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Water Resources (Every Other Slide)

A Hydrologic Cycle Model


We can make a generalized model of the Hydrologic cycle
o 97% of water in earth is in the oceans
o 86% of all evaporation comes from the oceans
o 14% is on land and includes the process of water moving through plants and leaves
(transpiration)
o 78% of the earths precipitation falls back on the ocean
o 22% falls back on land
The Hydrologic Cycle
Residence Times in the Hydrologic Cycle
o A molecule of water in the atmosphere will stay there for about 10 days
o Deep ocean circulation, groundwater aquifers, and glacial ice stay in transit between
3000-10,000 years
o Thus, water in the atmosphere will have a short term climatic effect
o .
Surface Water
o Interception is when precipitation strikes vegetation
o Stem flow is when the plant directs water down or close to its stem
This can be a very important moisture route to the ground
Soil-Water Budget Concept
o The soil-water-budget concept is a useful way to assess water resources for any area on
Earth
o The basic idea is that precipitation is a supply and plant needs, soil moisture storage,
and evaporation are demands
o These can then be generalized into book-keeping or accounting procedures
Soil-Water Balance Equation
o Precipitation Input
This is the variable which measures moisture supply to the Earths surface
It arrives in several different forms depending on moisture supply and
temperature
For example: snow, rain, etc.
Measured with a rain gauge which allows us to measure by depth.
o Potential Evapotranspiration (POTET)
Measures the amount of water that would evaporate and transpire under
optimum conditions when adequate precipitation and soil moisture supply are
present
Think of this concept as if there were an unlimited supply of precipitation; what
would be evapotranspiration rate be for this scenario? This is POTET
Can measure by evaporimeter.
o Deficit (DEFIC)
POTET demand can be satisfied in 3 ways
By precipitation, by moisture stored in the soil, or through artificial
irrigation
If these through sources cannot meet the moisture demands, the location
experiences moisture deficit (DEFIC)
o Surplus (SURPL)
If POTET is satisfied and the soul is full of moisture, then additional water input
becomes surplus (SURPL)
This excess water could sit on the surface in puddles ponds or lakes or it could
flow this is called overland flow
Combined with groundwater flow
o Soil-Moisture Storage )STRGE)
The volume of water stored in the ould that is accessible to plant roots
Because this accounts for both recharge and utilization we append delta to the
variable name
Solid moisture has 2 categories of water
Hydroscopic
Capillary
Types of Groundwater
o Hygroscopic
o Capillary
o Gravitational
Hydroscopic
o This type of water is inaccessible to plants because it is a molecule thin layer that is
tightly bound around to each soil particle by the hydrogen bonding of water molecules
o Soil is considered to be at the wilting point when the only moisture that remains is
hydroscopic water
It gets its name because plants will wilt and eventually dies when soil hits.
Capillary Water
Gravitational
o When soil becomes saturated, any surplus water percolates down through the ground
Soil-Water-Balance Equation
Drought
o Hydrological: relates to the effect of precipitation shortages (rain and snow) on water
supply; stream flow decreases, reservoir levels drop, mountain snowpack declines, and
groundwater mining increases
o Socioeconomic: reduced water causes the demand for goods to exceed the supply
Water Budget and Water Resources
o How do you ensure a steady supply?
Groundwater Resources
o Groundwater is an important part of the hydrologic process
Groundwater Profile and Movement
o Ground water begins as surplus water that percolates downward
o It moves through the zone of aeration
Soil and rock are less than saturated; some pores contain air
o Eventually water reaches zone of saturation
Pores are completely filled with water
Aquifers and Aquicludes
o An aquifer
o An aquiclude (also called an aquitard)
Aquifers, Wells, and Springs
o A confined aquifer
o An unconfined aquifer
o Aquifer Recharge Area
What happens for each case?
o Confined and unconfined aquifers also have different pressure characteristics
What happens?
What does this mean practically?
Steam Flows
o Groundwater can also impact stream flow
Effluent conditions
Influent conditions
Overuse of Groundwater
o When water is pumped through a well in an unconfined aquifer, it may experience
drawdown
What happens?
Overpumping
o Overpumping of water can lead to what is called groundwater mining
Groundwater mining is when the net draw of all pumping exceeds the recharge
rate of the aquifer
In the US this is common in the West, Midwest, lower Mississippi Valley, and
Florida and Eastern Washington State
The most overdrawn aquifer in the US is the High Plains Aquifer
Collapsing Aquifers
o On the surface this can be visible as land subsidence, cracked foundations, and changed
drainage patterns
Collapsed Aquifers and Coastal Pumping
o What happens when an aquifer collapses?
o What happens if you are along the coast?
Salt water intrusion
Pollution of Groundwater
o When surface water is polluted, groundwater will inevitably be contaminated because it
is recharged from surface water supplies
Practical implications?
Where Does Pollution Come From?
o It can come from many sources
Industrial
Septic tanks
Seepage from hazardous waste disposal sites
Industrial toxic waste
Mechanized agriculture
Urban solid waste
Pollution
o Pollution can be point source
35% of pollution occurs from point source sources
o Or it can be nonpoint source
65% of pollution comes from nonpoint source sources
An Interesting Question
o Given the population on Earth is growing and we know that we are stressing our water
resources, what do you think will happen?
o Is there a way out?
Fluvial Processes
o Fluvial processes are those processes which are stream related
Comes from the Latin fluvius which means river
o Do you remember hydrology?
Basic Fluvial Concepts
o Discharge
o Insolation and gravity
o Fluvial erosion
Fluvial Key Concepts
o The eroded sediment in the stream can be transported or deposited
Transported material is either rolled, carried, or dissolved by water in the steam
Deposited material is what is deposited by the stream
Base Level
o The level below which a stream cannot erode its valley
Ultimate base level
Local base level
Drainage Basins
o Every stream has a drainage basin
o Drainage basins are divided by drainage divides
o Sheetflow, or overland flow, is the water that initially flows downslope
Interfluve
Rills
Continental Divides
o Continental divides are what divide a continents drainage flows
Internal Drainage
o Internal drainage refers to areas of drainage which do not flow to the ocean
The Great Salt Lake in Utah and Mono Lake in California are examples of internal
drainage basins
Drainage Density and Patterns
o Drainage density
o Drainage frequency
o Drainage pattern refers to how channels are arranged in a particular region
These are often very distinctive but there are general patterns which emerge
Special Features of Fluvial Systems
o Capture
o Elbows of Capture
o Steam Piracy
7 most common drainage patterns
o Dendritic
o Trellis
o Radial
o Parallel
o Rectangular
o Annular
o Deranged
Dendritic and Trellis
o Dendritic: this is the recognizable tree-like pattern most often associated with streams
Most efficient
o Trellis: this pattern forms in very folded topography
Results from folded mountains
Radial and Parallel
o Radial patterns form when water flows off a central peak or dome
o Parallel drainage patterns form from very steep slopes
These will mostly be newly formed/forming mountain ranges
Rectangular and Annular
o Rectangular patterns form due to faulted and jointed landscapes
Example would be fault line boundaries, etc.
o Annular patterns are produced by structural domes with the rock strata guiding stream
courses
Example would be Richat Dome
Deranged
o Deranged drainage patterns tend to form on disrupted surface landforms
They have no clear geometry and are often marked by lakes
They usually form on extensively glaciated regions
Superimposed Streams
o Superimposed streams appear to defy land structures
Form because steam keeps its path as land is uplifted
Stream Discharge
o A streams discharge, or flow per unit of time, is determined by how wide and deep the
channel is as well as the velocity of the flow
o Flow will generally increase as you move downstream as more water is added via
various tributaries
What happens when flow increases?
Erosion occurs, change landscape much quicker
Dam Controlled Discharge and Sediment Redistribution
o When dams are built or natural lakes occur, sediment is deposited
What happens? Upstream? Downstream?
Exotic Streams
o These are streams whose headwaters are in tropical or wet region and flows through an
arid region
Stream Erosion and Transportation
o A streams turbulence and abrasion help to carve and erode the landscapes in which it
flows
o Hydraulic action is the work of flowing water alone
o Abrasion
o Hydraulic Action
o Where would each process be strongest?
Hydraulic action at the end of a river, more force from falling water
Abrasion has strongest force towards ocean. Stream has more area to move
Competence and Capacity
o Competence
The ability of a stream to move particles of a specific size. This is a function of
velocity.
o Capacity
This happens in four transport processes: solution, suspension, saltation, and
traction.
Solution
o Solution refers to the dissolved load in a stream
This can be from minerals like limestone
Can be salts as well; this is why the Great Salt Lake in Utah and Mono Lake and
the Salton Sea are salty
Suspended Load
o These are fine grained bits of rock (clastic material)
o They are held aloft in the stream due to velocity and are not deposited until the stream
reaches a velocity of almost zero
o Turbulence caused by fast moving water helps keep these particles suspended
Traction and Saltation
o Traction
o Saltation
Both of these together are referred to as bed loads because they are long the
bed of a stream
Aggradation
o If the load in a stream exceeds its capacity it will result in aggradation or the building up
of sediment along its course
o This condition results in what is called a braided stream
Flow and Channel Characteristics
o The greatest velocities of a stream are near the surface and at the center of the channel
o In areas where the slope is gradual streams derive a snakelike form
This is called a meandering stream
o Cutbank
o Point bar
Eventually a meander may fill in and form what is known as an oxbow lake
Stream Gradient
o Stream gradient refers to the degrees of inclination from headwater to mouth
o We can create a profile of a stream
Generally this profile will be concave shaped
Often called the longitudinal profile
o A stream which has just enough energy to move its sediment load is called a graded
stream
Graded Streams
o Specifically a graded stream means that a stream has reached a balance among erosion,
transportation, and deposition
Usually only portions of a stream will be graded
o Streams may also be affected by tectonic uplift of the landscape
Rejuvenated
Entrenched meanders
Nickpoints
o A nickpoint (also spelled knickpoint)
o They form when there is a hard resistant layer of rock or when there is tectonic uplift
o Eventually these will weather away or collapse and the nickpoint will move upstream
This happens from increased hydraulic action and increased abrasion
Stream Deposition and Landforms
o Deposition is the process of that describes the depositing of alluvium
This is what forms bars, floodplants, terraces, and deltas
o As steams meander along they form a unique topography
Former point bars leave low lying ridges
Bar and swale
The region formed is called a scroll topgography
Stream Features
o Natural Levees
o Yazoo Tributary
o Backswamp
o Oxbow Lake
An oxbow lake forms as a meander is cut off. It is a remnant of the old river
channel
o Meander scar
o Floodplain
Stream Terraces
o Stream terraces can form from an uplifting event that causes the stream to again
meander and cut into its original flood plain
These result in unique step like bluffs called alluvial terraces
River Deltas
o A river delta simply refers to where the mouth of a river reaches base level
Deposition and distributaries
Deposition can be arcuate or estuarine
Arcuate means the sediment plain spreads in an arc like fashion
Estuarine means that the sediment is in the process of filling an estuary
and has not yet spread
Rivers without Deltas
o Some rivers do not have deltas because of the conditions that occur at their mouths
The Amazon Rivers volume combined with a sloping continental shelf causes a
delta not to form
Some rivers mat not carry a sufficient sediment load to create a delta
Some rivers may discharge into strong ocean currents as in the case with the
Colombia River
Assessing Floodplain Risk
o Floods are rated statistically for the expected time intervals between events based on
historical data
They often are separated by the severity and ranked accordingly
This gives the terms 10 year flood, 50 year flood, 100 year flood and son
on
The 1993 and Hurricane Katrina events exceeded a 1000-year flood
probability
Steam Discharge Measurement
o In order to help analyze what a stream will do during precipitation events we want to
measure the rate of discharge (flow)
o This is done by using measurements of surface height
Staff Gauge
Stilling Well
Hydrograph
o A hydrograph is just a plotting of steam discharge rates over time for a particular
location
o These help to determine the lag time from a precipitation event to the rising flow of a
river as the water moves through the system

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