Prop Logic

Propositional Logic: Basics
A. V. Ravishankar Sarma
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
avrs@iitk.ac.in
May 21, 2014
Revised: May 21, 2014
A. V. Ravishankar Sarma (IITK) Propositional Logic May 21, 2014 1 / 125
What is Propositional Logic?
1
It is a systematic study of logical propositions and it deals with the
analysis of truth functional connectives (or, and, if, not, i).
2
Most basic logical inferences are about expressions that are
combinations of sentences involving not, or, and, if, i.
3
The formal language used to express sentential formulas- sentential
language.
4
The Truth functional calculas or propositional calculas is a logical
study of those statements whose truth values are determined by the
truth values of their component parts.
Four examples where we use PL
1
Logical reasoning, and in the argumentation involved in day to day
discourse.
2
Mathematical Reasoning.
3
Analysis of simple digital switching circuits.
4
Knowledge Representation (AI)
Outline:Propositional Logic
1
Syntax and Semantics of Propositional Logic
2
Translation of English language sentences to the Language of
Propositional Logic
3
Tautologies, contradictions, contingent propositions,
4
Syntactic and Semantic Validity.
5
Decision, Proof Procedures(Semantic):
1 Truth Table Method/Indirect Truth Table Method
2 Semantic Tableaux or Tree Method
3 Conjunctive and Disjunctive Normal Forms (CNF and DNF)
4 Resolution and refutation method.
6
Syntactic Methods: Natural Deduction
What is Propositional Logic?
1
Branch of Formal Logic and the basic units are Sentences.
2
Example: Socrates is Wise (W).
3
It only deals with constants that stand for entire natural language
sentences and the ways these constants may be combined to form
more complex expressions.
4
Sentential logic is concerned only with the way in which simple
sentences are combined by means of sentential operators into more
complex sentences.
5
It has no Quantiers
6
The sentences that are generated from the other sentential
connectives (or, and, implies,) are compound sentences
7
Mars is a planet which has no satellites. Mars is a planet and Mars
has satellites (Where the second sentence is false.
Some Questions
1
What does it mean for one sentence to follow logically from certain
others?
2
If a sentence does follow logically from certain others, what methods
of proof might be necessary to establish this fact?
3
Is there a gap between what we can prove in an axiomatic system (say
for the natural numbers) and what is true about the natural numbers?
4
What is the connection between logic and computability?
Alfred North Whitehead
Alfred North Whitehead, one of the foremost pioneers in symbolic logic,
declares: [B]y the aid of symbolism, we can make transitions in reasoning
almost mechanically by the eye, which otherwise would call into play the
higher faculties of the brain.
WHITEHEAD, AN INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICS 61 (1911).
Why Formal Language?
Reasons
1
English (and any natural language in general) is such a rich language
that it cannot be formally described.
2
meaning of an English sentence can be ambiguous, subject to dierent
interpretations depending on the context and implicit assumptions.
3
Natural languages tend to be verbose, and even fairly simple
mathematical statements become exceedingly long (and unclear)
when expressed in them.
If the object of our study is to carry out precise rigorous arguments about
assertions and proofs, a precise language whose syntax can be completely
described in a few simple rules and whose semantics can be dened
unambiguously is required.
Two dierent ways of using Language of Logic:
Syntax
1
For instance, a language can be used as a deduction system (or proof
system); that is, to construct proofs or refutations. This use of a
logical language is called proof theory.
2
When using logic as a proof system, one is not concerned with the
meaning of the statements that are manipulated, but with the
arrangement of these statements, and specically, whether proofs or
refutations can be constructed.
3
This use of logic is similar to game playing. Certain facts and rules
are given, and it is assumed that the players are perfect, in the sense
that they always obey the rules.
Semantics
1
The second use of a formal language is for expressing statements that
receive a meaning when they are given what is called an
interpretation.
2
In this case, the language of logic is used to formalize properties of
structures, and determine when a statement is true of a structure.
This use of a logical language is called model theory.
3
A statement true under all interpretations of the parameters is said to
be valid.
Syntax of Propositional Logic
Denition (Formal Language)
A formal language consists of a set of symbols together with a set of rules
for forming grammatically correct strings of symbols in this language.
Denition (String)
A string or word in a formal language is any nite sequence of the symbols
in the language. We include in this the empty string containing no
symbols at all.
Example (String)
p pq) pqr , (p q), p)
Symbols in Propositional Logic:
In the language of propositional logic we have the following list of symbols
1
propositional variables: this is an innite list p1; p2; p2;. . . . . . of
symbols. We often use p; q; r;. . . . . . to denote propositional variables.
2
symbols for the (common) propositional connectives: ,,,,
3
parentheses: (, ).
Well formed Formulas
Denition (Ws)
1
Every propositional variable P is a well formed formula.
2
If A is a w, so is A.
3
If A; B are formulas, so are A, (A B), (A B), (A B), and
(A B).
Note
Thus a string A is a w exactly when there is a nite sequence
A1; . . . . . . . . . ; An (called a parsing sequence) such that An = A and for
each 1 i n, A
i
is either (1) a propositional variable, (2) for some
j < i , Ai = Aj , or (3) for some j , k < i , Ai = (Aj Ak), where is one of
,, ,,
Recursive Denition of W
1
(Base clause) Any statement constant or propositional variable is a
W.
2
(Recursion clause) If P and Q are well formed formulas, so are the
following: P Q, P Q, P Q, P, P Q.
3
(Closure clause) Nothing will count as a W unless it can be
constructed according to clauses I and 2.
It is recursive, or generative, denition, because it tells us exactly how to
generate instances of the things we are trying to dene.
Parentheses and Conenctives
Standard Rules:
Apply the conenctives, inserting parenthesis if needed in the following
preferential order:
1
Applies to shortest proposition to its right.
2
Applies to shortest proposition on each side of it.
3
4
5
If at any time you are with repeats of the some connective, group them
working from the left to right.(A B C).
Convention
Convention
We can omit the use of parenthesis by assigning decreasing ranks to the
propositional connectives as follows: , , , ,. The connective with
greater rank always reaches further.
First preference is given to and then etc.
Example (Ws)
1
p q r s is written as p (q (r s)).
2
p p q p q is written as ??
3
p (q r ) p???
Exercise:
Use conventions to eliminate as many parentheses as possible.
1
A B C D F
2
(((P Q) Q) P). (P Q) Q P.
3
[P (P Q)]
Denitions
1
A sentence is compound if it logically contains another complete
sentence as a component.
2
A sentence is simple if and only if it is not compound.
3
One sentence is a component of another sentence if, whenever the
rst sentence is replaced by any other declarative sentence, the result
is still a grammatical sentence..
4
A sentential operator is an expression containing blanks such that,
when the blanks are lled with complete sentences, the result is a
sentence.
Main Logical Connective
The main logical operator in a compound statement is the one that
governs the largest component or components of a compound statement.
A minor logical operator governs smaller components
Example (Main Logical Connective)
[(p q) p)]
is the main logical operator whereas and are the minor logical
operator.
Truth Functional Connectives
1
The truth value of the compound that they form can be determined
solely by the truth values of their components.
2
This means that there will be a rule telling us exactly what the value
of the compound must be for each combination of values for the
components.
Negation:
1
Not p [or the result of transforming p by putting not just after the
verb or an auxiliary verb]
2
p does not hold
3
It is not the case that p
4
p isnt so.
Inclusive OR: P Q
1
P or Q or both.
2
P or Q [sometimes(s)]
3
P unless Q [s]
4
P and/or Q [in legal documents]
5
Either P or Q [s]
6
P except when Q [s]
Neither P nor Q: (P Q)
Conjunction:P Q
1
p and q; p but q;
2
p despite the fact that q; p although q; p though q; p even though q.
3
p while q; p moreover q; not only p but also q
4
p, albeit q; p, whereas q; p for q.
5
p no sooner than q; p, still q; p besides q.
6
p on the other hand q.
Disjunction:inclusive
(p q)
1
p or q
2
Either p or q
3
p or q or both.
4
p, or alternatively q.
Conditionals: (p q)
1
If p then q; If p, q; Provided that p, then q.
2
on the condition that P, then q
3
IN the circumstance that p, then q
4
Int he event that p, then q; in case of p, then q
5
Assuming that p, then q; on the supposition that p then q.
6
granting that p, then q; given that p then q; p only if q;
Conditionals: (q p)
1
p if q; p when q p so long as q.
2
p provided that q; p on the condition that q; p inn the circumstance
that q.
3
p in the event that q; p in case q; p assuming that q;
4
p on the supposition that q; p granting taht q;
5
p given that q.
Biconditionals:
(p q)
1
p if and only if q; p when and only when q
2
p if q otherwise not.
3
p just in case q
4
p whether or not q p
5
p even if q p.
Complex Connecting Words:
1
Neither p nor q: (p q).
2
p unless q(inclusive): q p
3
p except if q(inclusive); (q p)
4
p or q (exclusive); p or q, but not both; p unless q(exclusive); p
except if q(exclusive); (p q) (p q).
5
p rather than q; p instead of q; p without q: (p q)
6
p if q, in which case r: [q p) (p r )]
Example:
1
A man is either mentally decient or mentally healthy.(D, H) D H
2
Either we accept Quantum mechanics or we study objects larger than
atomic size.(M, O). M O.
3
You must pass this course or make up your credit hours in some other
way.(C, H). C H.
4
A successful man is either intellectually creative and/or mentally
dynamic (C, D) C D
Exclusive OR: (P Q) (P Q)
1
P or Q but not both.
2
P or Q [s].
3
Either P or Q [s]
4
P unless Q [s]
5
P except when Q [s]
6
P or else Q [s]
Example
1
Logical Positivists maintain that meanigful statements are either
empirical or analytic, but not both(E, A). E A.
2
3
You must pass this course or make up your credit hours in some other
way.(C, H). C H. Both inclusive and exclusive.
Conjunction:P Q
1
P and Q.
2
P but Q
3
P although Q. P nonetheless Q.
4
Both P and qQ; P nevertheless Q.
5
Not only P but Q
6
P despite Q
7
P yet Q
8
P while Q.
9
P moreover Q,P however Q.
10
Whereas
Example
1
It is not necessary to give up Newtonian Mechanics even though we
accept Quantum Mechanics(M, T). M T
2
The Government declared war in spite of the fact that it did not want
to do so.(G,W). G W
3
While theory construction is often seen as a goal in its own right, still
it must be related to empirical research.(C,R). C R
4
Any body may be electrically charged under proper conditions, but
not every body seems to have very strong magnetic properties.(C,P)
C P.
Examples: Conjunction
1
it is raining, but I am happy
2
although it is raining, I am happy
3
it is raining, yet I am happy
4
it is raining and I am happy
Implication: P Q
1
If P, then Q
2
When P, then Q.
3
In case P, Q.
4
Q provided that P
5
P is (a) sucient (condition) for Q
6
Q is (a) necessary (condition) for P
Implication
1
P implies Q.
2
Q if P.
3
Q when P;
4
Q in case P;
5
P only if Q;
6
P only when Q;
7
P only in case Q;
Translation guide: if p then q
if A then B
A B.
1
if A then B
2
A only if B.
3
B if A
4
A implies B
5
It follows from A that B.
6
Whenever A, B
7
A is sucient condition for B
8
B is necessary condition for A.
Unless
1
A unless B can be approximated as A B.
2
I go swimming unless it rains= If it is not raining then I go swimming.
3
I dont go swimming unless the sun shines = If the sun does not shine
then I dont go swimming.
Implication: Example
1
If the Taj Mahal is in Agra, then the Taj Mahal is in India.
2
If the Taj Mahal is in Agra, then the Tajmahal is in Singapore.
3
If Tajmahal is in Andhra pradesh , then the tajmahal is India.
4
If the Taj Mahal is in AP, then the Tajmahal is in Kerala.
Unless. . .
1
One of the more confusing English words to translate is unless.
2
This word expresses a dependency between two propositions, but one
which is not always as straightforward as the conditional with
if. . . . . . then.
3
In strong sense it is equivalent to if and only if not, and in the weak
sense it is translated as if not.
4
The library will remain till 11PM(O) from Mon-Saturday unless it is
Sunday or public holiday (O (S P)). .
Necessary and sucient conditions:
Examples:
1
Being a bachelor is sucient for being a male. Being male is
necessary for being a bachelor
2
Q unless P: Q is necessary for not P; Not P is sucient for Q.
(P Q).
3
Q if P: Q is necessary for P; P is sucient for Q. (P Q)
4
Q provided that P: Q is necessary for P; P is sucient for Q (P Q).
5
P only if Q:Q is necessary for P; P is sucient for Q.(P Q)
6
When P then Q; Q is necessary for P; and P is sucient for Q.
(P Q)
7
All Ps are Qs: Q is necessary for P; and P is sucient for Q
(P Q)
i: P Q
1
P if and only if Q
2
P if Q, and Q if P
3
P exactly if Q
4
P is (a) necessary and sucient (condition) for Q: P i Q
5
If P then Q, and conversely
Exercise:
Paraphrase the following statements into the sentential language using the
suggested letters for the simple statements.
1
Only those who do exercises will pass logic. (E, P):(P E)
2
This litmus paper turns red if it is placed in acid. (R, A)(R A).
3
This litmus paper has been placed in acid only if it turns red. (A,
R):A R
4
You wont pass the course unless you do the exercises. (P, E)
5
If you do the exercises you will pass the course provided that you are
diligent and intelligent. (E, P, D,I):(E D I) P)
Translation: Some Examples
1
Ravi and Priya go to the movie while Sita goes to work.((r p) s)
2
Inorder for Ravi to go to the Movie, it is necessary that Sita goes to
the school.R S.
3
Ravi goes to the Movie only if Sita goes to the School.R S.
4
Ravi goes to the movie if Sita stays home.S R.
5
Ravi will fail the exam unless he studies. f s.
6
We will have picnic unless(exclusive) it rains.p q
Examples of translation
1
There is little doubt in the scientic community that carbon emissions
contribute to global warming. If carbon emissions contribute to global
warming, then we should reduce our carbon footprint. Therefore, we
should reduce our carbon footprint. (C: Carbon emissions contribute
to global warming; R: We should reduce our carbon footprint)
2
If Dostoyevsky was right, then everything is permissible if God does
not exist. But it is not true that if God does not exist, everything is
permissible. Therefore, Dostoyevsky was not right. (D: Dostoyevsky
was right; E: Everything is permissible; G: God exists)
Knights and Knaves
On a distant island, every inhabitant is either a Knight or Knave. Knights
only tell the truth. Knaves only tell lies.
everything said by a Knave is false.
You meet three inhabitants: A, B and C. A says, C is not a Knave. B says,
C and A are both Knights. C says, A is a Knight or B is a Knave. Which,
if any, are Knights? Which, if any, are Knaves?
Semantics of Propositional Logic
1
Meaning of a formula means providing truth conditions for it.
2
An interpretation or valuation of a language is an assignment of
meanings to its various symbols or its ws.
3
A valuation v is a function from propositional symbols to the boolean
set B = {T, F}, i.e. v : P B
Valuation extended to propositional ws
1
v(T) = true and v(F) = F
2
v(A B) = T if v(A) = v(B) = T; v(A B) = F.
3
v(A B) = F if v(A) = v(B) = F; v(A B) = T otherwise.
4
v(A B) = F v(A) = T and v(B) = F; v(A B) = T otherwise.
5
v(A B) = T if v(A) = v(B); v(A B) = F otherwise
6
v(A) = T if v(A) = F; v(A) = F if v(A) = T.
Some Denitions: Validity
1
Validity: A propositional w A is valid if for every valuation v we
have v(A) = T.
2
Under all interpretations the the formula is true. It is also called
Tautology. All tautologies are valid ws.
1 p (p q) qValid
2 q (p q) pInvalid
3
A pw A is valid if for every valuation v we have v(A) = T(and it is
invalid otherwise)
Inconsistency:
1
A w is is said to be inconsistent if it comes out Fs for all possible
combinations of input values. Example: p p.
2
A w is said to be contingent i it has occurrences of both T and F
in its truth table. Truth depends upon the facts, not on the logical
form. Example: p q
Satisability:
1
Satisability: A pw A is satisable if there is at least one valuation
v such that v(A) = T (and it is unsatisable otherwise)
2
Note: A is unsatisable i A is valid.
3
p (q p)
4
(p q) (q p)
Logical equivalence
1
Two propositional ws A and B are equivalent if for every valuation v
we have v(A) = v(B)
2
A and B are equivalent i A B is valid.
Logical Consequence:
1
A propositional well formed formula(pw) A is a logical consequence
of a nite set of pw S if for every valuation v such that v(B) = T
for every B S we have v(A) = T.
2
A |= B, under all interpretations in which B is true A is also true.
3
{p, p q} |= q
4
Check whether the following holds. {p, (p q), p} |= p q
5
A |= B i |= A B, i,e the RHS is a tautology or Valid.
Logical Consequence
Denition (Logical Consequence)
Let be a set of formulas and a formula involving propositional
variables in a set P . Then is a logical consequence of , or equivalently
logically implies , when for all truth assignments v on P , if v() = T
for all , then v() = T . We write this as |= .
In the case where is the empty set, we write |= to say that for all truth
assignments v, v() = T , i.e. is a tautology.
When is not a logical consequence of , we write when is not a
tautology, we write |= .
Logical Consequence: Example
1
{p r , q (p p)} |= (p q) r .
2
{p, p q} |= q
Satisability
Denition (Satisability)
The set of formulas is satisable if there is some truth assignment v
which satises , i.e. v() = T for all .
Satisability:
Another description of |= is that every truth assignment satisfying
also satises . Informally, is true whenever is true.
Example
1
p q |= q
2
p q |= q.
Sentential Operators
1
a sentential operator is an expression containing blanks such that
when the blanks are lled with complete sentences, the result is a
sentence.
2
Example: The conjunction operator, then, would be . . . . . . and
. . . . . .
3
The company is bankrupt and all the workers are laid o.
4
The other sentential operators in Propositional logic are: or, and,
implies, it is not the case that, if and only if.
Intensional operators in English Language:
Intensional contexts are statements that report on how a proposition is
represented to, or in a person or thing capable of representation. They
might report on someones state of mind or utterances. John believes
that. . .
Johns knows that. . .
John hopes that. . .
John heard that. . .
Science proves that ghosts does not exist.
Sentential Operators in the natural Language:
It is possible that. . . ; It is necessary that. . . ; It is likely that. . . ; It is not
true that. . . ;
Either; or; Neither; or; and; If. . . , then . . . ; . . . if and only if . . . ; unless;
after; . . . only if. . . ;
Non truth functional usage:
Example
1
I became sick and I went to see the doctor.
2
If Germanys U-boats had been able to shut o the ow of supplies to
Great Britain, then Germany would have won the war.
A sentential connective is used truth functionally if and only if it is used to
generate a compound sentence from one or more sentences in such a way
that the truth-value of the generated compound sentence is wholly
determined by the truth values of those one or more sentences from which
the compound sentence is generated, no matter what those truth values
may be.
Truth Tables:
Negation
p p
T F
F T
Other Connectives
p q p q
T T T
T F F
F F F
F F F
p q p q
T T T/F
T F T
F F T
F F F
p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Use of Truth Tables:
Truth tables are used to determine:
1
to determine whether a proposition is a logical truth or a logical
falsehood;
2
to determine whether a set of sentences is satisable (i.e. whether the
sentences can be simultaneously true);
3
to determine whether two propositions are logically equivalent;
4
to determine whether one proposition follows from another; and to
determine the validity of an argument
Strategy for constructing truth table:
1
Across the top of the left-hand side of the table, list each primitive
proposition that occurs in p.
2
Beneath this, ll in each combination of Ts and Fs, beginning with
an F beneath each primitive proposition and ending each column
with a T.
3
Write out the proposition p across the top of the right hand side of
the table. Leave some space between each symbol.
4
Starting with the smallest subformulas of p (i.e. those nearest the top
of ps construction tree), ll in the column under the main connective
of those subformulas with Fs and Ts according to the truth table
for the connective in question.
5
Repeat the previous step until there is a column of s and Ts under
each connective. Now highlight the column under ps main
connective, as this is the information that we are looking for.
Construct Truth Table for the formulas:
1
p q (p q)
2
(p q) (p q).
Tautologies, contradictions, contingent statements
1
Tautologies have only Ts in the main column of their truth table.
2
A statement is a contradiction if and only if it is false on every
assignment of truth values to its atomic components.
3
A statement is contingent if and only if it is true on some assignments
of truth values to its atomic components and false on others.
Examples:
Using truth tables, determine which of the following are tautologies. For
any that are not, give a valuation which does not satisfy the sentence.
1
(p q) (p q)
2
(p q) p
3
(p q) (q p)
4
(q p) (p q)
5
(p (q r )) (p q r )
6
(p q r ) (p (q r )).
Procedure for consistency, inconsistency
1
Symbolize all the propositions of the argument in question.
2
Put the premises in conjunction- if there is more than one- by pairs,
associating to the left.
3
Construct a truth table for this conjunction.
4
If the conjunction is tautological or contingent, the premises are
consistent. If the conjunction is contradictory, the premises are
inconsistent. In other words, premises of an argument are consistent if
there is atleast one interpretation making them all true.
Procedure for nding Logical Equivalence:
1
Symbolize all the propositions of the argument in question.
2
From these two symbolized statements, construct a third statement
of the for p q, where p is one of the original symbolized
statements and q the other.
3
Construct the truth table analysis of this biconditional.
4
If the biconditional) is either contingent or contradictory, the original
two statements are not logically equivalent. But, if the biconditional
is tautological, the original two statements are logically equivalent.
Logical Equivalence:Example
1
If the Neuron is alive(A) and res(F), then it has a given minimum
number of excitatory bres(N). (A F) N.
2
If the Neuron is alive, it has a given number of excitatory bers
whenever it res. A (F N).
[A (F N)] [A (F N)] is a Tautology.
Example: Tautology
Unless food prices continue to rise or building costs soar, the general living
index will not remain in an inationary trend. WE read in the papers that
food prices continues to rise. So, we must conclude that general living
index will remain inationary[F, B, I].
(F B) I
F
Therefore, I.
Valid
Consistency: Example
It isnt true that this litmus paper is put into an acid solution but at the
same time doesnt turn red. Had the litmus paper turned red, the
experiment wouldnt have been a failure, Either this litmus paper is put
into an acid solution, and doesnt turn read, or the experiment is a failure.
The litmus paper, therefore, doesntt turn red and the experiment is a
failure.[S, R, F]
1
(S R)
2
R F
3
(S R) F
4
Therefore, R F.
Examples:
1
We dont consider Newtonian Mechanics adequate whenever we wish
to study subatomic particles.(M, P) P M
2
If water is neutral it has pH of 7 when, and only when, basic
properties do not begin before 7, and acid properties do not exceed
7.[W,P,B,A] (W P) (B A)
Equivalence, Consistency, and Inconsistency
1
Two statements are logically equivalent if and only if they agree in
truth value on every assignment of truth values to their atomic
components.
2
Two statements are logically contradictory if and only if they disagree
in truth value on every assignment of truth values to their atomic
components.
3
Two (or more) statements are logically consistent if and only if they
are both (all) true on some assignment of truth values to their atomic
components.
4
Two (or more) statements are logically inconsistent if and only if they
are never both (all) true on any assignment of truth values to their
atomic components.
Classication of Formulas
1
Valid (Tautologous)
2
Contingent
3
Inconsistent
1
True in all
valuations.
2
True on atleast one
valuation
3
True on no
valuations.
1
only Ts
2
Both Ts and Fs
3
Only Fs
Examples:
1
Snakes exist, and yet they do not exist. p p [Contradiction]
2
A B (A B).
3
(A B) (A B)
A short-cut-truth-table-Method
1
Assume that the formula is not a tautology by placing an F under the
main logical connective.
2
Follow out the consequences of this. If we arrive at a contradiction,
the formula is a tautology. If we do not, it is not a tautology.
Example: Contd
A N A N N A
T F
T TFF
FTT TFF
F T FTT TFF
Examples:
Example
E S, E (B U), S U therefore B
E S B U E S E (B U) S U therefore B
T T F
F T F F F T T F T F F F F TT TFF
Validity
Example
A B, A therefore B
A B A B, B therefore B
T T F
FTF,TF F
F(T/F)F,TF F
Example
Example
A B, A, B (C D), therefore C D
Principles: Conjunction and biconditional
1
Principle 1: If there is any assignment of values in which the premises
are all true and the conclusion is false, then the argument is invalid.
2
Principle 2: If more than one assignment of truth values will make
the conclusion false, then consider each such assignment; if each
assignment that makes the conclusion false makes at least one
premise false, then the argument is valid.
Example
A B, B C therefore A C.
Satisability
1
Whichever truth values we assign to p and q, the entire proposition
comes out false. We say that the proposition is unsatisable, since
none of the available assignments satises it (i.e. makes it true)
2
Unsatisable propositions have only Fs in the main column of their
truth table.
3
Satisable propositions have at least one T in the main column of
their truth table.
4
Negation of a tautology is unsatisable and similarly the negation of
an unsatisable proposition is tautologous.
5
Tautologies are satised by every valuation, satisable propositions by
at least one valuation and unsatisable propositions by none.
Examples
Classify the following ws into satisable, valid, invalid, unsatisable
ws.
1
(p q) (p q)
2
(p q) (q p)
3
p (p q) q
4
p (q p) q.
5
Determine satisability of the sets of well formed formulas:
{x y, y z, z p, x p, p}.
Check validity of following Argument
1
If Rajesh lives in Bangalore(B) he will be happy(H).B H
2
If he is happy(H) and likes his work(W), he will get on well at his
job(J) unless he falls in love(L) H W (L J).
3
If he falls in love, he likes his work even more (L W). Therefore, if
he lives in Bangalore, he will get on well at his Job (B J).
The above argument is invalid.
Check the validity of the following argument
If God is willing to prevent suering(S), but unable to do so(D), He is not
omnipotent(O). If He is able to prevent suering(S), but unwilling to do
so(U), He is not loving(L). If God exists, He is loving and omnipotent.
And if He is both willing and able to prevent suering, then there cant be
any suering, but there is. So God does not exist.
Example:2
If the dog is barking, then there is someone at the door only if it is
snowing. The dog is playing outside unless there is someone at the door.
For the dog to be barking, it suces that there be someone at the door or
that it snows. For the dog to play outside, it is necessary that there be no
one at the door and that it does not snow. Therefore the dog is barking
but there is someone at the door.
B: The dog is barking.
D: There is someone at the door.
P: The dog is playing outside.
S: It is snowing.
Use any method you know to determine whether or not the above
argument is valid. If you claim it is invalid, give a counterexample.
Example:Who is chatting?
Five friends (Abhisheik, Harini, Kaushal, Ravi and Vijay) have access to an
on-line chat room. We know the following are true:
1
Either K or H or both are chatting (K H) (K H).
2
Either R or V but not both are chatting (R V) (R V).
3
If A is chatting, then R is chatting.(A R)
4
V is chatting if and only if K is chatting.V K)
5
If H is chatting, then both A and K are chatting.(H (A K)
Determine who is chatting.
Tree Method
1
Truth trees are one of the most ecient ways of checking the
semantic properties of propositional formulas.
2
In particular, it gives a very easy way of checking the validity of
sequents.
3
The basic idea of truth trees is that they give a graphic way of
displaying whether or not a set of formulas is inconsistent.
Tableau Method
1
This method has been introduced for propositional logic and predicate
logic by the Dutch philosopher and logician E W. Beth (1908-1964),
Simplied by Hintikka(model sets), Raymond Smullyan.
2
A Semantic tree is a device for displaying all the valuations on which
the formula or set of formulas is true.
3
Basic Idea: An inference is valid if and only if there exists no counter
examples, i.e., there is no situation in which the premises hold and
the conclusion is false.
4
This involves rule-based construction of a counter-example for a given
inference. We start with negation of formula and see whether the
tableau closes. Each step of the construction is given account of in a
tree like structure called a tableau.
5
Tableau closes when there is a conicting information.No counter
example can be constructed (the branch is not open).
6
It implies no counter examples exist.
Tableau Rules: Alpha rules
p
p
(p q)
p q
(p q)
p
q
(p q)
p q
(p q)
p,q //p, q
Tableau Rules: Beta rules
p
p
(p q)
p
q
(p q)
p, q
(p q)
p
q
(p q)
p,q, p, q
Example
(p q)
(r q)
r
p
p
r
q
q
r

Why Semantic tableaux method?
1
Semantic tableaux method conducts a direct search for models. All
the open paths of the tree corresponding to satisability of
conjunction of formulas at the node.
2
Traditional approaches, such as constructing a truth table, can take
2
n
steps for n. If n is large, truth table method is dicult o handle as
propositional letters which are large.
Some Denitions
Denition (Path)
A path of a tree (in any stage of construction) is a complete column of
formulas from top to the bottom of the tree.
A route going from the initial set of formulas at the top down to one of
the atomic formulas at the bottom, while choosing only one side of each
branch as one goes, will be called here a path
Denitions
Denition (Finished Path)
A path is nished if it is closed or if the only unchecked formula it contains
are propositional variables or negations of prepositional variables so that
no more rules apply to its formulas. A tree is closed or nished if all of its
paths are closed.
Denition (Open and closed Path)
An open path is a path that has not been ended with an X. A closed path
is a path that has been ended with an X.
Some Denitions
Denition
A formula occurs on a path if it is on the path and is not merely a sub
formula of some other formula on that path (2) it is unchecked.
Strategy
Apply non-branching rules before branching rules.
validity, Satisability
1
To determine whether a formula is valid, construct a tree starting
with its premises and the negation of its conclusion. If all paths close,
the formula is valid. If not, it is invalid and the open paths display the
counter examples.
2
To show that A |= B as valid, it suces to show that A B is
unsatisable.
3
To determine whether a formula or set of formulas is consistent,
construct a tree starting with that formula (or set of formulas). If all
paths close, that formula (set of formulas) is inconsistent. If not, it is
consistent, and the open paths display the valuations that make the
formula true.
4
A formula A is tautology i A is unsatisable.
5
Contingency: Construct two dierent trees, one to test it for
consistency and one to test for validity. If the formula is consistent
but not valid, then it is contingent.
Theorems
1
Main Theorem:A completed semantic tableau for a formula A is
closed if and only if A is unsatisable.
2
Soundness: If a tableau is closed, then A is unsatisable.
3
Completeness: If a w A is unsatisable, then any tableau for A is
closed.
4
Corollary1: A well formed formula A is a satisable formula if and
only if any tableau for A is open.
5
Corollary2: A well formed formula A is a valid formula (tautology) if
and only if a tableau for A is closed.
Some Theorems
Theorem (soundness of the tableau method)
If is tableau provable, then is a tautology, i.e. implies |=
The tableau method is consistent. This means that there is no proposition
such that both and .
Theorem (Soundness of the tableau method)
If is provable in the natural deduction system(ND), then is a
tautology, i.e.
ND
implies |= .
Knights and Knaves Puzzle using Truth Table:
On some island, there are knights (who always tell the truth) and knaves
(who always lie).
Problem
You meet two islanders (call them A and B) and hear the rst one say at
least one of us is a knave. Can you tell whether the islanders are knights
or knaves and which islander is which?
Knights and Knaves: Truth Table Method
Take p :A is a knight and
q : B is a knight.
Then the sentence At least one of us is a knave is translated as (p q),
since being a knave is the negation of being a knight. p (p q)
Knights and Knaves
p q p q p (p q)
T T F F
T F T T
F T T F
F F T F
Knights and Knaves:
1
The island of Knights and Knaves has two types of inhabitants,
Knights who always tell the truth, and Knaves who always lie (no
knaves are knights).
2
Suppose A is the proposition person a is a knight and suppose a
makes a statement S . Then, A is true if and only if S is true, since A
is equivalent to S .
3
That is, A S . So, whenever an inhabitant x makes a claim S , we
can infer that X S . That is, we can infer that x is a knight if and
only if S is true.
Knights and Knaves Puzzles:
1
If a says I am a Knight then we can infer from this statement that
A A. But, since this is logically true, we get no information from
such a statement.
2
A native cannot say I am a Knave, since if this were true, then it
would be false and if it were false, then it would be true (and, no
Knights are Knaves).
3
If a says I am the same type as b, then we can infer A (A B)
which is equivalent to B (that is, B A (A B). So, this
statement allows us to infer that person b is a Knight!
Some Puzzles
1
You meet two people, A and B. A says: Im a knave but B isnt.
What are A and B?
2
Suppose A says: If I am a knight, then so is B. Can it be determined
what A and B are?
3
Suppose you know that A and B are either both knights or both
knaves. What do you make of As statement If B is a knight, then I
am a knave?
4
Suppose A says: We are both knights and B says Either A is a
knight or I am a knight, but not both. What can you conclude?
Example
It is rumoured that there is gold buried on the Island. You ask one of the
the natives, A, whether there is gold on the island. He makes the following
response: There is a gold on this island equivales I am a knight. The
problem is as follows:
1
Can it be determined whether A is knight or Knave?
2
Can it be determined whether there is gold on the island?
Gold in an Island
Let G denote the proposition: There is Gold in an Island
Statement made by A: A G.
The statement: A G
It is not possible to tell whether A is a knight or knave.
Tourist at the Fork
A tourist comes to a fork in the road, where one branch leads to
Restaurant, and one doesnt. A native of the island is standing at the fork,
Formulate a single yes/no question that the tourist can ask such that the
answer will be yes if the left fork leads to the restaurant, and otherwise the
answer will be no.
Tourist at the Fork
Let Q be the question.
Let A be the native is a knight.
Let L be the proposition, the left fork leads to the restaurant
We require that L equivalent to the response to the question is yes.
Response to the question Q is yes equivales QA.
We require L (Q A).
Q (L A).
Tourist at the Fork
Question
Is it the case that th statement that the left fork leads to the restaurant is
equivalent to your being knight?
Knights and Knaves problem:
We have three inhabitants, A, B, and C, each of whom is a knight or a
knave. Two people are said to be of the same type if they are both knights
or both knaves. A and B make the following statements:
1
A: B is a knave.
2
B: A and C are of the same type.
What is C?
Knights and Knaves
Suppose, A and B say the following:
1
A: All of us are knaves.
2
B: Exactly one of us is a knave.
Can it be determined what B is? Can it be determined what C is?
Constraint Satisfaction problem
Example (Planning a party)
You are planning a party, but your friends are a bit touchy about who will
be there.
1
If Jay comes, he will get very hostile if Sita is there.
2
Sita will only come if Kavita will be there also.
3
Kavita says she will not come unless Jay does.
Who can you invite without making someone unhappy?
Example
Translation to logic: let J;(S; K) represent Jay (Sita, Kavitha) comes to
the party.
Then the constraints are:
1
J S.
2
S K
3
K J.
Fir a Successful Party to be possible, we want the formula
= (J S) (S K) K J) to be satisable
Truth values for J, S, K making this true are satisfying assignments,
Example
There was a robbery in which a lot of goods were stolen. The robber (s)
left in a truck. It is known that :
1
Nobody else could have been involved other than A, B and C.
2
C never commits a crime without As participation.
3
B does not know how to drive.
Is A innocent or guilty?
Example
There was a robbery in which a lot of goods were stolen. The robber (s)
left in a truck. It is known that :
1
Nobody else could have been involved other than A, B and C.
(A B C).
2
C never commits a crime without A s participation.(C A)
3
B does not know how to drive (B [(B A) (B C)].
Is A innocent or guilty?
A is Guilty
Examples
1
If the pilot was conscious and knew the rate of descent of his
airplane, then if the altimeter was accurate, mechanical failure was
responsible for the crash. Inspection of wreckage shows that there
was no mechanical failure, and that the altimeter was accurate.
Therefore, if the pilot was conscious, he did not know the rate of of
descent of his airplane[C, K, A, M].
2
If the capital investment remains constant, then government spending
will increase or unemployment will result. If the government spending
will not increase, taxes can be reduced. If taxes can be reduced and
capital investment remains constant, then unemployment will not
result. Hence, the government spending will increase [C, G, U, T].
3
Either Logic is dicult or not many students like it. If mathematics is
easy, then logic is not dicult. Therefore, if many students like logic,
mathematics is not easy[D, L, M].
Example:Who is chatting?
Five friends (Abhisheik, Harini, Kaushal, Ravi and Vijay) have access to an
on-line chat room. We know the following are true:
1
Either K or H or both are chatting (K H) (K H).
2
Either R or V but not both are chatting (R V) (R V).
3
If A is chatting, then R is chatting.(A R)
4
V is chatting if and only if K is chatting.V K)
5
If H is chatting, then both A and K are chatting.(H (A K)
Determine who is chatting.
Logical Puzzle about Lady or Tiger
In this puzzle a prisoner is faced with a decision where he must open one
of two doors. Behind each door is either a lady or a tiger. There might be
two tigers, two ladies or one of each.
If the prisoner opens a door and nds a lady he will marry her and if he
opens a door and nds a tiger he will be eaten alive.
Of course, the prisoner would prefer to be married than eaten alive. Each
of the doors has a sign bearing a statement that may be either true or false
Problem 1:
1
The statement on do or 1 says, In this room is a lady, and in the
other room is a tiger.
2
The statement on do or 2 says, In one of these rooms is a lady, and in
one of these rooms is a tiger.
Clue:The prisoner is informed that one of the two statements is true and
one is false.
Which door should he open?
Problem:2
The second puzzle of the book runs as follows. Again there are two signs.
1
The sign on the rst door says: At least one of these rooms contains
a lady.
2
The sign on the second door says: A tiger is in the other room.
This time either the statements are both true or both false
References:
1
Raymond M. Smullyan. The Lady or the Tiger?: and Other Logic
Puzzles. Dover, 2009. First edition: 1982.
2
Raymond M. Smullyan. What is the name of this book? Dover, rst
edition 1990 edition, 2011.

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