could be modied based on the equipment and
medical expertise available at each care level. Finally, where
necessary, management strategies consider differing evacua-
tion times and the management of personnel not evacuated
out of the combat zone (such as local nationals). The utility of
antimicrobial agents, debridement and irrigation, surgical
wound management, and facility infection control and pre-
vention is emphasized.
PRACTICE GUIDELINES
Practice guidelines are systematically developed
statements to assist practitioners and patients in making
decisions about appropriate health care for specic clinical
circumstances. Attributes of good guidelines include va-
lidity, reliability, reproducibility, clinical applicability,
clinical exibility, clarity, multidisciplinary process, re-
view of evidence, and documentation.
METHODOLOGY
Panel Composition
A panel of experts composed of infectious disease
(D.R.H., C.K.M., N.G.C., L.C.D., M.A.F., A.D.G., K.E.K.,
G.J.M., K.P., D.E.S., D.R.T., T.J.W., G.W.W.); surgical spe-
cialists, including general surgery/trauma/critical care
(G.P.C., W.C.D., J.R.D., B.J.E., J.B.H., J.S.S.), orthopedic
surgery (R.C.A., J.H.C., J.C.C., J.R.F., M.E.F., J.R.H.,
W.T.O.), cardiothoracic surgery (J.M.C.), vascular surgery
(T.K.C.), neurosurgery (L.E.M.), ophthalmology (M.H.C.),
oral maxillofacial surgery (R.B.B., R.G.H.), otolaryngology
(D.K.H.), and burns (L.C.C., E.M.R., J.R.S.); infection con-
trol (H.K.C.); preventive medicine (A.R.W.); critical care
(K.K.C.); and translational research (J.C.W.) was assembled.
US military ofcers (D.R.H., C.K.M., R.C.A., L.C.C.,
J.M.C., K.K.C., M.H.C., N.G.C., G.P.C., H.K.C., T.K.C.,
L.C.D., W.C.D., J.R.D., B.J.E., J.R.F., M.E.F., M.A.F.,
R.G.H., D.K.H., J.R.H., K.E.K., G.J.M., L.E.M., K.P.,
E.M.R., D.E.S., T.J.W., A.R.W., G.W.W.), civilian experts
(R.B.B., J.H.C., W.T.O., J.R.S., J.S.S., D.R.T., J.C.W.), and
two British military medical ofcers (J.C.C., A.D.G.) were
included on the panel. Essentially, all military personnel had
experience in Afghanistan and/or Iraq and in caring for
casualties from these conicts outside of the combat zone.
Literature Review and Analysis
Review of the medical literature was performed ini-
tially by members of the ve review teams based on body
system or type of injury. These included teams focused on
extremity injuries, CNS injuries, eye, maxillofacial, and neck
injuries, thoracic and abdominal cavity injuries, and burn
injuries. Literature reviews were performed by searching
PubMed for all English language publications relevant to the
material of interest from January 2007 through December
2010. All abstracts were reviewed and full-length articles
relevant to the subject were pulled for further review of
references to be included in literature review and analysis. All
articles were then reviewed for populations under study
including war-related or civilian trauma, type of study design,
and size of study. Focus was on human studies, but key
animal studies were included where human data were limited
or unavailable. Unpublished research performed by members
of the panel was also considered in these recommendations.
Process Overview
In evaluating the evidence regarding the prevention of
infections associated with combat-related injury, the panel
followed a process used in the development of Infectious
Diseases Society of America (IDSA) guidelines. The process
included a systematic weighting of the quality of the evidence
and the grading of the recommendations using the Grades of
Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation
(GRADE; www.gradeworkinggroup.org) system (Table 1).
The rst priority was to evaluate articles on military trauma.
To supplement this, civilian trauma articles, primarily ran-
domized control trials and then cohort studies, were re-
viewed. An attempt was made to assign a level to denote both
the strength of recommendations and quality of the evidence
available to support those recommendations.
Consensus Development Based on Evidence
The review teams evaluated summary documents of
key articles and preliminary drafts of their manuscripts in
electronic format. Clarication of the quality of evidence and
recommendations to present to the entire panel were ad-
dressed during these processes. The entire panel met to
nalize recommendations and assessments of quality of evi-
dence for the guidelines. All panel members participated in
the preparation of the draft guidelines. The contents of the
guidelines and the manuscript were reviewed and endorsed
by the IDSA Standards and Practice Guideline Committee,
the IDSA Board of Directors, and the Executive Council of
the Surgical Infection Society before dissemination.
Guidelines and Conflict of Interest
All panel members complied with the IDSA policy on
conicts of interest, which requires disclosure of any nan-
cial or other interest that might be construed as constituting
an actual, potential, or apparent conict. Members of the
panel were provided IDSAs conict of interest disclosure
statement and were asked to identify ties to companies
developing products that might be affected by promulgation
of the guideline. Information was requested regarding
employment, consultancies, stock ownership, honoraria, re-
search funding, expert testimony, and membership on com-
pany advisory committees. The panel made decisions on a
case-by-case basis as to whether an individuals role should
be limited as a result of a conict. No limiting conicts were
identied.
Summary of Outcomes Assessed
The information derived from the literature is limited as
there are no prospective randomized clinical trials in or out of
the combat zone dealing with injuries from the ongoing
conicts in Iraq and Afghanistan for the various clinical
questions. Therefore, the data are summarized by military
relevant data and then by presenting civilian injury trauma
and general trauma studies. Generalizing civilian trauma care
data to that of combat trauma care may not be valid because
of differences in mechanisms of injury, energy transferred to
tissue, time to initial assessment and care, diagnostic capa-
bilities at initial receiving facilities and the austere nature of
many of those facilities, and access to and type of medical
care systems available. Efforts were also made to ensure
that these recommendations could be applied across the
different levels of medical care in a combat zone and could
be modied based on the equipment and medical expertise
available at each level. Finally, management strategies had
to incorporate possible differing evacuation times, and the
management of personnel not evacuated out of the combat
zone.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE PREVENTION
OF INFECTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH COMBAT-
RELATED INJURIES
A. Initial Care in the Field
I. What Initial Care/Stabilization Should be
Provided to the Injured Patient in the Field Before
Evacuation to a Medical Care Facility (Medical
Treatment Facilities)?
1. Wounds should be bandaged with sterile dressing and
fractures stabilized before transportation to higher level
of care (IB) (Table 2).
2. Dressing covering the eye should provide protection
while avoiding producing pressure on the orbit (IB). A
Fox shield or other such device should be employed.
3. Patients should be transferred to a facility with surgical
support as soon as feasible (IB) (see recommendation 44).
4. Given the unpredictable nature of casualty evacuation in
a combat zone, point-of-injury antimicrobial agents (see
recommendation 20) should be provided if evacuation is
delayed or expected to be delayed (IC).
Evidence Summary
Open wounds should be protected by bandaging with sterile
dressings applied to prevent further contamination. Fractures
should be splinted to prevent further tissue damage before
transporting patients to higher levels of care.
810,42
Eye inju-
ries should be protected in a fashion which does not produce
pressure on the eye, because pressure placed on an open
globe may cause suprachoroidal hemorrhage and irreversible
blindness.
43
Use of a Fox shield or improvised eld expedient
eye cover has been suggested. Dressings applied to open
cranial and spinal injuries should provide protection while
avoiding producing pressure on the exposed brain or spinal
cord. Discussion of the evidence to support recommendations
3 and 4 is included in the evidence summaries for recom-
mendations 44 and 5, respectively.
B. Postinjury Antimicrobials
II. Should Systemic Antimicrobials be Given to
Patients With Combat-Related Injuries
Immediately Postinjury?
5. Systemic antimicrobials should be administered as soon
as possible after injury to prevent early infectious com-
plications, including sepsis, caused by common bacterial
ora. Ideally, postinjury antimicrobials should be given
within 3 hours of injury (IB).
Evidence Summary
Data from previous and current conicts support early
delivery of antimicrobial agents.
4447
Although studies among
civilian trauma patients do not consistently support earlier de-
livery of antimicrobial agents, they are supported by various
guidelines.
4853
In addition, animal studies support the premise
that earlier antimicrobials can delay the onset of infection and
are benecial.
5460
III. Which Antimicrobials (and What Dosing
Regimens) Should be Employed for Postinjury
Use?
6. Antimicrobial selection should focus on providing the
narrowest spectrum of activity required, providing cover-
age of expected common bacterial ora. If multiple injuries
are present, the antimicrobial agent selection should be
based on the narrowest spectrum needed to cover all wound
sites/types (IB). Postinjury antimicrobials are provided to
prevent early infectious complications, including sepsis.
These recommended antimicrobials are not meant to treat
established infections where nosocomial pathogens, includ-
ing MDR, may be the infecting agents (Table 3).
7. Selected agents should be dosed to maximize pharmaco-
kinetics and pharmacodynamics. Logistical consider-
ations, including limiting number of agents to be stocked
and maintaining sufcient quantities in the combat zone,
should also be considered.
Extremity Wounds
used as the antimicrobial of choice in extremity injuries
(skin, soft tissue, and/or bone) (IB). Clindamycin may be
given as an alternate agent if previous documented ana-
phylaxis to -lactam antimicrobials.
Guidelines
9. Enhanced gram-negative coverage should not be
employed (IB).
10. Addition of penicillin to provide antimicrobial coverage
of clostridial gangrene and group A -hemolytic Strep-
tococcus infections is not required (IC).
CNS Wounds
employed for CNS injuries (IB).
12. Add metronidazole, 500 mg IV every 8 hours to 12 hours,
if brain grossly contaminated with organic debris (ID).
13. Add metronidazole, 500 mg IV every 8 hours to 12
hours, if spinal cord injury associated with concomitant
abdominal cavity penetration (IC).
14. For penetrating eye injuries, levooxacin, 500 mg IV or
orally every 24 hours, should be provided (IB).
15. For maxillofacial and neck injuries, cefazolin, 2 g IV
every 6 hours to 8 hours, should be provided (IC).
Clindamycin, 600 mg IV every 8 hours, may be used as
an alternate (IC).
16. For thoracic cavity injuries without disruption of the
esophagus, cefazolin, 2 g IV every 6 hours to 8 hours,
should be used (IIB).
17. Cefazolin, 2 g IV every 6 hours to 8 hours, with metro-
nidazole, 500 mg IV every 8 hours to 12 hours, should be
provided for penetrating wounds to the abdomen and
penetrating wounds to the thorax that result in esopha-
geal injury (IIB). Alternate regimens include single-dose
ertapenem (1 g IV) or moxioxacin (400 mg IV) (IIB).
Burns
18. Topical antimicrobial agents should be used for burn
wounds in conjunction with debridement (IB). Silver
sulfadiazine cream alternating with mafenide acetate
cream is preferred. Debridement may not be feasible at
lower levels of care; in this situation, clean, dry dressing
should be applied to burn wound until the patient is
transferred to a higher level of care.
19. Systemic antimicrobials are not indicated for postinjury
therapy (IC), or for debridement performed as part of
routine wound care (IB), unless required for concomitant
traumatic injuries. Systemic antimicrobials may be con-
sidered for perioperative prophylaxis during excision and
grafting procedures (IC). Cefazolin, 2 g IV every 6 hours
to 8 hours for 24 hours, is sufcient for coverage of skin
ora. However, antimicrobial agents effective against
Pseudomonas should be considered if wounds are
grossly colonized or older than 5 days.
20. Point-of-injury antimicrobials as suggested by the TCCC
Committee currently include moxioxacin, 400 mg
orally, if casualty does not have penetrating abdominal
trauma, is not in shock, and can take oral medications. In
patients who do not meet these criteria, single-dose
ertapenem (1 g IV or IM) or cefotetan (2 g IV or IM)
every 12 hours has been suggested. IV therapy is pre-
ferred over IM.
21. Children should be treated with the same antimicrobial
agents as those suggested for adults, including those
topical antimicrobials suggested for burns. Dosing of
antimicrobials in children weighing less than 40 kg
should be weight-based. Cefazolin should be dosed at 20
mg/kg to 30 mg/kg IV every 6 hours to 8 hours (up to
maximum of 100 mg/kg/d). Metronidazole should be
dosed at 30 mg/kg/d IV in four divided doses.
Evidence Summary
The antimicrobials of choice were selected to maximize
pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics for patients with
multiple injuries while minimizing the number of agents
needed to be stocked and employed in the combat zone. In
addition, focus was placed on recommending antimicrobial
agents with the most limited spectrum needed for postinjury
use to avoid driving the selection of MDR bacteria. Overall,
the agents selected should include coverage of all injury types
that a particular patient has. Use of high-dose cefazolin is
based on pharmacokinetic studies of dosing based on patient
weight.
6163
Dosing of metronidazole at intervals more than
every 8 hours is also supported by recent data.
64
In addition
to the management of coalition and local adult patients,
host-nation pediatric patients constitute a large percentage of
those receiving care in the combat hospitals with infections
being a common complication.
6568
Extremity Wounds
Postinjury antimicrobial agent selection is primarily
based on retrospective studies and expert opinion, with data
typically focused on more severe extremity injuries, notably
type III fractures.
4850,6974
Of wounds not needing surgical
evacuation in a combat zone, a single study revealed the
overall importance of wound irrigation over systemic antimi-
crobials.
75
High-dose cefazolin was selected in this guideline
because of concerns of underdosing wounded personnel who
weigh more than 70 kg and low serum concentrations of drug
with blood loss.
76
The package insert indicates that up to 12
g/d of cefazolin has been used.
61,62,77
A recommendation
against adding enhanced gram-negative coverage was based
on the lack of clear data documenting the benet of this
practice and concerns that adding a uoroquinolone or ami-
noglycoside might increase selection of subsequent nosoco-
mial MDR pathogens. In addition, no single aminoglycoside
has been identied that could potentially cover all the MDR
bacteria currently being recovered subsequently in the care of
combat casualties, and all these agents carry the concern for
potential renal toxicity in under-resuscitated patients who might
sustain hypovolemic renal injury.
7881
Clindamycin was se-
lected as an alternative therapy based upon controlled trials
revealing efcacy, especially in type I and II fractures.
74,82
The incidence of gas gangrene and streptococcal infec-
tions after injury has remained exceedingly low during the
prolonged conicts in Afghanistan and Iraq. This is likely
secondary to aggressive surgical management with delayed
primary closure of wounds. In addition, both Clostridium
perfringens and Streptococcus pyogenes are likely covered
with the antimicrobials currently provided after combat-
related injuries, and thus the addition of penicillin should not
be given.
48,69,70,8389
CNS Wounds
Several recent review articles have summarized data
from civilian and military traumatic casualties resulting in
penetrating brain injury and have recommended the use of
postinjury antimicrobials for the prevention of infection.
90,91
The data supporting these recommendations are based on
retrospective reviews and expert opinion and do not support
a standard treatment regimen or duration. For penetrating
injuries to the spine, multiple reports have shown a 0% to
32% infectious complication rate and varied postinjury anti-
microbial usage.
9298
Given the excellent pharmacokinetics and effective
spectrum of coverage of the newer uoroquinolone agents,
administration of systemic levooxacin or moxioxacin
should be sufcient to prevent endophthalmitis after trau-
matic (penetrating) eye injury.
99101
Retrospective review
has demonstrated low rates of endophthalmitis with use of
these agents.
102
Antimicrobial therapy with ampicillin, penicillin, and
cephalosporins has been used effectively in maxillofacial and
neck combat injuries, but the organisms causing infection,
dosing, duration of therapy, and denition of infection are
poorly described.
103,104
However, randomized controlled tri-
als of antimicrobial prophylaxis of infection for contaminated
head and neck surgery (nontrauma patients) show a 77% to
79% reduction in infection compared with placebo.
105,106
Therefore, postinjury antimicrobial therapy of the contami-
nated injuries of combat trauma is recommended. Recom-
mended agents are based on data from the same nontrauma
population and include high-dose cefazolin, 2 g IV every 6
hours to 8 hours.
107
This higher dose is preferred as lower
doses did not seem to be as effective.
108
Alternate use of
clindamycin (600 mg IV every 8 hours) is also supported by
the noncombat trauma literature.
109,110
Postinjury antimicrobial selection for thoracic and ab-
dominal cavity trauma is based on trauma data from the
civilian community.
111115
Use of ertapenem is based on its
perioperative use in elective colorectal surgery.
116
Moxi-
oxacin has been demonstrated to have comparable efcacy
to combination therapies in recent studies of complicated
intra-abdominal infections.
117120
Burns
Topical antimicrobial therapy is currently the standard
in postburn care.
121
Systemic antimicrobial agents are not
recommended for debridement performed as part of routine
wound care but have been used for perioperative prophylaxis
during excision and grafting procedures, especially in pa-
tients with larger burns, although the data for this practice are
inconclusive. Early studies documented a signicant inci-
dence of transient bacteremia associated with wound manip-
ulation,
122
but a more recent evaluation showed this incidence
to be much reduced.
123
Antimicrobial administration has been
found to reduce the incidence of this transient bacteremia but
did not affect outcomes.
124
A recently published study by
Ramos et al.
125
found that the use of systemic perioperative
antimicrobial administration for patients undergoing grafting
of deep burns was associated with improved autograft sur-
vival. However, the study had several limitations, including a
small sample size, and a more extensive follow-up study will
be required. Because of the limited evidence, controversy on
this topic exists, and burn units vary widely in their practices
of providing perioperative antimicrobial prophylaxis.
126,127
Although the data are inconclusive, the clinician may con-
sider the use of perioperative systemic antimicrobials for
excision and grafting procedures.
A panel of military trauma experts on point-of-injury
care (TCCC Committee) have recommended oral moxioxa-
cin and intravenous/intramuscular cefotetan or ertapenem as
point-of-injury antimicrobials.
810,128
Selection of point-of-
injury eld antimicrobials is based on three criteria: (1)
activity against the expected infecting pathogens for the body
part injured, (2) stability in the eld environment, and (3)
ease of delivery (dosing interval and volume of infusion) on
the battleeld with minimal adverse events.
9,10,128,129
A recent
study evaluating point-of-injury antimicrobials by US Army
Rangers did not seem to show clear infection prevention
benet, although the numbers were small. Of note, no in-
creases in colonization or infection with MDR bacteria were
noted, nor were medication toxicities reported. There are
clear arguments for choosing agents with much narrower
antibacterial spectrums of activity; however, it seems the
antimicrobials recommended by the TCCC Committee are
not causing harm and may be benecial. TCCC recommen-
dations include use of IV or IM ertapenem or cefotetan for
point-of-injury antimicrobials in those wounded unable to
take oral agents.
810
Although TCCC Committee has also
made recommendations for the use of the intraosseous (IO)
delivery route for uid and analgesic therapy, IO delivery of
antimicrobials has not been systematically studied in military
populations or trauma patients.
130,131
In animal studies, those
antimicrobials that are highly protein bound were associated
with lower serum concentrations with IO delivery compared
with IV delivery.
132
Both cefazolin and ertapenem are highly
protein bound antimicrobials. Although IM delivery has also
not been studied in military or trauma patient populations,
both cefazolin and ertapenem are approved by the Food and
Drug Administration for use by this route.
Pediatric trauma is a common occurrence in the combat
theater, and children are frequently cared for in deployed
medical settings. The appropriate choices of antimicrobial
agents for the prevention of trauma-related infection in chil-
dren are essentially identical to those for adults. Accurate
Guidelines
weight-based dosing of these drugs is critical as the pharma-
cokinetics of these medications in the young child often
results in higher dose-per-weight and more frequent dosing
requirements. In general, adult dosing of antimicrobials
should be used in children weighing 40 kg or more, as
weight-based dosing about this can result in doses exceeding
the maximum adult dosage. Neonates younger than 28 days,
or those weighing less than 2 kg, have signicantly different
metabolism and clearance of most antimicrobials, and differ-
ent regimens should be used.
The doses of the most commonly used antimicrobial
agents include cefazolin (2030 mg/kg IV every 68 hour,
up to a maximum dose of 100 mg/kg/d) and metronidazole
(30 mg/kg/d IV, divided into 4 daily doses). Ertapenem has
been approved for use in children older than 3 months;
however, once daily dosing is inadequate. The recommended
dose is 15 mg/kg IV or IM every 12 hours for children
through 12 years (for children older than 12 years, the dose is
20 mg/kg once daily, with a maximum dose of 1 g).
Although limited data are available on the safety and
dosage of moxioxacin in children, ciprooxacin is a well-
studied and safe option in pediatric. Ciprooxacin (10 mg/kg
IV every 12 hours) or levooxacin (8 mg/kg IV every 12
hours) in combination with metronidazole is a reasonable
choice for postinjury therapy of penetrating abdominal inju-
ries in children. Pediatric dosing for other antimicrobials
recommended in these guidelines include clindamycin 25
mg/kg/d to 40 mg/kg/d IV divided into 6- to 8-hour dosing.
Antimicrobial dosing of the alternate agents for CNS trauma
includes vancomycin 60 mg/kg/d divided into 6- to 8-hour
dosing and ceftriaxone 100 mg/kg/d IV given in every 12
hours or once daily.
The use of topical antimicrobials in pediatric burns is
similar to that used in adults, with the exception that
mafenide acetate should be avoided in neonates because of
the risk of kernicterus association with sulfonamides.
IV. What Duration of Antimicrobials Should be
Given to Patients After Combat-Related Injuries?
22. The shortest course of postinjury antimicrobial therapy
should be used (IB) (Table 3). If multiple wounds are
present, the duration of antimicrobials is dictated by the
injury pattern requiring the longest duration of therapy.
Duration should not be extended for open wounds,
drains, or external xation devices. Wounds should be
continually reassessed for evidence of infection and an-
timicrobials directed specically at known or empirically
suspected infecting pathogens provided if infection is
suspected or proven.
Extremity Wounds
23. Antimicrobials should be provided for 1 day to 3 days for
all extremity wounds (IB).
CNS Wounds
24. Antimicrobials are recommended for 5 days or until CSF
leak is closed, whichever time period is longer (ID).
25. For penetrating eye injuries, antimicrobials should be
provided for a total of 7 days or until a thorough evalu-
ation by a retinal specialist with adequate capabilities has
been performed (IC).
26. For maxillofacial and neck injuries, 1 day of antimicro-
bial coverage should be provided (IC).
27. Thoracic injuries with esophageal injury should also
receive a total of 1 day of antimicrobials after denitive
operative washout (IB).
28. Casualties should receive a total of 1 day of antimicro-
bials after denitive operative washout for abdominal
cavity injuries (IB).
Burns
29. Topical antimicrobial agents should be used for burns
until wounds are successfully covered with healed skin,
whether spontaneously or following successful skin
grafting (IC).
Evidence Summary
Based upon the civilian trauma literature, existing mil-
itary and civilian guidelines, and the high prevalence of
(presumed nosocomial) MDR bacterial infections being re-
ported among casualties from Iraq and Afghanistan and the
risk of prolonged antimicrobial therapy in increasing rates of
nosocomial infections, short courses of postinjury antimicro-
bial therapy should be used.
Extremity Wounds
Postinjury antimicrobial therapy should be given for at
least 24 hours. Civilian data focused on severe (type III)
extremity fractures support continuing therapy for 1 day to 3
days with reassessment of wounds. Antimicrobial agents
should only be continued for ongoing infection and then
directed at the bacterias specic resistance prole instead of
the prevention focus of initial antimicrobials.
50,52,69,70,133137
CNS Wounds
There are no controlled trials identifying the optimal
duration of postinjury antimicrobial therapy. A previous re-
view has recommended 5 days for penetrating craniocerebral
injury with retained organic material.
90
For penetrating inju-
ries of the spine, one review suggested antimicrobial use for
a minimum of 48 hours with extension to 7 days if the
alimentary tract was violated.
94
A recent review of traumatic
brain and spinal cord injury from the current conicts in Iraq
and Afghanistan revealed baseline rates of meningitis consis-
tent with previous wars but noted a three times higher
incidence of meningitis in patients with CSF leaks.
138
Based
on the available literature, antimicrobial therapy should be
continued for 5 days or until CSF leak control has occurred.
With ventriculostomy placement, it is common practice by
many neurosurgeons to continue postinjury antimicrobials
until nal removal of these devices. Data to support or
discourage this practice are not currently available.
Eye, Maxillofacial, or Neck Wounds
No studies in combat ocular trauma patients have been
performed to dene duration of postinjury antimicrobial therapy.
Traumatic endophthalmitis is generally a rapid-onset, fulminant
process that creates substantial ocular morbidity.
139
Treatment in
these cases generally requires a combination of intravitreal
antimicrobials and vitrectomy surgery.
140
Because vitreoreti-
nal capabilities are not available or advised until casualties
reach tertiary care outside the combat zone, it is recom-
mended that systemic antimicrobial therapy continues until
the patient arrives where surgical management would be
possible in the event of endophthalmitis. In the event of
delayed evacuation, no less than a 7-day course of treatment
is recommended.
102
No studies in combat trauma victims exist to best dene
duration of therapy in maxillofacial or neck injury. However,
both recent and previous studies of mandibular fractures and
contaminated head and neck cases with similar outcomes
have all concluded antimicrobial therapy in excess of 24
hours perioperatively do not seem to reduce wound infec-
tions.
141146
Thus, postinjury antimicrobial therapy should be
discontinued 24 hours postoperatively.
With prompt surgical management, postinjury antimi-
crobial therapy can be limited to 1 day in thoracic and
abdominal cavity injuries.
111,147,148
Burns
There are no existing studies that dene the optimal
duration of topical antimicrobial therapy for burn wounds. It is
common practice at the US Army Institute of Surgical Research
burn center for topical antimicrobial agents to be used until
wounds are successfully covered with healed skin, whether by
spontaneous healing or after successful skin grafting.
V. Should Antimicrobials be Redosed Before Next
Schedule Dosing Interval if Patients Require
Substantial Blood Product Support, Require Large
Volume Resuscitation, or Have Severe Acidosis?
30. Redosing of antimicrobials should be performed after large
volume blood product resuscitation (1,5002,000 mL of
blood loss) has been completed, regardless of when the last
dose of antimicrobial was administered (IC).
Evidence Summary
Large volume resuscitation with IV uids and blood
products may result in hemodilution of postinjury antimi-
crobial therapy. Redosing of antimicrobial agents after
large volume resuscitation or blood loss (estimated at
1,5002,000 mL of blood loss) is supported by the civilian
medical literature.
63,149152
VI. Should Local Delivery of Antimicrobials
Through Topical Application or Beads (Bead
Pouches) be Implemented in the Care of
Combat-Related Injuries?
31. Local delivery of topical antimicrobials may be provided
for extremity infections in the form of antimicrobial
beads or pouches as long as the emphasis is still on
surgical debridement and irrigation (IB).
32. Local delivery of other antimicrobials (other than in
burn care), to include powders or soaking of wet to dry
dressing with antimicrobials, should not be used
routinely (IB).
Evidence Summary
Local delivery of topical antimicrobials has been used
in the surgical treatment of bony and orthopedic device-
related infections for several decades. Use of local wound
therapy in the form of antimicrobial beads or pouches is used
adjunctively and is not a substitute for good surgical debride-
ment and irrigation. Local antimicrobial beads may be used
even if NPWT is used. However, data do not support the local
delivery of other antimicrobials to include powder or soaking
of wet to dry dressing with antimicrobials.
153169
Direct
application of antimicrobials to the brain or spinal cord is
contraindicated in the absence of the ability to monitor serum
and spinal uid antimicrobial levels.
VII. What Vaccines or Other Immunotherapy
Should be Provided Postinjury?
Tetanus Toxoid or Immune Globulin
33. Patients who have been previously immunized against
tetanus (received 3 or more doses of toxoid) do not
require booster dose of vaccine unless it has been more
than 5 years since their last dose. They do not require
TIG (IB).
34. Unimmunized patients, and those with unknown vacci-
nation status, should receive TIG and vaccine (with
additional doses of vaccine given at 4 weeks and 6
months) postinjury (IC).
35. Early surgical debridement and irrigation, in addition
to postinjury antimicrobials and vaccine may be effec-
tive in the prevention of tetanus in the absence of TIG
administration (IID).
Postsplenectomy Immunization
36. Patients who have had their spleens removed should
receive immunization against Streptococcus pneu-
moniae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Hemophilus inu-
enza serotype B (IB). Immunization should be provided
within 14 days of splenectomy.
Evidence Summary
Provision of tetanus immunotherapy to prevent infec-
tions in contaminated wounds has been the standard of care
for decades. Treatment with vaccine or immune globulin is
based on whether patient has previously received adequate
immunization (3 or more doses of tetanus toxoid). However,
the only cases seen to date within the combat zone have been
in Afghan and Pakistani civilians managed in military hos-
pitals after the 2005 Pakistan earthquakes. These cases pre-
sented days after their traumatic injuries. In the past several
years, a shortage of TIG has resulted in numerous patients
being managed without TIG immune therapy. That tetanus
Guidelines
has not been reported in this group has been postulated to be
due to the effectiveness of early wound care and postinjury
antimicrobials (personal communication, Dr. Andrew Green).
Spleen removal places patients at risk for overwhelm-
ing postsplenectomy sepsis from encapsulated bacteria, espe-
cially Streptococcus pneumoniae. Because of this risk,
immunization with pneumococcal vaccine has been provided,
as has meningococcal and Hemophilus vaccine, albeit at a
lower rate. Ideal timing of immunization postsplenectomy is
not clear, although two studies of immunologic response to
vaccine in this setting support giving vaccine at 14 days post
removal.
170,171
Immunization with pneumococcal (and other
vaccines) vaccine has typically given by trauma surgeons
from immediately postoperatively to up to 6 weeks.
172
C. Debridement and Irrigation
VIII. When Should Irrigation Fluid be
Implemented in the Management of Combat-
Related Injuries?
37. Wound irrigation should be initiated as soon as clinically
possible by appropriately trained personnel (ID).
Evidence Summary
Wound irrigation should be initiated as soon as clini-
cally possible by appropriately trained personnel based upon
a small military study and animal data.
75,173
IX. Should Additives Supplement Irrigation Fluid
for Combat-Related Injuries?
38. Additives should not be included in standard irrigation
uid as normal saline (or alternately, sterile water or
potable water) is adequate (IB).
Evidence Summary
Additives should not be included in standard irriga-
tion uid as normal saline (including sterile water or
potable water) is adequate, and additives often are associ-
ated with increased tissue damage and subsequent bacterial
rebound in the wounds of animal studies.
133,174180
A large
clinical trial looking at irrigant additives for extremity
injuries is underway which might modify this recommen-
dation in the future.
175
X. What Volume of Fluid Should be Used to
Irrigate Wounds Associated With Combat
Injuries?
39. Sufcient volume to remove debris should be employed
(IB). For extremity injuries, standard volumes of 3 L, 6
L, and 9 L should be provided for type I, II, and III
fractures, respectively; however, larger volumes might
be required for more severe injuries (IB).
Evidence Summary
The volume of uid sufcient to fully irrigate most
wounds is unknown. Standard volumes of 3 L, 6 L, and 9
L have been suggested and promoted for irrigation of type
I, II, and III fractures, respectively.
174,180
However, as the
size of wounds varies, even among these dened catego-
ries, selection of irrigant volume must be based on that
required for the adequate decontamination of any unique
wound.
XI. What Pressure Should be Used to Deliver
Irrigation in the Management of Combat-Related
Injuries?
40. Irrigation uid should be delivered at low pressure (510 PSI,
may be delivered by bulb syringe or gravity irrigation) (IB).
Evidence Summary
Irrigation uid pressure should be low pressure (510
PSI) as higher pressure irrigation likely damages tissue and
possibly push contamination further into wound, resulting in
rebound increase in bacterial contamination at 24 hours to 48
hours.
133,175
It is anticipated that the FLOW (Fluid Lavage of
Open Wounds) multicenter, randomized trial will clarify the
role of low versus high pressure in extremity injuries.
175
XII. Should Pre- and/or Postdebridement Bacterial
Culture of Combat-Related Wounds be
Performed?
41. Clinicians should obtain bacterial cultures only when
there are concerns for an ongoing wound infection based
upon systemic signs or symptoms of infection, local
appearance of wounds, and laboratory or radiographic
imaging studies (IB).
42. Results from infection control surveillance cultures
should not be used for initiation of therapy (IC).
Evidence Summary
Routine sampling of clinically uninfected wounds is not
supported as a method to select postinjury or empirical
antimicrobial therapy. Clinicians should obtain bacterial cul-
tures only when there are concerns for an ongoing wound
infection based upon systemic signs or symptoms of infec-
tion, local appearance of wound, and laboratory or radio-
graphic imaging studies.
1719,46,48,70,181198
Infection control
surveillance cultures should not be used for initiation of
therapy as that would expose patients to unnecessary antimi-
crobials with potential excess toxicity and selection for MDR
bacteria.
XIII. Can Retained Soft Tissue Fragments Remain
in a Combat-Related Injury Wound?
43. Casualties with isolated retained deep extremity soft
tissue metal fragments meeting certain clinical and ra-
diographic criteria should be treated with a single dose of
cefazolin, 2 g IV, without fragment removal (IB). Pa-
tients should be monitored for evidence of subsequent
infection.
Evidence Summary
Combat injuries often result in retained fragments of
metallic or other materials within the soft tissues which are
too deep or too numerous to easily remove without the
removal procedure itself creating further morbidity. In the
absence of infection or concerns of complications (based on
location), it is not necessary to remove all of these foreign
bodies. Criteria for observation of small retained fragments
include X-ray conrmation revealing no bone involvement,
no vascular involvement, and no break of pleura or perito-
neum, wound entry/exit lesions less than 2 cm in maximal
dimension, and no signs of infection.
199213
Although previ-
ous studies have used 5 days of therapy, response to single-
dose therapy has been described in the current conicts and is
likely adequate based upon civilian extremity management.
D. Surgical Wound Management
XIV. When Should Patients With Combat-Related
Injuries Undergo Initial Surgical management?
44. Patients should be evacuated to surgical care as soon as
possible based upon a risk-benet analysis of the combat
environment (IB).
45. Penetrating injuries of the eye (IB) and spine without
neurologic compromise (IC) should await surgical debride-
ment until appropriate surgical expertise is available.
46. Foreign material embedded in the brain, which are
not readily accessible, should not be removed by non-
neurosurgeons (IB).
47. All burn injuries should undergo thorough cleansing and
debridement, estimation of extent and depth, and cover-
age with appropriate topical antimicrobial agents within
8 hours of injury (IC). Early (within 5 days) excision and
grafting is suggested for deep partial-thickness and full-
thickness burns (IA). This should ideally be performed
outside of the combat zone by surgeons with appropriate
training and experience.
Evidence Summary
Patients should be evacuated to surgical care as soon as
possible based upon a thorough risk benet analysis of the
combat environment.
11,44,46,50,51,70,87,135,186189,197,214223
An
interesting study of high-energy lower extremity trauma in-
dicated that care at a denitive trauma center was vital.
53
Eye
and spine injuries without neurologic compromise should
await surgical debridement until appropriate surgical exper-
tise is available; cerebral foreign bodies should remain if
removal would cause excess damage.
224230
Extremity Wounds
Data assessing outcomes based on time to procedures
are limited for combat casualties, although most of the data
indicate delayed interventions are associated with increased
infection.
44,46,215,231
Civilian guidelines recommend that rapid
surgical debridement is the primary treatment and antimicro-
bials are adjuvant therapy for infection prophylaxis in open
fracture management.
49,133,216
The civilian literature, how-
ever, is mixed on the benet of early surgical interven-
tion.
50,51,218223
A recent study of 315 severe high-energy
extremity injuries revealed that time to debridement was not
associated with infection (5 hours, 28% infected [93 pa-
tients]; 510 hours, 29.1% infected [86 patients]; 10 hours,
25.8% infected [128 patients]).
53
Interestingly this study
indicated that time to a denitive trauma center was the most
important factor on decreasing infection rate.
CNS Wounds
Historically, extensive debridement of retained material
had been recommended for penetrating brain injury; how-
ever, recent reviews have shown improved preservation of
brain function with less aggressive surgical debridem-
ent.
224230
Thus, current management is to remove only easily
accessible foreign material and grossly devitalized tissue. In
penetrating spinal injuries, retained bullets have not been
shown to be a signicant risk factor for infectious complica-
tions unless the injury is associated with gross contamination
or a tract exists from the peritoneal cavity to the spinal
canal.
94
In the latter instances, exploration and low pres-
sure irrigation of the wound are recommended. In patients
with declining neurologic function, early removal of bone
fragments or foreign bodies causing compression of neu-
rologic structures is recommended to prevent further neu-
rologic compromise.
Rapid evacuation and treatment of the maxillofacial
and neck wounds, to include the use of antimicrobials re-
sulted in a decrease in mortality from 40% in World War II
to 1.3% during the Korean War.
232,233
One factor attributed to
the low incidence of endophthalmitis during the current
conicts has been the early primary closure of open globes
(within 6 hours).
102
Given the low rate of infection, the
current treatment paradigm is recommended.
Thoracic injuries requiring tube thoracostomy will, in
many combat related cases, require urgent placement in the
eld. In one study in a civilian trauma setting, prehospital
thoracostomy performed by a physician at the accident scene
was determined to be safe but had only a nonsignicant
decrement in infected hemothoraces.
234
Placement by more
experienced providers was associated with fewer complica-
tions in another series.
235
Reevaluation and early evacuation
of residual clot should be performed to minimize develop-
ment of infected hematoma and empyema.
236
Prompt surgical intervention has been the standard in
combat wounds to the abdomen since World War I. Regard-
ing closure of the skin, a number of series of civilian abdom-
inal and colonic injuries, associated with fewer high-velocity
penetrating injuries, primary skin closure has been advocated
with good success.
237,238
Controversy in abdominal trauma currently revolves
around the timing of closure of the abdominal fascia. Se-
verely injured, combat or noncombat-related abdominal inju-
ries have improved outcomes with damage control surgery
consisting of an immediate abbreviated laparotomy with
goals of hemostasis, limitation of contamination through
closure or resection of bowel perforations, delayed bowel
anastomoses or ostomies, and wound packing, all in an effort
to provide rapid restoration of physiologic parameters. De-
layed closure and use of vacuum pack technique with subse-
quent denitive surgery is recommended.
239245
Guidelines
Burns
Early burn excision, within 5 days of injury, seems to
improve survival in patients without inhalation injuries.
246248
XV. When Should Combat-Related Wounds be
Closed?
48. Wounds, to include open fractures, should not be closed
early; typical closure should be performed 3 days to 5
days after injury if there is no evidence of infection (IB).
49. For injuries that involve the face or dura, primary closure
should be performed (IB).
50. For abdominal and thoracic injuries, the skin should not be
closed if there is a colon injury or extensive devitalized
tissue due to excessive infectious complications (IB).
51. Early primary repair of complex or destructive colonic
injuries should not be performed especially if associated
with massive blood transfusion, ongoing hypotension,
hypoxia, reperfusion injury, multiple other injuries, high-
velocity injury, or extensive local tissue damage (IB).
52. If the abdomen is left open, the possibility of partial or
complete closure should be considered at each subse-
quent laparotomy (IB).
53. Scheduled laparotomies should be performed in this
group at 24- to 48-hour intervals (IB).
Evidence Summary
Extremity Wounds
Based upon historical war wound management, early
closure of open fracture wounds should not be performed and
closure should not be performed until 3 days to 5 days after
injury.
174,249253
Denitive bone coverage should performed
as soon as feasible after denitive stabilization.
46,254
CNS Wounds
It is important to close the injury site as quickly as
possible, but with penetrating CNS trauma there is often
inadequate dura available. An autologous vascularized peri-
cranial tissue graft or commercially available dural substitute
can be used successfully in these instances. Cranialization of
any violated sinuses and watertight dural and skin closure
should follow adequate debridement. In patients who have
undergone aggressive cranial decompression after severe
blunt or penetrating head injury, the removed bone ap
should be discarded if the patient will ultimately be evacuated
to a location where custom prosthetic implants are avail-
able.
255
Where prosthetic implants are not available (e.g., for
nonevacuated local nationals), removed skull fragments
should be thoroughly washed and then either replaced or
inserted into the abdominal wall fat as a temporary storage
location. If the deployed location has a -70C freezer, this is
another option for storage.
For injuries that involve the face, primary closure
should be performed.
256
For abdominal injuries, skin should not be closed if
there is a colon injury or extensive devitalized tissue due to
excessive infectious complications. Early primary repair of
complex or destructive colonic injuries should not be per-
formed especially if associated with massive blood transfu-
sion, ongoing hypotension, hypoxia, reperfusion injury, mul-
tiple other injuries, high-velocity injury, or extensive local
tissue damage.
239,241,257
XVI. Should External Fixation be Standard for
Stabilization of Fracture?
54. Temporary spanning external xation should be placed
for femoral and tibial fractures (IB). Use of external
xation in the current conicts allows stabilization dur-
ing long evacuations to the United States, easy observa-
tion of wounds (over use of plaster), and potentially less
chronic infections (over early open reduction and internal
xation).
55. Temporary spanning external xation or splint immobiliza-
tion placement with transition to open plate and screw
osteosynthesis should be employed for open humerus and
forearm fractures after soft tissue stabilization (IB).
Evidence Summary
Staged xation in combat injuries has emerged as the
strategy of choice in this conict.
37
Temporary external xation
has been commonly used as a bridge to denitive xation with
few signicant complications.
258
Although a few selected cases
of low-energy injuries have been safely internally xed in the
combat zone, it is still considered ill-advised in combat-related
injuries.
258,259
The use of plaster splints has been recommended
and might be useful with rapid evacuations to more denitive
orthopedic expertise.
46,231,260
XVII. Can NPWT be Used in the Management of
Combat-Related Wounds?
56. NPWT should be used in the management of open
wounds (excluding CNS injuries) to include during aero-
medical evacuation of patients (IB).
57. Use of intermittent suction or instillation of normal saline
in conjunction with NPWT is discouraged in most situ-
ations based upon preliminary animal studies (ID).
58. Local delivery of antimicrobials using beads or pouches
might be effective in combination with NPWT and could
be considered (IID).
Evidence Summary
NPWT is effective in the management of open wounds
(excluding CNS injuries) to include during aeromedical evac-
uation of patients out of the combat zone. Battery power may
be a limitation to its use on longer transports (810
hours).
25,163,174,254,261266
Intermittent suction or instillation
therapy of normal saline should not be implemented based
upon preliminary animal studies because of concern for tissue
damage (personal communication, Dr. Joseph Wenke). In
severe injuries that cannot undergo adequate surgical debride-
ment (e.g., extensive high bilateral lower extremity injuries
with perineum involvement secondary to explosive trauma),
where the possible risk of local tissue damage from antisep-
tics is outweighed by preventing or controlling infection,
anecdotal success with topical antiseptics (e.g., Dakins) in
conjunction with NPWT has been reported (personal com-
munication, Dr. Romney Andersen).
XVIII. Should Supplemental Oxygen be Provided
During Transportation of the Wounded to Medical
Facilities Outside the Combat Zone?
59. During aeromedical evacuation, supplemental oxygen (to
maintain oxygen saturation 92%) may be benecial in
patients with combat-related injuries (IIC).
Evidence Summary
The role of oxygen as therapy has been evaluated and
pursued in previous wars especially in association with gas
gangrene.
267270
More recently, there has been an ongoing
concern regarding low oxygenation level in patients with
wounds that occur with long-distance air evacuation from the
combat zone to Germany and from Germany to the United
States. Preliminary animal studies show decreased bacterial
burden when hypoxia is treated with supplemental oxygen to
maintain an oxygen saturation of more than 93% (personal
communication, Dr. Warren Dorlac). In addition, prospective
(civilian, nontrauma) studies have shown mixed results of the
use of oxygen supplementation in preventing postsurgical
infectious after abdominal and pelvic surgeries, although
these studies were not associated with hypoxia induced by
elevation.
271273
E. Facility Infection Control and Prevention
XIX. What Infection Control and Prevention
Measures Should be Implemented in Deployed
Medical Treatment Facilities?
60. Basic infection control and prevention measures should
be employed at all deployed MTF. These should include
hand hygiene, with compliance monitoring. Infection
control and prevention should include MTF Commander
oversight and emphasis (IB).
61. Transmission-based (isolation) precautions should be im-
plemented (IB).
62. Cohorting (i.e., physically separating patients expected to
be hospitalized for less than 72 hours from those ex-
pected to be hospitalized longer) should be used (IC).
63. An infection control ofcer should be assigned to each
deployed MTF that provides inpatient care. This ofcer
should have adequate training and experience to lead the
infection control program at the MTF.
64. All deployed MTF should practice antimicrobial stew-
ardship (IC). Clinical microbiology assets are crucial to
antimicrobial stewardship and should be available at
MTF which hospitalize patients for more than 72 hours.
Evidence Summary
Infection control and prevention has developed as crit-
ical practice to prevent or decrease healthcare-associated
infections in MTF. National (civilian) guidelines have been
developed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
and by other national professional organizations (e.g., IDSA;
Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America [SHEA];
and Association for Professionals in Infection Control and
Epidemiology [APIC]). Following the consensus conference
to develop our initial guidelines (i.e., Guidelines for the
Prevention of Infection after Combat-Related Injuries),
38
a
review of the deployed MTF in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Ku-
wait was conducted to assess infection control and prevention
challenges and practice in the combat zone.
274
This review
led to recommendations for improvement and development of
a short course for infection control ofcers who were to be
assigned to a deployed MTF.
274276
RESEARCH GAPS
Most of the recommendations included in these guide-
lines are based on civilian trauma clinical research, retrospec-
tive review of combat trauma interventions and outcome,
animal research and expert opinion. Research to better an-
swer each of the 19 questions posed in these guidelines is
needed. Research gaps include but are not limited to:
Y
Identifying the best timing of initiation of postinjury
antimicrobial therapy.
Y
Establishing the shortest effective duration needed for
postinjury antimicrobial therapy.
Y
Identifying the best postinjury antimicrobial agents.
Y
Further evaluation of topical wound therapies, including
irrigants.
Y
Evaluating the role of topical decolonization/cleansing
to prevent MDR infections.
In addition, other areas of research could potentially
impact efforts to prevent infections in the combat-injured
population. These include research into the ecology of
wounds (microbiome and biolm development), the patho-
physiology and host immune response associated with when
and if infections develop, and development of new diagnos-
tic, prevention, and treatment technologies and strategies.
Ongoing epidemiology is also vital to quickly identify chang-
ing wounding and infection patterns and the emergence of
new etiologic agents.
A better understanding of the wound microbiome and
its natural evolution in both injuries which do and do not get
infected could better guide care and improve outcomes.
Understanding the development and role biolms play in both
acute and chronic wounds and how these interact with the
hosts immune response could also guide diagnostic and
targeted treatment strategies. Diagnostic testing advances
in conjunction with enhanced knowledge of the wound
microbiome, biolms, and immune response could identify
which patients need antimicrobial therapy, whether this
could be local or systemic, and when a wound might be
successfully closed. The diagnostic use of inammatory
markers and cytokines is currently being examined as a
tool to identify when wounds can be closed without further
infectious complications.
277282
Invasive fungal infections have recently emerged as an
important infectious complication of severe combat injury.
Based upon data to date, patients with large bilateral lower
extremity injuries typically in lush vegetative areas on dis-
Guidelines
mounted patrol requiring large volume blood product support
have been noted to have increased reports of fungal infec-
tions, which is consistent with some farm trauma stud-
ies.
82,283285
However at this time, there are inadequate data to
determine the role empiric antifungal therapy or tissue char-
acterization techniques with culture or histology. Research is
urgently needed to better dene the risk factors associated
with these infections and to identify potential interventions to
prevent this life-threatening complication of combat-related
injuries.
PERFORMANCE MEASURES
Performance measures are often used with guidelines to
measure effectiveness or benets of their recommendations.
These can include measures of adherence or outcome. Per-
formance measures that may be useful in the prevention of
infection associated with combat-related injury include:
Y
Use of a recommended antimicrobial versus other anti-
microbial or combination of antimicrobials for postin-
jury therapy.
Y
Time from injury to delivery of postinjury antimicrobials.
Y
Change in rates of colonization with MDR bacteria at
admission to tertiary care medical facilities outside the
combat zone.
Y
Change in rates of infection with MDR bacteria during
care at tertiary care medical facilities outside the combat
zone.
Admission screening for colonization with MDR has
been established at the major US military medical centers
receiving wounded from the combat zone. This screening was
standardized in 2008 to allow comparison among facilities.
286
Monitoring the change in rates of colonization of combat-
injured personnel at admission will in part allow assessment
of the benet of these guidelines.
In addition, the Joint Theater Trauma System, which
has a performance improvement project which gathers data to
inform medical leaders about wounding patterns, effective-
ness of interventions, and emerging trends. The Joint Theater
Trauma Registry has recently added an infectious disease
module which will allow assessment of the effectiveness of
the recommendations in this guideline and provide data for
future renements/updates.
The Department of Defense-Veterans Administration
Trauma Infectious Disease Outcomes Study is an observa-
tional cohort of infectious disease outcomes after deploy-
ment-related traumatic injury in active duty personnel or
Department of Defense beneciary from their initial arrival
from the combat theater to posthospitalization follow-up.
Trauma history and infectious disease-specic inpatient care
information is captured through the Joint Theater Trauma
Registry. Assessment of postinjury antimicrobial prescribing
practices has already been implemented to monitor adoption
of the current guidelines. Outcomes analysis of infectious
complications in addition to infection rates secondary to
MDR bacteria will also be accomplished through this
study.
REFERENCES
1. Hospenthal DR, Green AD, Crouch HK, et al. Infection control and
prevention in deployed medical treatment facilities. J Trauma. 2011;
71:S290S298.
2. Murray CK, Obremskey WT, Hsu JR, et al. Prevention of infections
associated with combat-related extremity injuries. J Trauma. 2011;71:
S235S257.
3. Forgione MA, Moores LE, Wortmann GW, et al. Prevention of infec-
tions associated with combat-related central nervous system injuries.
J Trauma. 2011;71:S258S263.
4. Petersen K, Colyer MH, Hayes DK, et al. Prevention of infections
associated with combat-related eye, maxillofacial, and neck injuries.
J Trauma. 2011;71:S264S269.
5. Martin GJ, Dunne JR, Cho JM, et al. Prevention of infections associ-
ated with combat-related thoracic and abdominal cavity injuries.
J Trauma. 2011;71:S270S281.
6. DAvignon LC, Chung KK, Safe JR, et al. Prevention of infections
associated with combat-related burn injuries. J Trauma. 2011;71:S282
S289.
7. Mabry RL, De Lorenzo RA. Improving Role I battleeld casualty
care from point of injury to surgery. US Army Med Dep J.
2011;Apr-Jun:8791.
8. Butler F, OConnor K. Antibiotics in tactical combat casualty care
2002. Mil Med. 2003;168:911914.
9. Butler FK. Tactical combat casualty care: update 2009. J Trauma.
2010;69 Suppl 1:S10S13.
10. Butler FK Jr, Holcomb JB, Giebner SD, McSwain NE, Bagian J.
Tactical combat casualty care 2007: evolving concepts and battleeld
experience. Mil Med. 2007;172:119.
11. Hardaway RM 3rd. Viet Nam wound analysis. J Trauma. 1978;18:
635643.
12. Feltis JJ. Surgical experience in a combat zone. Am J Surg. 1970;119:
275278.
13. Arnold K, Cutting RT. Causes of death in United States military
personnel hospitalized in Vietnam. Mil Med. 1978;143:161164.
14. Kelly JF, Ritenour AE, McLaughlin DF, et al. Injury severity and
causes of death from Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring
Freedom: 20032004 versus 2006. J Trauma. 2008;64:S21S26.
15. Holcomb JB, McMullin NR, Pearse L, et al. Causes of death in U.S.
Special operations forces in the global war on terrorism: 20012004.
Ann Surg. 2007;245:986991.
16. Murray CK, Wilkins K, Molter NC, et al. Infections in combat
casualties during Operations Iraqi and Enduring Freedom. J Trauma.
2009;66:S138S144.
17. Yun HC, Branstetter JG, Murray CK. Osteomyelitis in military per-
sonnel wounded in Iraq and Afghanistan. J Trauma. 2008;64:S163
S168.
18. Mody RM, Zapor M, Hartzell JD, et al. Infectious complications of
damage control orthopedics in war trauma. J Trauma. 2009;67:758
761.
19. Johnson EN, Burns TC, Hayda RA, Hospenthal DR, Murray CK.
Infectious complications of open type III tibial fractures among combat
casualties. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:409415.
20. Yun HC, Blackbourne LH, Jones JA, et al. Infectious complications of
noncombat trauma patients provided care at a military trauma center.
Mil Med. 2010;175:317323.
21. Kaspar RL, Grifth ME, Mann PB, et al. Association of bacterial
colonization at the time of presentation to a combat support hospital in
a combat zone with subsequent 30-day colonization or infection. Mil
Med. 2009;174:899903.
22. Scott P, Deye G, Srinivasan A, et al. An outbreak of multidrug-resistant
Acinetobacter baumannii-calcoaceticus complex infection in the US
military health care system associated with military operations in Iraq.
Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:15771584.
23. Tien HC, Battad A, Bryce EA, et al. Multi-drug resistant Acinetobacter
infections in critically injured Canadian forces soldiers. BMC Infect
Dis. 2007;7:95.
24. Turton JF, Kaufmann ME, Gill MJ, et al. Comparison of Acinetobacter
baumannii isolates from the United Kingdom and the United States that
were associated with repatriated casualties of the Iraq conict. J Clin
Microbiol. 2006;44:26302634.
25. Geiger S, McCormick F, Chou R, Wandel AG. War wounds: lessons
learned from Operation Iraqi Freedom. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008;122:
146153.
26. Enad JG, Headrick JD. Orthopedic injuries in U.S. casualties treated on
a hospital ship during Operation Iraqi Freedom. Mil Med. 2008;173:
10081013.
27. MacGregor AJ, Corson KS, Larson GE, et al. Injury-specic predictors
of posttraumatic stress disorder. Injury. 2009;40:10041010.
28. Belmont PJ, Schoenfeld AJ, Goodman G. Epidemiology of combat
wounds in Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom:
orthopaedic burden of disease. J Surg Orthop Adv. 2010;19:27.
29. Owens BD, Kragh JF Jr, Wenke JC, Macaitis J, Wade CE, Holcomb
JB. Combat wounds in operation Iraqi Freedom and operation Enduring
Freedom. J Trauma. 2008;64:295299.
30. Murray CK, Hinkle MK, Yun HC. History of infections associated with
combat-related injuries. J Trauma. 2008;64:S221S231.
31. Murray CK. Epidemiology of infections associated with combat-re-
lated injuries in Iraq and Afghanistan. J Trauma. 2008;64:S232S238.
32. Kauvar DS, Wolf SE, Wade CE, Cancio LC, Renz EM, Holcomb JB.
Burns sustained in combat explosions in Operations Iraqi and Enduring
Freedom (OIF/OEF explosion burns). Burns. 2006;32:853857.
33. Wolf SE, Kauvar DS, Wade CE, et al. Comparison between civilian
burns and combat burns from Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation
Enduring Freedom. Ann Surg. 2006;243:786792.
34. Murray CK, Wilkins K, Molter NC, et al. Infectious complicating the
care of combat casualties during Operations Iraqi Freedom and Endur-
ing Freedom. J Trauma. 2011;71:S62S73.
35. Tribble DR, Conger NG, Fraser S, et al. Infection-associated clinical
outcomes in hospitalized medical evacuees following traumatic injury:
trauma infectious disease outcome study. J Trauma. 2011;71:S33S42.
36. Conger NG, Landrum ML, Jenkins DH, Martin RR, Dunne JR, Hirsch EF.
Prevention and management of infections associated with combat-related
thoracic and abdominal cavity injuries. J Trauma. 2008;64:S257S264.
37. Murray CK, Hsu JR, Solomkin JS, et al. Prevention and management
of infections associated with combat-related extremity injuries.
J Trauma. 2008;64:S239S251.
38. Hospenthal DR, Murray CK, Andersen RC, et al. Guidelines for the
prevention of infection after combat-related injuries. J Trauma. 2008;
64:S211S220.
39. Petersen K, Hayes DK, Blice JP, Hale RG. Prevention and management
of infections associated with combat-related head and neck injuries.
J Trauma. 2008;64:S265S276.
40. Wortmann GW, Valadka AB, Moores LE. Prevention and management
of infections associated with combat-related central nervous system
injuries. J Trauma. 2008;64:S252S256.
41. DAvignon LC, Safe JR, Chung KK, Cancio LC. Prevention and
management of infections associated with burns in the combat casualty.
J Trauma. 2008;64:S277S286.
42. Emergency War Surgery. 3rd US revision ed. Washington, DC: Borden
Institute, 2004.
43. Morley MG, Nguyen JK, Heier JS, Shingleton BJ, Pasternak JF, Bower
KS. Blast eye injuries: a review for rst responders. Disaster Med
Public Health Prep. 2010;4:154160.
44. Jackson DS. Sepsis in soft tissue limbs wounds in soldiers injured
during the Falklands campaign 1982. J R Army Med Corps. 1984;130:
9799.
45. Simchen E, Sacks T. Infection in war wounds: experience during the
1973 October war in Israel. Ann Surg. 1975;182:754761.
46. Brown KV, Murray CK, Clasper JC. Infectious complications of
combat-related mangled extremity injuries in the British military.
J Trauma. 2010;69:S109S115.
47. Murray Ck, Hospenthal Dr, Kotwal RS, Butler FK. Efcacy of point-
of-injury combat antimicrobials. J Trauma. 2011;71:S307S313.
48. Luchette FA, Bone LB, Born CT, et al. EAST practice management
guidelines work group: practice management guidelines for prophylac-
tic antibiotic use in open fractures. 2000. Available at: http://www.east.
org/tpg/openfrac.pdf. Accessed March 3, 2011.
49. Patzakis MJ, Harvey JP Jr, Ivler D. The role of antibiotics in the
management of open fractures. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1974;56:532
541.
50. Patzakis MJ, Wilkins J. Factors inuencing infection rate in open
fracture wounds. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1989:3640.
51. Al-Arabi YB, Nader M, Hamidian-Jahromi AR, Woods DA. The effect
of the timing of antibiotics and surgical treatment on infection rates in
open long-bone fractures: a 9-year prospective study from a district
general hospital. Injury. 2007;38:900905.
52. Dellinger EP, Miller SD, Wertz MJ, Grypma M, Droppert B, Anderson
PA.Risk of infection after open fracture of the arm or leg. Arch Surg.
1988;123:13201327.
53. Pollak AN, Jones AL, Castillo RC, Bosse MJ, MacKenzie EJ; LEAP
Study Group. The relationship between time to surgical debridement
and incidence of infection after open high-energy lower extremity
trauma. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2010;92:715.
54. Mellor SG, Cooper GJ, Bowyer GW. Efcacy of delayed administra-
tion of benzylpenicillin in the control of infection in penetrating soft
tissue injuries in war. J Trauma. 1996;40:S128S134.
55. Dahlgren B, Berlin R, Brandberg A, Rybeck B, Schantz B, Seeman T.
Effect of benzyl-pencillin on wound infection rate and on the extent of
devitalized tissue twelve hours after iniction of experimental missile
trauma. Acta Chir Scand. 1982;148:107112.
56. Edlich RF, Smith QT, Edgerton MT. Resistance of the surgical wound
to antimicrobial prophylaxis and its mechanisms of development. Am J
Surg. 1973;126:583591.
57. Tikka S. The contamination of missile wounds with special reference to
early antimicrobial therapy. Acta Chir Scand Suppl. 1982;508:281
287.
58. Miles AA, Miles EM, Burke J. The value and duration of defence
reactions of the skin to the primary lodgement of bacteria. Br J Exp
Pathol. 1957;38:7996.
59. Burke JF. The effective period of preventive antibiotic action in
experimental incisions and dermal lesions. Surgery. 1961;50:161168.
60. Brown KV, Walker JA, Cortez DS, Murray CK, Wenke JC. Earlier
debridement and antibiotic administration decrease infection. J Surg
Orthop Adv. 2010;19:1822.
61. Lagneau F, Marty J, Beyne P, Tod M. Physiological modeling for
indirect evaluation of drug tissular pharmacokinetics under non-steady-
state conditions: an example of antimicrobial prophylaxis during liver
surgery. J Pharmacokinet Pharmacodyn. 2005;32:132.
62. Edmiston CE, Krepel C, Kelly H, et al. Perioperative antibiotic pro-
phylaxis in the gastric bypass patient: do we achieve therapeutic levels?
Surgery. 2004;136:738747.
63. Auwaerter P. Surgical prophylaxis. Johns Hopkins poc-IT Center ABX
Guide. 2010. Available at: http://hopkins-abxguide.org/diagnosis/
surgical_infections/full_surgical_prophylaxis.html. Accessed March 3,
2011.
64. Sprandel KA, Drusano GL, Hecht DW, Rotschafer JC, Danziger LH,
Rodvold KA. Population pharmacokinetic modeling and Monte Carlo
simulation of varying doses of intravenous metronidazole. Diagn Mi-
crobiol Infect Dis. 2006;55:303309.
65. Creamer KM, Edwards MJ, Shields CH, Thompson MW, Yu CE,
Adelman W. Pediatric wartime admissions to US military combat
support hospitals in Afghanistan and Iraq: learning from the rst 2,000
admissions. J Trauma. 2009;67:762768.
66. Matos RI, Holcomb JB, Callahan C, Spinella PC. Increased mortality
rates of young children with traumatic injuries at a US army combat
support hospital in Baghdad, Iraq, 2004. Pediatrics. 2008;122:e959
e966.
67. Klimo P Jr, Ragel BT, Scott WH Jr, McCafferty R. Pediatric neuro-
surgery during Operation Enduring Freedom. J Neurosurg Pediatr.
2010;6:107114.
68. Spinella PC, Borgman MA, Azarow KS. Pediatric trauma in an austere
combat environment. Crit Care Med. 2008;36:S293S296.
69. Hoff WS, Bonadies JA, Cachecho R, et al. EAST practice management
guidelines work group: update to practice management guidelines for
prophylactic antibiotic use in open fractures. 2009. Available at: http://
www.east.org/tpg/OpenFxUpdate.pdf. Accessed March 3, 2011.
70. Hauser CJ, Adams CA Jr, Eachempati SR. Surgical Infection Society
guideline: prophylactic antibiotic use in open fractures: an evidence-
based guideline. Surg Infect (Larchmt). 2006;7:379405.
71. Patzakis MJ, Bains RS, Lee J, et al. Prospective, randomized, double-
blind study comparing single-agent antibiotic therapy, ciprooxacin, to
combination antibiotic therapy in open fracture wounds. J Orthop
Trauma. 2000;14:529533.
Guidelines
72. Patzakis MJ, Wilkins J, Moore TM. Considerations in reducing the
infection rate in open tibial fractures. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1983:3641.
73. Patzakis MJ, Wilkins J, Moore TM. Use of antibiotics in open tibial
fractures. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1983:3135.
74. Vasenius J, Tulikoura I, Vainionpaa S, Rokkanen P. Clindamycin
versus cloxacillin in the treatment of 240 open fractures. A randomized
prospective study. Ann Chir Gynaecol. 1998;87:224228.
75. Gerhardt RT, Matthews JM, Sullivan SG. The effect of systemic
antibiotic prophylaxis and wound irrigation on penetrating combat
wounds in a return-to-duty population. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2009;13:
500504.
76. Forse RA, Karam B, MacLean LD, Christou NV. Antibiotic prophy-
laxis for surgery in morbidly obese patients. Surgery. 1989;106:750
756; discussion 756757.
77. Cefazolin for injection USP and dextrose injection USP. Irvine, CA: B.
Braun Medical Inc., 2007. Available at: http://www.bbraunusa.com/
images/bbraun_usa/pi_Cefazolin.pdf. Accessed March 3, 2011.
78. Klein RS, Berger SA, Yekutiel P. Wound infection during the Yom
Kippur war: observations concerning antibiotic prophylaxis and ther-
apy. Ann Surg. 1975;182:1521.
79. Petersen K, Riddle MS, Danko JR, et al. Trauma-related infections in
battleeld casualties from Iraq. Ann Surg. 2007;245:803811.
80. Weintrob AC, Roediger MP, Barber M, et al. Natural history of
colonization with gram-negative multidrug-resistant organisms among
hospitalized patients. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2010;31:330
337.
81. Sorger JI, Kirk PG, Ruhnke CJ, et al. Once daily, high dose versus
divided, low dose gentamicin for open fractures. Clin Orthop Relat Res.
1999:197204.
82. Benson DR, Riggins RS, Lawrence RM, Hoeprich PD, Huston AC,
Harrison JA. Treatment of open fractures: a prospective study.
J Trauma. 1983;23:2530.
83. Pettit RT. Infections in wounds of war. JAMA. 1919;73:494.
84. North JP. Clostridial wound infection and gas gangrene. Surgery.
1947;21:361372.
85. MacLennan JD. Anaerobic infections of war wounds in the Middle
East. Lancet. 1943;1:6366, 9499, 123126.
86. Neel HB, Cole JP. Gas gangrene in amphibious warfare in the Pacic
area. Am J Surg. 1944;66:290299.
87. Howard JM, Inui FK. Clostridial myositis; gas gangrene; observations
of battle casualties in Korea. Surgery. 1954;36:11151118.
88. Stevens DL, Maier KA, Laine BM, Mitten JE. Comparison of clinda-
mycin, rifampin, tetracycline, metronidazole, and penicillin for efcacy
in prevention of experimental gas gangrene due to Clostridium perfrin-
gens. J Infect Dis. 1987;155:220228.
89. Campbell JI, Lam TM, Huynh TL, et al. Microbiologic characterization
and antimicrobial susceptibility of Clostridium tetani isolated from
wounds of patients with clinically diagnosed tetanus. Am J Trop Med
Hyg. 2009;80:827831.
90. Bayston R, de Louvois J, Brown EM, et al. Use of antibiotics in
penetrating craniocerebral injuries. Infection in neurosurgery work-
ing party of British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. Lancet.
2000;355:18131817.
91. Antibiotic prophylaxis for penetrating brain injury. J Trauma. 2001;
51:S34S40.
92. Ganchrow MI, Brief DK. Meningitis complicating perforating wounds
of the colon and rectum in combat casualties. Dis Colon Rectum.
1970;13:297301.
93. Romanick PC, Smith TK, Kopaniky DR, et al. Infection about the spine
associated with low-velocity-missile injury to the abdomen. J Bone
Joint Surg Am. 1985;67:11951201.
94. Heary RF, Vaccaro AR, Mesa JJ, Balderston RA. Thoracolumbar
infections in penetrating injuries to the spine. Orthop Clin North Am.
1996;27:6981.
95. Waters RL, Adkins RH. The effects of removal of bullet fragments
retained in the spinal canal. A collaborative study by the national spinal
cord injury model systems. Spine (Phila PA 1976). 1991;16:934939.
96. Kihtir T, Ivatury RR, Simon R, Stahl WM. Management of transperi-
toneal gunshot wounds of the spine. J Trauma. 1991;31:15791583.
97. Rof RP, Waters RL, Adkins RH. Gunshot wounds to the spine
associated with a perforated viscus. Spine (Phila PA 1976). 1989;14:
808811.
98. Quigley KJ, Place HM. The role of debridement and antibiotics in
gunshot wounds to the spine. J Trauma. 2006;60:814819.
99. Hariprasad SM, Shah GK, Mieler WF, et al. Vitreous and aqueous
penetration of orally administered moxioxacin in humans. Arch Oph-
thalmol. 2006;124:178182.
100. Sakamoto H, Sakamoto M, Hata Y, Kubota T, Ishibashi T. Aqueous
and vitreous penetration of levooxacin after topical and/or oral ad-
ministration. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2007;17:372376.
101. George JM, Fiscella R, Blair M, et al. Aqueous and vitreous penetration
of linezolid and levooxacin after oral administration. J Ocul Pharma-
col Ther. 2010;26:579586.
102. Colyer MH, Weber ED, Weichel ED, et al. Delayed intraocular
foreign body removal without endophthalmitis during Operations
Iraqi Freedom and Enduring Freedom. Ophthalmology. 2007;114:
14391447.
103. Zaytoun GM, Shikhani AH, Salman SD. Head and neck war injuries:
10-year experience at the American University of Beirut Medical
Center. Laryngoscope. 1986;96:899903.
104. Akhlaghi F, Aframian-Farnad F. Management of maxillofacial injuries
in the Iran-Iraq war. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1997;55:927930.
105. Becker GD, Parell GJ. Cefazolin prophylaxis in head and neck cancer
surgery. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1979;88:183186.
106. Dor P, Klastersky J. Prophylactic antibiotics in oral, pharyngeal and
laryngeal surgery for cancer: a double-blind study. Laryngoscope.
1973;83:19921998.
107. Johnson JT, Yu VL, Myers EN, Wagner RL, Sigler BA. Cefazolin vs
moxalactam? A double-blind randomized trial of cephalosporins in
head and neck surgery. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1986;112:
151153.
108. Johnson JT, Myers EN, Thearle PB, Sigler BA, Schramm VL Jr.
Antimicrobial prophylaxis for contaminated head and neck surgery.
Laryngoscope. 1984;94:4651.
109. Johnson JT, Yu VL, Myers EN, Wagner RL. An assessment of the
need for gram-negative bacterial coverage in antibiotic prophylaxis
for oncological head and neck surgery. J Infect Dis. 1987;155:331
333.
110. Johnson JT, Kachman K, Wagner RL, Myers EN. Comparison of
ampicillin/sulbactam versus clindamycin in the prevention of infection
in patients undergoing head and neck surgery. Head Neck. 1997;19:
367371.
111. Sanabria A, Valdivieso E, Gomez G, Echeverry G. Prophylactic anti-
biotics in chest trauma: a meta-analysis of high-quality studies. World
J Surg. 2006;30:18431847.
112. Petersen K, Waterman P. Prophylaxis and treatment of infections
associated with penetrating traumatic injury. Expert Rev Anti Infect
Ther. 2011;9:8196.
113. Schnuriger B, Inaba K, Eberle BM, et al. Microbiological prole and
antimicrobial susceptibility in surgical site infections following hollow
viscus injury. J Gastrointest Surg. 2010;14:13041310.
114. Brand M, Goosen J, Grieve A. Prophylactic antibiotics for penetrating
abdominal trauma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009:CD007370.
115. Lofmark S, Edlund C, Nord CE. Metronidazole is still the drug of
choice for treatment of anaerobic infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:
S16S23.
116. Itani KM, Wilson SE, Awad SS, Jensen EH, Finn TS, Abramson MA.
Ertapenem versus cefotetan prophylaxis in elective colorectal surgery.
N Engl J Med. 2006;355:26402651.
117. Edmiston CE, Krepel CJ, Seabrook GR, et al. In vitro activities of
moxioxacin against 900 aerobic and anaerobic surgical isolates from
patients with intra-abdominal and diabetic foot infections. Antimicrob
Agents Chemother. 2004;48:10121016.
118. Malangoni MA, Song J, Herrington J, Choudhri S, Pertel P. Randomized
controlled trial of moxioxacin compared with piperacillin-
tazobactam and amoxicillin-clavulanate for the treatment of complicated
intra-abdominal infections. Ann Surg. 2006;244:204211.
119. Solomkin J, Zhao YP, Ma EL, Chen MJ, Hampel B; DRAGON Study
Team. Moxioxacin is non-inferior to combination therapy with ceftri-
axone plus metronidazole in patients with community-origin compli-
cated intra-abdominal infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2009;34:
439445.
120. Weiss G, Reimnitz P, Hampel B, Muehlhofer E, Lippert H; AIDA
Study Group. Moxioxacin for the treatment of patients with compli-
cated intra-abdominal infections (the AIDA study). J Chemother.
2009;21:170180.
121. Glasser JS, Guymon CH, Mende K, Wolf SE, Hospenthal DR, Murray
CK. Activity of topical antimicrobial agents against multidrug-resistant
bacteria recovered from burn patients. Burns. 2010;36:11721184.
122. Sasaki TM, Welch GW, Herndon DN, Kaplan JZ, Lindberg RB, Pruitt
BA Jr. Burn wound manipulation-induced bacteremia. J Trauma.
1979;19:4648.
123. Mozingo DW, McManus AT, Kim SH, Pruitt BA Jr. Incidence of
bacteremia after burn wound manipulation in the early postburn period.
J Trauma. 1997;42:10061010.
124. Steer JA, Papini RP, Wilson AP, McGrouther DA, Nakhla LS, Park-
house N. Randomized placebo-controlled trial of teicoplanin in the
antibiotic prophylaxis of infection following manipulation of burn
wounds. Br J Surg. 1997;84:848853.
125. Ramos G, Resta M, Machare Delgado E, Durlach R, Fernandez Canigia
L, Benaim F. Systemic perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis may im-
prove skin autograft survival in patients with acute burns. J Burn Care
Res. 2008;29:917923.
126. Papini RP, Wilson AP, Steer JA, McGrouther DA, Parkhouse N.
Wound management in burn centres in the United Kingdom. Br J Surg.
1995;82:505509.
127. Dacso CC, Luterman A, Curreri PW. Systemic antibiotic treatment in
burned patients. Surg Clin North Am. 1987;67:5768.
128. Murray CK, Hospenthal DR, Holcomb JB. Antibiotics use and selec-
tion at the point of injury in tactical combat casualty care for casualties
with penetrating abdominal injury, shock, or unable to tolerate an oral
agent. J Special Op Med. 2005;5.
129. Parker PJ. Pre-hospital antibiotic administration. J R Army Med Corps.
2008;154:56.
130. Sarkar D, Philbeck T. The use of multiple intraosseous catheters in
combat casualty resuscitation. Mil Med. 2009;174:106108.
131. Cooper BR, Mahoney PF, Hodgetts TJ, Mellor A. Intra-osseous access
(EZ-IO) for resuscitation: UK military combat experience. J R Army
Med Corps. 2007;153:314316.
132. Pollack CV Jr, Pender ES, Woodall BN, Parks BR. Intraosseous
administration of antibiotics: same-dose comparison with intravenous
administration in the weanling pig. Ann Emerg Med. 1991;20:772776.
133. Okike K, Bhattacharyya T. Trends in the management of open frac-
tures. A critical analysis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2006;88:27392748.
134. Sloan JP, Dove AF, Maheson M, Cope AN, Welsh KR. Antibiotics in
open fractures of the distal phalanx? J Hand Surg Br. 1987;12:123
124.
135. Merritt K. Factors increasing the risk of infection in patients with open
fractures. J Trauma. 1988;28:823827.
136. Velmahos GC, Jindal A, Chan L, et al. Prophylactic antibiotics after
severe trauma: more is not better. Int Surg. 2001;86:176183.
137. Hoth JJ, Franklin GA, Stassen NA, Girard SM, Rodriguez RJ, Rodri-
guez JL. Prophylactic antibiotics adversely affect nosocomial pneumo-
nia in trauma patients. J Trauma. 2003;55:249254.
138. Bell RS, Vo AH, Neal CJ, et al. Military traumatic brain and spinal
column injury: a 5-year study of the impact blast and other military
grade weaponry on the central nervous system. J Trauma. 2009;66:
S104S111.
139. Soheilian M, Rafati N, Mohebbi MR, et al. Prophylaxis of acute
posttraumatic bacterial endophthalmitis: a multicenter, randomized
clinical trial of intraocular antibiotic injection, report 2. Arch Ophthal-
mol. 2007;125:460465.
140. Vedantham V, Nirmalan PK, Ramasamy K, Prakash K, Namperumal-
samy P. Clinico-microbiological prole and visual outcomes of post-
traumatic endophthalmitis at a tertiary eye care center in South India.
Indian J Ophthalmol. 2006;54:510.
141. Andreasen JO, Jensen SS, Schwartz O, Hillerup Y. A systematic
review of prophylactic antibiotics in the surgical treatment of maxill-
ofacial fractures. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2006;64:16641668.
142. Knepil GJ, Loukota RA. Outcomes of prophylactic antibiotics follow-
ing surgery for zygomatic bone fractures. J Craniomaxillofac Surg.
2010;38:131133.
143. Chole RA, Yee J. Antibiotic prophylaxis for facial fractures. A pro-
spective, randomized clinical trial. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg.
1987;113:10551057.
144. Abubaker AO, Rollert MK. Postoperative antibiotic prophylaxis in
mandibular fractures: a preliminary randomized, double-blind, and
placebo-controlled clinical study. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2001;59:
14151419.
145. Miles BA, Potter JK, Ellis E 3rd. The efcacy of postoperative
antibiotic regimens in the open treatment of mandibular fractures: a
prospective randomized trial. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2006;64:576
582.
146. Johnson JT, Schuller DE, Silver F, et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis in
high-risk head and neck surgery: one-day vs. ve-day therapy. Otolar-
yngol Head Neck Surg. 1986;95:554557.
147. Velmahos GC, Toutouzas KG, Sarkisyan G, et al. Severe trauma is not
an excuse for prolonged antibiotic prophylaxis. Arch Surg. 2002;137:
537541.
148. Fabian TC, Croce MA, Payne LW, Minard G, Pritchard FE, Kudsk KA.
Duration of antibiotic therapy for penetrating abdominal trauma: a
prospective trial. Surgery. 1992;112:788794.
149. Swoboda SM, Merz C, Kostuik J, Trentler B, Lipsett PA. Does
intraoperative blood loss affect antibiotic serum and tissue concentra-
tions? Arch Surg. 1996;131:11651171.
150. Polly DW Jr, Meter JJ, Brueckner R, Asplund L, van Dam BE. The
effect of intraoperative blood loss on serum cefazolin level in patients
undergoing instrumented spinal fusion. A prospective, controlled
study. Spine (Phila PA 1976). 1996;21:23632367.
151. Meter JJ, Polly DW Jr, Brueckner RP, Tenuta JJ, Asplund L, Hopkin-
son WJ. Effect of intraoperative blood loss on the serum level of
cefazolin in patients managed with total hip arthroplasty. A prospec-
tive, controlled study. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1996;78:12011205.
152. FAQs. Surgical site infections. Institute for Healthcare Improvement,
2010. Available at: http://www.ihi.org/IHI/Topics/PatientSafety/Surgical
SiteInfections/FAQs/. Accessed March 3, 2011.
153. Fleming A. The action of chemical and physiological antiseptics in a
septic wound. Brit J Surg. 1919:99129.
154. Moorehead JJ. Surgical experience at Pearl Harbor. JAMA. 1942;118:
712714.
155. Lyons C. Penicillin and its use in the war wounded. Am J Surg.
1946;72:315318.
156. Slemons HV. Forward neurosurgery in Italy. J Neurosurg. 1945;2:332
339.
157. Matsumoto T, Hardaway RM, Dobek AS, Matsumoto T, Hardaway
RM, Dobek AS. Role of topical antibiotic spray in simulated mass
casualty wounds. Surg Forum. 1967;18:5254.
158. Heisterkamp C, Vernick J, Simmons RL, Motsumoto T. Topical
antibiotics in war wounds: a re-evaluation. Mil Med. 1969;134:1318.
159. Noyes HE, Chi NH, Linh LT, Mo DH, Punyashthiti K, Pugh C Jr.
Delayed topical antimicrobials as adjuncts to systemic antibiotic ther-
apy of war wounds: bacteriologic studies. Mil Med. 1967;132:461
468.
160. Mendelson JA. Topical therapy as an expedient treatment of massive
open wounds. Experimental study. Surgery. 1960;48:10351047.
161. Mendelson JA. Topical mafenide hydrochloride aqueous spray in initial
management of massive contaminated wounds with devitalized tissue.
Prehosp Disaster Med. 2001;16:172174.
162. Matsumoto T, Hardaway RM 3rd, Dobek AS, Noyes HE. Antibiotic
topical spray applied in a simulated combat wound. Arch Surg. 1967;
95:288294.
163. Warner M, Henderson C, Kadrmas W, Mitchell DT. Comparison of
vacuum-assisted closure to the antibiotic bead pouch for the treatment
of blast injury of the extremity. Orthopedics. 2010;33:7782.
164. Helgeson MD, Potter BK, Tucker CJ, Frisch HM, Shawen SB. Anti-
biotic-impregnated calcium sulfate use in combat-related open frac-
tures. Orthopedics. 2009;32:323.
165. Wininger DA, Fass RJ. Antibiotic-impregnated cement and beads for
orthopedic infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1996;40:2675
2679.
166. Zalavras CG, Patzakis MJ, Holtom P. Local antibiotic therapy in the
treatment of open fractures and osteomyelitis. Clin Orthop Relat Res.
2004:8693.
167. Moehring HD, Gravel C, Chapman MW, Olson SA. Comparison of
antibiotic beads and intravenous antibiotics in open fractures. Clin
Orthop Relat Res. 2000:254261.
Guidelines
168. Ostermann PA, Henry SL, Seligson D. The role of local antibiotic
therapy in the management of compound fractures. Clin Orthop Relat
Res. 1993:102111.
169. Keating JF, Blachut PA, OBrien PJ, Court-Brown CM. Reamed
nailing of Gustilo grade-IIIb tibial fractures. J Bone Joint Surg Br.
2000;82:11131116.
170. Shatz DV, Romero-Steiner S, Elie CM, Holder PF, Carlone GM.
Antibody responses in postsplenectomy trauma patients receiving the
23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine at 14 versus 28 days
postoperatively. J Trauma. 2002;53:10371042.
171. Shatz DV, Schinsky MF, Pais LB, Romero-Steiner S, Kirton OC,
Carlone GM. Immune responses of splenectomized trauma patients to
the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine at 1 versus 7
versus 14 days after splenectomy. J Trauma. 1998;44:760765.
172. Shatz DV. Vaccination practices among North American trauma sur-
geons in splenectomy for trauma. J Trauma. 2002;53:950956.
173. Owens BD, Wenke JC. Early wound irrigation improves the ability to
remove bacteria. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2007;89:17231726.
174. Leininger BE, Rasmussen TE, Smith DL, Jenkins DH, Coppola C.
Experience with wound VAC and delayed primary closure of contam-
inated soft tissue injuries in Iraq. J Trauma. 2006;61:12071211.
175. Fluid lavage of open wounds (FLOW): design and rationale for a large,
multicenter collaborative 2 3 factorial trial of irrigating pressures and
solutions in patients with open fractures. BMC Musculoskelet Disord.
2010;11:85.
176. Anglen JO. Comparison of soap and antibiotic solutions for irrigation
of lower-limb open fracture wounds. A prospective, randomized study.
J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2005;87:14151422.
177. Moscati RM, Mayrose J, Reardon RF, Janicke DM, Jehle DV. A
multicenter comparison of tap water versus sterile saline for wound
irrigation. Acad Emerg Med. 2007;14:404409.
178. Crowley DJ, Kanakaris NK, Giannoudis PV. Irrigation of the wounds
in open fractures. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2007;89:580585.
179. Fernandez R, Grifths R. Water for wound cleansing. Cochrane Da-
tabase Syst Rev. 2008:CD003861.
180. Petrisor B, Jeray K, Schemitsch E, et al. Fluid lavage in patients with
open fracture wounds (FLOW): an international survey of 984 sur-
geons. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2008;9:7.
181. Murray CK, Roop SA, Hospenthal DR, et al. Bacteriology of war
wounds at the time of injury. Mil Med. 2006;171:826829.
182. Murray CK, Grifth ME, Mende K, et al. Methicillin-resistant Staph-
ylococcus aureus in wound cultures recovered from a combat support
hospital in Iraq. J Trauma. 2010;69:S102S108.
183. Roberts SS, Kazragis RJ. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
infections in U.S. Service members deployed to Iraq. Mil Med. 2009;
174:408411.
184. Huang XZ, Cash DM, Chahine MA, et al. Methicillin-resistant Staph-
ylococcus aureus infection in combat support hospitals in three regions
of Iraq. Epidemiol Infect. 2010:14.
185. Sheppard FR, Keiser P, Craft DW, et al. The majority of US combat
casualty soft-tissue wounds are not infected or colonized upon arrival
or during treatment at a continental US military medical facility. Am J
Surg. 2010;200:489495.
186. Lee J. Efcacy of cultures in the management of open fractures. Clin
Orthop Relat Res. 1997:7175.
187. Carsenti-Etesse H, Doyon F, Desplaces N, et al. Epidemiology of
bacterial infection during management of open leg fractures. Eur J Clin
Microbiol Infect Dis. 1999;18:315323.
188. Valenziano CP, Chattar-Cora D, ONeill A, Hubli EH, Cudjoe EA.
Efcacy of primary wound cultures in long bone open extremity
fractures: are they of any value? Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 2002;122:
259261.
189. Kreder HJ, Armstrong P. The signicance of perioperative cultures in
open pediatric lower-extremity fractures. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1994:
206212.
190. Faisham WI, Nordin S, Aidura M. Bacteriological study and its role in
the management of open tibial fracture. Med J Malaysia. 2001;56:201
206.
191. DSouza A, Rajagopalan N, Amaravati RS. The use of qualitative
cultures for detecting infection in open tibial fractures. J Orthop Surg
(Hong Kong). 2008;16:175178.
192. Sagar JV, Muthukumar G, Prasannan C, Sharma R, Mohanty PR.
Factors inuencing wound infection: time lapse analysis and wound
culture studies. Indian J Pathol Microbiol. 1987;30:343347.
193. Holzapfel L, Jacquet-Francillon T, Rahmani J, et al. Microbiological
evaluation of infected wounds of the extremities in 214 adults. J Accid
Emerg Med. 1999;16:3234.
194. Alonge TO, Ogunlade SO, Salawu SA, Fashina AN. Microbial isolates
in open fractures seen in the accident and emergency unit of a teaching
hospital in a developing country. West Afr J Med. 2002;21:302304.
195. Robson MC, Heggers JP. Delayed wound closure based on bacterial
counts. J Surg Oncol. 1970;2:379383.
196. Ako-Nai AK, Ikem IC, Daniel FV, Ojo DO, Oginni LM. A comparison
of supercial and deep bacterial presence in open fractures of the lower
extremities. Int J Low Extrem Wounds. 2009;8:197202.
197. Kindsfater K, Jonassen EA. Osteomyelitis in grade II and III open tibia
fractures with late debridement. J Orthop Trauma. 1995;9:121127.
198. Lenarz CJ, Watson JT, Moed BR, Israel H, Mullen JD, Macdonald JB.
Timing of wound closure in open fractures based on cultures obtained
after debridement. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2010;92:19211926.
199. Bowyer GW. Management of small fragment wounds: experience from
the Afghan border. J Trauma. 1996;40:S170S172.
200. Hill PF, Edwards DP, Bowyer GW. Small fragment wounds: biophys-
ics, pathophysiology and principles of management. J R Army Med
Corps. 2001;147:4151.
201. Cooper GJ, Ryan JM. Interaction of penetrating missiles with tissues:
some common misapprehensions and implications for wound manage-
ment. Br J Surg. 1990;77:606610.
202. Berlin R, Janzon B, Rybeck B, Sandegard J, Seeman T. Local effects
of assault rie bullets in live tissues. Part II. Further studies in live
tissues and relations to some simulant media. Acta Chir Scand Suppl.
1977;477:548.
203. Berlin R, Gelin LE, Janzon B, et al. Local effects of assault rie bullets
in live tissues. Acta Chir Scand Suppl. 1976;459:176.
204. Rhee JM, Martin R. The management of retained bullets in the limbs.
Injury. 1997;28:S-C23S-C28.
205. Maggio KL, Kalasinsky VF, Lewin-Smith MR, Mullick FG. Wound
fragments from cutaneous sites of U.S. Military personnel deployed in
Operation Iraqi Freedom: clinical aspects and pathologic characteriza-
tions. Dermatol Surg. 2008;34:475482.
206. Bowyer GW, Cooper GJ, Rice P. Small fragment wounds: biophysics
and pathophysiology. J Trauma. 1996;40:S159S164.
207. Bowyer GW, Cooper GJ, Rice P. Management of small fragment
wounds in war: current research. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 1995;77:131
134.
208. Hamouda HM, Witso E, Moghani NK, Shahwan A, Nygaard OP. Soft
tissue infection after missile injuries to the extremitiesa non-random-
ized, prospective study in Gaza City. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2007;22:
106108.
209. Eshkol Z, Katz K. Injuries from biologic material of suicide bombers.
Injury. 2005;36:271274.
210. Almogy G, Belzberg H, Mintz Y, Pikarsky AK, Zamir G, Rivkind AI.
Suicide bombing attacks: update and modications to the protocol. Ann
Surg. 2004;239:295303.
211. Aharonson-Daniel L, Klein Y, Peleg K. Suicide bombers form a new
injury prole. Ann Surg. 2006;244:10181023.
212. Weigl DM, Bar-On E, Katz K. Small-fragment wounds from explosive
devices: need for and timing of fragment removal. J Pediatr Orthop.
2005;25:158161.
213. Ordog GJ, Sheppard GF, Wasserberger JS, Balasubramanium S, Shoe-
maker WC. Infection in minor gunshot wounds. J Trauma. 1993;34:
358365.
214. Jacob E, Setterstrom JA. Infection in war wounds: experience in recent
military conicts and future considerations. Mil Med. 1989;154:311
315.
215. Mabry RL, Holcomb JB, Baker AM, et al. United States army rangers
in Somalia: an analysis of combat casualties on an urban battleeld.
J Trauma. 2000;49:515528.
216. Crowley DJ, Kanakaris NK, Giannoudis PV. Debridement and wound
closure of open fractures: the impact of the time factor on infection
rates. Injury. 2007;38:879889.
217. Roth AI, Fry DE, Polk HC. Infectious morbidity in extremity fractures.
J Trauma. 1986;26:757761.
218. Friedrich P. Die aseptische versorgung frischer wundern. Arch Klin
Chir. 1898;57:288310.
219. Gustilo RB, Gruninger RP, Davis T. Classication of type III (severe)
open fractures relative to treatment and results. Orthopedics. 1987;10:
17811788.
220. Gustilo RB, Mendoza RM, Williams DN. Problems in the management
of type III (severe) open fractures: a new classication of type III open
fractures. J Trauma. 1984;24:742746.
221. Gustilo RB, Anderson JT. Prevention of infection in the treatment of one
thousand and twenty-ve open fractures of long bones: retrospective and
prospective analyses. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1976;58:453458.
222. Kreder HJ, Armstrong P. A review of open tibia fractures in children.
J Pediatr Orthop. 1995;15:482488.
223. Harley BJ, Beaupre LA, Jones CA, Dulai SK, Weber DW. The effect
of time to denitive treatment on the rate of nonunion and infection in
open fractures. J Orthop Trauma. 2002;16:484490.
224. Carey ME. The treatment of wartime brain wounds: traditional versus
minimal debridement. Surg Neurol. 2003;60:112119.
225. Gonul E, Baysefer A, Kahraman S, et al. Causes of infections and
management results in penetrating craniocerebral injuries. Neurosurg
Rev. 1997;20:177181.
226. Amirjamshidi A, Abbassioun K, Rahmat H. Minimal debridement or
simple wound closure as the only surgical treatment in war victims with
low-velocity penetrating head injuries. Indications and management
protocol based upon more than 8 years follow-up of 99 cases from
Iran-Iraq conict. Surg Neurol. 2003;60:105110.
227. Taha JM, Saba MI, Brown JA. Missile injuries to the brain treated by
simple wound closure: results of a protocol during the Lebanese
conict. Neurosurgery. 1991;29:380383.
228. Chaudhri KA, Choudhury AR, al Moutaery KR, Cybulski GR. Pene-
trating craniocerebral shrapnel injuries during Operation Desert
Storm: early results of a conservative surgical treatment. Acta Neu-
rochir (Wien). 1994;126:120123.
229. Marcikic M, Melada A, Kovacevic R. Management of war penetrating
craniocerebral injuries during the war in Croatia. Injury. 1998;29:613
618.
230. Singh P. Missile injuries of the brain: results of less aggressive surgery.
Neurol India. 2003;51:215219.
231. Clasper JC, Rowley DI. Outcome, following signicant delays in initial
surgery, of ballistic femoral fractures managed without internal or
external xation. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2009;91:97101.
232. Blair VP. Relation of the early care to the nal outcome of major face
wounds in war surgery. Mil Med. 1943;92:1217.
233. Reister FA. Battle Casualties and Medical Statistics. U.S. Army expe-
riences in the Korean War. Washington, DC: Ofce of the Surgeon
General, Department of the Army, 1973.
234. Spanjersberg WR, Ringburg AN, Bergs EA, Krijen P, Schipper IB.
Prehospital chest tube thoracostomy: effective treatment or additional
trauma? J Trauma. 2005;59:96101.
235. Etoch SW, Bar-Natan MF, Miller FB, Richardson JD. Tube thoracos-
tomy. Factors related to complications. Arch Surg. 1995;130:521525;
discussion 525526.
236. Mandal AK, Thadepalli H, Chettipalli U. Posttraumatic empyema
thoracis: a 24-year experience at a major trauma center. J Trauma.
1997;43:764771.
237. Nelson R, Singer M. Primary repair for penetrating colon injuries.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003:CD002247.
238. Salinas-Aragon LE, Guevara-Torres L, Vaca-Perez E, Belmares-
Taboada JA, Ortiz-Castillo Fde G, Sanchez-Aguilar M. Primary closure
in colon trauma. Cir Cir. 2009;77:359364.
239. Duncan JE, Corwin CH, Sweeney WB, et al. Management of colorectal
injuries during Operation Iraqi Freedom: patterns of stoma usage.
J Trauma. 2008;64:10431047.
240. Burlew CC, Moore EE, Cuschieri J, et al. Sew it up! A Western Trauma
Association multi-institutional study of enteric injury management in
the postinjury open abdomen. J Trauma. 2011;70:273277.
241. Diaz JJ Jr, Cullinane DC, Dutton WD, et al. The management of the open
abdomen in trauma and emergency general surgery: part 1-damage con-
trol. J Trauma. 2010;68:14251438.
242. Vertrees A, Wakeeld M, Pickett C, et al. Outcomes of primary repair
and primary anastomosis in war-related colon injuries. J Trauma.
2009;66:12861291.
243. Cho SD, Kiraly LN, Flaherty SF, Herzig DO, Lu KC, Schreiber MA.
Management of colonic injuries in the combat theater. Dis Colon
Rectum. 2010;53:728734.
244. Teixeira PG, Salim A, Inaba K, et al. A prospective look at the current
state of open abdomens. Am Surg. 2008;74:891897.
245. Arthurs Z, Kjorstad R, Mullenix P, Rush RM Jr, Sebesta J, Beekley A.
The use of damage-control principles for penetrating pelvic battleeld
trauma. Am J Surg. 2006;191:604609.
246. Herndon DN, Barrow RE, Rutan RL, Rutan TC, Desai MH, Abston S.
A comparison of conservative versus early excision. Therapies in
severely burned patients. Ann Surg. 1989;209:547552.
247. Ong YS, Samuel M, Song C. Meta-analysis of early excision of burns.
Burns. 2006;32:145150.
248. Barret JP, Herndon DN. Effects of burn wound excision on bacterial
colonization and invasion. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2003;111:744750.
249. Lowry KF, Curtis GM. Delayed suture in the management of wounds;
analysis of 721 traumatic wounds illustrating the inuence of time
interval in wound repair. Am J Surg. 1950;80:280287.
250. Dufour D, Jensen SK, Owen-Smith M, Salmela J, Stening GF, Zetter-
strom B. Surgery for Victims of War. 3rd ed. Geneva, Switzerland:
International Committee of the Red Cross, 1998.
251. Zalavras CG, Marcus RE, Levin LS, Patzakis MJ. Management of open
fractures and subsequent complications. Instr Course Lect. 2008;57:
5163.
252. Melvin JS, Dombroski DG, Torbert JT, Kovach SJ, Esterhai JL, Mehta
S. Open tibial shaft fractures: I. Evaluation and initial wound manage-
ment. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2010;18:1019.
253. Rajasekaran S. Early versus delayed closure of open fractures. Injury.
2007;38:890895.
254. Bhattacharyya T, Mehta P, Smith M, Pomahac B. Routine use of
wound vacuum-assisted closure does not allow coverage delay for open
tibia fractures. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008;121:12631266.
255. Bell RS, Mossop CM, Dirks MS, et al. Early decompressive craniec-
tomy for severe penetrating and closed head injury during wartime.
Neurosurg Focus. 2010;28:E1.
256. Motamedi MH. An assessment of maxillofacial fractures: a 5-year
study of 237 patients. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2003;61:6164.
257. Rotondo MF, Schwab CW, McGonigal MD, et al. Damage control:
an approach for improved survival in exsanguinating penetrating ab-
dominal injury. J Trauma. 1993;35:375382; discussion 382373.
258. Possley DR, Burns TC, Stinner DJ, et al. Temporary external xation
is safe in a combat environment. J Trauma. 2010;69 Suppl 1:S135
S139.
259. Mazurek MT, Burgess AR. Moderators summary: stabilization of long
bones. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2006;14:S113S117.
260. Clasper JC, Phillips SL. Early failure of external xation in the
management of war injuries. J R Army Med Corps. 2005;151:8186.
261. Hinck D, Franke A, Gatzka F. Use of vacuum-assisted closure negative
pressure wound therapy in combat-related injuriesliterature review.
Mil Med. 2010;175:173181.
262. Fang R, Dorlac GR, Allan PF, Dorlac WC. Intercontinental aeromed-
ical evacuation of patients with traumatic brain injuries during Opera-
tions Iraqi Freedom and Enduring Freedom. Neurosurg Focus. 2010;
28:E11.
263. Pollak AN, Powell ET, Fang R, Cooper EO, Ficke JR, Flaherty SF. Use
of negative pressure wound therapy during aeromedical evacuation of
patients with combat-related blast injuries. J Surg Orthop Adv. 2010;
19:4448.
264. Moues CM, Vos MC, van den Bemd GJ, Stijnen T, Hovius SE.
Bacterial load in relation to vacuum-assisted closure wound therapy: a
prospective randomized trial. Wound Repair Regen. 2004;12:1117.
265. Stannard JP, Volgas DA, Stewart R, McGwin G Jr, Alonso JE.
Negative pressure wound therapy after severe open fractures: a pro-
spective randomized study. J Orthop Trauma. 2009;23:552557.
266. Stannard JP, Robinson JT, Anderson ER, McGwin G Jr, Volgas DA,
Alonso JE. Negative pressure wound therapy to treat hematomas and
surgical incisions following high-energy trauma. J Trauma. 2006;60:
13011306.
267. Workman WT, Calcote RD. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy and combat
casualty care: a viable potential. Mil Med. 1989;154:111115.
Guidelines
268. Shupak A, Halpern P, Ziser A, Melamed Y. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy
for gas gangrene casualties in the Lebanon War, 1982. Isr J Med Sci.
1984;20:323326.
269. Johnson JT, Gillespie TE, Cole JR, Markowitz HA. Hyperbaric oxygen
therapy for gas gangrene in war wounds. Am J Surg. 1969;118:839
843.
270. Roje Z, Eterovic D, Druzijanic N, et al. Inuence of adjuvant hyper-
baric oxygen therapy on short-term complications during surgical
reconstruction of upper and lower extremity war injuries: retrospective
cohort study. Croat Med J. 2008;49:224232.
271. Belda FJ, Aguilera L, Garcia de la Asuncion J, et al. Supplemental
perioperative oxygen and the risk of surgical wound infection: a
randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2005;294:20352042.
272. Meyhoff CS, Wetterslev J, Jorgensen LN, et al. Effect of high periop-
erative oxygen fraction on surgical site infection and pulmonary com-
plications after abdominal surgery: the PROXI randomized clinical
trial. JAMA. 2009;302:15431550.
273. Greif R, Akca O, Horn EP, et al. Supplemental perioperative oxygen to
reduce the incidence of surgical-wound infection. N Engl J Med.
2000;342:161167.
274. Hospenthal DR, Crouch HK. Infection control challenges in deployed
US military treatment facilities. J Trauma. 2009;66:S120S128.
275. Hospenthal DR, Crouch HK, English JF, et al. Response to infection
control challenges in the deployed setting: Operations Iraqi and En-
during Freedom. J Trauma. 2010;69 Suppl 1:S94S101.
276. Crouch HK, Murray CK, Hospenthal DR. Development of a deploy-
ment infection control course. Mil Med. 2010;175:983989.
277. Matsumoto T, Wyte SR, Moseley RV, Nemhauser GM, Henry JN,
Aaby G. Surgical research in the communication zone. II. Enzyme
uctuations in wounded combat soldiers during the convalescent pe-
riod. Arch Surg. 1969;99:537541.
278. Surbatovic M, Filipovic N, Radakovic S, Stankovic N, Slavkovic Z.
Immune cytokine response in combat casualties: blast or explosive
trauma with or without secondary sepsis. Mil Med. 2007;172:190195.
279. Forsberg JA, Elster EA, Andersen RC, et al. Correlation of procalci-
tonin and cytokine expression with dehiscence of wartime extremity
wounds. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2008;90:580588.
280. Hawksworth JS, Stojadinovic A, Gage FA, et al. Inammatory bio-
markers in combat wound healing. Ann Surg. 2009;250:10021007.
281. Utz ER, Elster EA, Tadaki DK, et al. Metalloproteinase expression is
associated with traumatic wound failure. J Surg Res. 2010;159:633
639.
282. Nesti LJ, Jackson WM, Shanti RM, et al. Differentiation potential of
multipotent progenitor cells derived from war-traumatized muscle
tissue. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2008;90:23902398.
283. Ali MH, Hoekzema NA, Bakleh M, Shin AY, Osmon DR. The
microbiology and risk of infection following open, agricultural upper
extremity injuries. J Hand Surg Am. 2008;33:8793.
284. Lawrence RM, Hoeprich PD, Huston AC, et al. Quantitative microbi-
ology of traumatic orthopedic wounds. J Clin Microbiol. 1978;8:673
675.
285. Eardley WG, Brown KV, Bonner TJ, Green AD, Clasper JC. Infection
in conict wounded. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2011;366:
204218.
286. Hospenthal DR, Crouch HK, English JF, et al. Multidrug-resistant
(MDR) bacterial colonization of combat-injured personnel at admission
to medical centers after evacuation from Afghanistan and Iraq.
J Trauma. 2011;71:S52S57.

2011 Combat Infections Guideline J Trauma

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

2011 Combat Infections Guideline J Trauma

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

REVIEW ARTICLE

Guidelines for the Prevention of Infections Associated With

S-ar putea să vă placă și