4.

Measurements
4.1. Introduction
The measurements are made both whilst designing, to avoid EMC problems
(e.g. to find the sources of EMI, shielding measurements) and in final phase, for EMC
certify of a product (emission and susceptibility tests).
This chapter begins with the highlighting of the specifically problems and
measurements types.
ecause a measurement system, it doesn!t matter its comple"ity, is composed
from sensor, transmission line and the instrument itself, a separate analysis is a natural
option.
#ithout special emphasis, we present the fundamentals for E$field sensors, %$
field sensors and sensors for simultaneous E and % field measurements.
The transmission line is mainly considered from the angle of reducing its
influence towards the measurement itself.
&ince the understanding of their real capabilities and limits in the same time is
essential for a reliable measurement, we ta'e into consideration(
the EMI receiver (instrument especially designed for EMC test wor'))
the spectrum analyser (measurement instrument with a broad palette of
applications))
the oscilloscope (instrument for time domain measurement).
4.2. Fundamentals of EMI measurements
It is necessary for EMC to determine whether the e*uipment under test (E+T)
is compatible with the electromagnetic environment in which it is designed to operate.
The E+T must not emit levels of electromagnetic energy that could affect the
operation of any other appliance potentially presented in the neighbourhood, and it
must not be susceptible to ,fail, operation due to the levels of electromagnetic energy
e"pected in its operation environment.
The main tas' of electromagnetic interference (EMI) testing is to measure and
then to compare versus ade*uate limits, the electromagnetic energy which(
is undesirably emitted by E+T (EMI emissions testing Fig. 4.1))
affects the normal operation mode, if is undesirably received by E+T, (EMI
susceptibility testing Fig. 4.2).
There are two main routs for the transmission of EMI into or out an E+T( via
any of its connecting wires or cables (conducted EMI) or by any other means than
conduction (radiated EMI).
Thus, aiming the EMC certifying, for any electrical device, the designer must
perform conducted emission measurements and radiated emission measurements, as
well as conducted susceptibility measurements and radiated susceptibility
measurements.
-or EMI emission testing (-ig. ../), E+T is connected to power source and
other devices (control0signal, source0load) for normal wor'ing conditions.
Instrumentation is constituted from sensors, transmission lines and measuring
apparatus. If the sensors are specific, the transmission line and measuring apparatus
are generally identical for conducted and radiated emission.
-or the EMI susceptibility testing (-ig. ..1), also the E+T is connected for
normal wor'ing conditions, and to in2ect from outside the EMI radiated and
conducted till failing. Instrumentation is constituted from calibrated signal source,
transmission line and specifically actuators.
3ower
source
Control0&ignal
&ource04oad
E*uipment
under test
(EUT)
Control0&ignal leads
3ower leads
SISTEM FOR
TESTIN
4I&5&
&ensor of(
EMI current)
EMI voltage
!onducted
emission
testin"
Radiated
emission
testin"
EMI analy6er
&pectrum analy6er
7scilloscope
8eceiving antenna and
other sensor of
electromagnetic fields
INSTRUMENT#TION
FOR EMI
ME#SUREMENTS
Sensors
Transmission
line
Measuring
apparatus
Fi" 4.1 EMI emission testing
4.2.1. Industrial measurements$ad%anced measurements for researc& and
de%elo'ment
Ta'ing into consideration the involved methods and techni*ues, EMC
measurements could be classified( industrial (common) and advanced measurements
for research and development.
a) Industrial measurement have as main target the E+T characterisation, are
performed complying to some regulations and have a repetitive, standardised
character. -or an E+T we effectuates both EMI emissions testing, and EMI
susceptibility testing. These measurements are accomplished with a test report, with
the conclusion( passed or failed.
b) d!anced measurements "or researc# and de!elopment involve a subtle
phenomena understanding and high precision. These efforts are advisable in some
special cases( the E+T doesn!t comply with the standards and regulations and need
improvement) in finding the source of EMI problems) for elaboration of new specific
standards.
-or the first situation, measurements in fre*uency domain represent the most
common option (mainly due to tradition, instrumentation and standards). -or the
second one, measurements in time domain are, this time, compulsory.
4.2.2. Measurements in controlled sites or in situ measurements
3ower
source
Control0&ignal
&ource04oad
E*uipment
under test
(EUT)
Control0&ignal leads
3ower leads
SISTEM FOR
TESTIN
Transformer,
Current probes,
In2ector of EMI
!onducted
susce'ti(ilit)
Radiated
susce'ti(ilit)
Calibrated &ignal &ources,
9mplifiers
Emission antenna and
other radiators of
electromagnetic fields
INSTRUMENT#TION FOR EMI
SUS!E*TI+I,IT- TESTIN
ctuators
Transmission
line
pparatus
$bser!ing
E%T
Fi" 4.2 EMI susceptibility testing
The first difficulty encountered while EMI measurement performing is the
isolation of electromagnetic radiated energy of interest in the tests from the
electromagnetic environment. Thus we can perform EMI measurements in a
controlled test site or in situ measurements &e.g. testing systems or installations in
t#eir places o" use).
The physical controlled environments for performing EMI tests are(
$pen rea Test Site ' $TS)
%nderground (allery)
Screened *ooms or S#ielded +#amber)
*F nec#oic Screened +#amber or bsorber ,ined +#amber ,+)
Trans!erse Electromagnetic +ell ' TEM)
(iga#ert- Trans!erse Electromagnetic +ell ' (TEM)
Stirred Mode +#amber)
T#ree ,oop ntenna System ' T,S.
These test facilities have not to decrease the degree of being representative
and, additionally, a good correlation between the two test set$up is obligatory.
9n overview upon the e"isting test methods and the errors for susceptibility and
radiation is presented in table ../.
Table 4.1
Test facilit) 'erformances

Test sites Fre.uenc)
ran"e
Error In%estment
$pen rea Test
Site ' $TS
:; $ /;;; M%6
(/; '%6 $ /;;;
M%6)
t(1 $ <) d :;;;;; =
bsorber ,ined
+#amber ' ,+
:; $ /;;; M%6
(;,1 $ /< >%6)
t (: $ /;)
d
? 1;;;;;; =
(TEM 1.// @C $ /<;; M%6 better de t.
d
/;;;;;$
/A;;;; =
T,S &0IST
/
m)
: '%6 $ /;; M%6 correlation
t/,B d
between
T49& and
conventional
measurements
means with
t1 d
accuracy
In situ measurements are *uite different comparing with the measurements
performed in controlled test sites and have the following purposes(
4ocalisation and characterisation (from radiation power and time$evolution point
of view) of a phenomena or device)
The electromagnetic characterisation of a certain area)
-or the first situation, the real$time measurements for predicting, detecting and
surveying of some natural phenomena (lighting, earth$*ua'es and volcanoes
eruptions) and en*uiring any dysfunction under normal e"ploitation.
The second one is representative for the surveying the EM environment (and
its pollution).
The disadvantage of in situ measurements is that the ambient signals from
other transmitters or unintentional emitters may mas' the signals emitted by E+T.
The electromagnetic environment must be identified and tagged in the test report.
4.2./. Time %ersus fre.uenc) domain measurements
EMI could be continuos or transient. Instrumentation is *uite different for one
case and the other. -or the first situation we perform measurements in fre*uency
domain (for the second, only measurements in time domain are possible)
9 signal presentation in these two domain is offered in -ig. ..:
The table ..1 presents a comparative evaluation between the two measuring
modes(
Table 4.2
!om'arison (et0een time domain measurements and fre.uenc) domain
measurements
Fre.uenc) domain measurements Time domain measurements
Is represented the amplitude and
the phase versus fre*uency
($) The domain of applicability is
reduced only to periodical signals
The signal amplitude versus time is
stored
(C) The applicability field is wider
(any type of signals)
(C) The instrumentation is available ($) The instrumentation is more
f
u(t) +(f)
f
t
u(t)
t
-re*uency
domain
+(f)
Time
domain
Fi". 4./ 8elationship between time and fre*uency domain analysis
in almost EMC laboratories(
$ EMI receivers (%6 $ tens of
>%6)
$ spectrum analyser (%6 D hundred
of >%6)
comple"(
$ oscilloscope (real time band width
;,A >%6 or even >%6) with an
attached camera, magnetic tape
recording, a dis' recorder
$ digital transient recorders
(C) &tandards and regulations,
instructions for the users are well
established
($) The already ac*uired e"perience
is lower
(C) They are applicable mainly in
advanced research studies and
modelling
($) The phase measurements are not
always possible and passing from
fre*uency domain to time domain
is not available
(C) &upplies a global information
and allows the passing through
computation to fre*uency regime.
(C) +sage of very selective filters
permits(
$ a great signal to noise ratio
$ a large dynamic range ( <; $ /1;
d)
($) @ue to the large bandwidth, the
thermal noise and the conversion
noise impose a .;d dynamic
range.
($) The measurements are sensitive
to reflections due to conducting
walls and mismatched impedances.
(C) The influence of parasitic
reflections could be avoided by fast
measurements (performed before
the reflected pulse to reach the
measuring system)
The passage from on domain to the other could be accomplished by direct
Fourier trans"orm and indirect Fourier trans"orm1

F " t e dt
2 t
( ) ( )

(../)

" t F e d
2 t
( ) ( )

/
1

(..1)
7wing the continuous development of fast instrumentation, time domain
measurements are in demand. -igure ... presents a simplified bloc' diagram of a time
domain measurement system E../<F.
4.2.4. Fundamental .uantities and units of measurement
a) The basically measuring *uantities for radiated EMI are electric field E,
magnetic field 1 and radiated power or power density *.
Electromagnetic field can be characterised by means of E (electric field), +
(magnetic induction or magnetic flu" density), 2 (electric induction or electric
displacement) and 1 (magnetic field).
Coupling between field and ob2ects is established through the electric current
I, and the electric charge *. E, +, 2, 1 are the distributed electromagnetic *uantities,
unli'e of voltage and current, which are integral *uantities.
The fields (locale properties of space in a certain point) might be determined
by means of forces e"ercised to a particle (with 'nown proprieties) placed in the point
of interest E..GF, E../:F.
The force e"ercised to a charge * moving with the velocity % through an
electromagnetic field is(

+ % E F F F
& e
+ + 3 3
(..:)
where(
E, electric field, is defined as the ratio of the force, F
e
, on a positive test
charge *, considering it as approaching to 6ero(

3
3
e
F
E
lim
;

(...)
E is e"pressed in EH0mF
% is velocity of charge * e"pressed in Em0sF)
+ is magnetic induction (flu" density) e"pressed in EHs0m
1
F or in ETF.
Ma"netic field, 1, is defined considering the magnetic induction + and
magneti6ation M, with the relation(

M
+
1
;

(..A)
where(

I
;
/; .

is the permeability for free space in EHs09mF, or in
henry0meter)
M is the magneti6ation achieved in material, e"pressed in E90mF.
The unit for magnetic field 1 is ampere per meter E90mF.
&ensors
@ata lin'
9nalog signal
conditioning
#aveform
recorder
@isplay
&ignal
source
Control unit
&torage
@ata
processing
system
@ata users
Fi" 4.4 &ystem for time domain measurements
oth the electric field E and the magnetic field 1, at a point in space are
vectors. -or a rectangular co$ordinate system, the E and 1 can be written as(
- y 4
E E E + + 3 ) 4 E
(..B)
- y 4
5 5 5 + + 3 ) 4 1
(..I)
where 4, ) and 3 are unit vectors, and E
"
, E
y
, E
6
or %
"
, %
y
, %
6
are the scalar
components of the electric field or, respective, the magnetic field.
Radiated 'o0er is defined as the average power flowing per unit area. It is e"pressed
in E#0m
1
F.
The relationship between the power density and E and % fields is(
1 E *
(..<)
In the far field region (plane$wave field), where the E and % fields are mutual
perpendicular and E0% J K
w
, results(
6
7
E
8
1

(..G)
K
w
is wave impedance. -or far field region and free space K
w
J /1; J :II .
b) -or conducted EMI the basic *uantities of measurement are the voltage,
e"pressed in volts EHF, typical EHF, the current e"pressed in amperes E9F, typical
E9F and the power, e"pressed in watts E#F, typical Em#F.
c) +sing the @ecibel in EMI Measurements
ecause of e"tremely wide dynamic ranges involved in EMI testing, there are used
the decibel (d).
The d is a dimensionless number, which e"presses the ratio of two power levels.

/
1
log /;
8
8
p
d9

(../;)
The relationship between voltage and power is(
*
%
8
1
(..//)
where + is the circuit voltage across the circuit resistance 8
9ssuming that voltages are measured across e*ual resistance, we have(

/
1
log 1;
%
%
u
d9

(../1)
#ith respect to a reference power level 3
/
, or other units, we have(
d#, when counting power level with respect to a reference power 3
/
J / #)
dm, is obtained for 3
/
J / m#)
dH, is a dimensionless voltage ratio in d referred to a reference voltage of /
H and is a measure of EMI voltage)
H0M%6, microvolts per M%6 are units of broadband voltage distribution in the
fre*uency domain)
dH0M%6, is the decibel reported to / H0M%6)
d H0m is a measure of e"pressing electric field intensity level with respect to a
reference of E
/
J / H0m)
H0m0M%6, microvolts per meter per M%6 are units of broadband field intensity)
dH0m0M%6, is the decibel above / H0m0M%6.
The basic conversion relations between units are(
/ m# J ; dm J $ :; d#, or / # J ; d# J C:; dm (../:)
/ m# J ; dm J 11A mH, for 8 J A; (../.)
Holtage in dH J 3ower in dm C/;I d, for 8 J A; (../A)
Holtage in dH J 3ower in dm C//I,< d, for 8 J B;; (../B)
4./. Instrumentation for EMI measurement
4./.1. Electroma"netic sensors
4./.1.1. +asics of electric and ma"netic field sensors
The antenna, interface between emitter and medium or between medium and
receiver, may be used for EMI measurement.
9 special 'ind of antennas (electrically small antennas), design and developed
mainly in the last .; years, have been named electromagnetic field sensors.
7ptimisation of these sensors for being used for electromagnetic field measurements
is done faced to( accuracy, sensitivity, bandwidth and broadband0transient
performance, topology and symmetry consideration for the installation of such
sensors and associated instrumentation ta'ing into account the least field influence,
and the capability of functioning in different mediums (air, water, tissues, nuclear
source region, inside the lightning arcs and corona regions).
The electromagnetic sensor has the following properties E..1F, E../<F(
It is a passive analogue device that converts the electromagnetic *uantity of
interest to a voltage or current at its output terminals for driving a load impedance.
It is a primary standard in the sense that, for converting the electromagnetic
*uantity in voltage and0or current, its sensitivity is determined only by its
geometry. It is ,calibrated by a ruler, (standard sensor method). It is, in principle,
as accurate as the standard field (a few percent accuracy).
Its transfer function is designed to be simple across a wide fre*uency band (simple
mathematical form, e.g., volts per unit field or volt per time derivative of field).
It is designed to have a specific ade*uate sensitivity for its transfer function.
The basic topologies, in open circuit for electric field sensor, respectively
short circuit for magnetic field sensors, and the e*uivalent circuits of these sensors
(having load impedance e*ual with characteristic impedance, K
c
) are given in -ig, ..A.
T&e electric field sensor (electric dipole sensor $ -ig ..A) is formed by two
separate conductors connected to a terminal pair.
If this sensor is illuminated by an incident electric field E
i
, then to its terminals
appears an open circuit voltage of electric field sensor, %
oc e
or, for short circuit
terminals, a short circuit current of electric field sensor, I
sc e
.
The basic parameters of the electric field sensors are( e e3
#
(e*uivalent area), e e3
l

(e*uivalent length), and + (capacitance).
ecause(
e e3 e e3
+
l #

, (../I)
only two of the basic parameters are independent.
In antenna domain we use for e*uivalent length the term of effective height or
effective length noted with h
e
.
T&e ma"netic field sensor (magnetic dipole sensor $ -ig ..A) is constituted by
a bro'en loop connected to the terminal pair.
If this sensor is illuminated by an incident magnetic field 1
i
, then to its terminals
appears an open circuit voltage of magnetic field sensor, %
oc #
or, for short circuit
terminals, a short circuit current of magnetic field sensor, I
sc #
.
# e3
#
(e*uivalent area), # e3
l
(e*uivalent length), and , (inductance) are the basic
parameters of magnetic field sensors.
The relationship between # e3
#
and # e3
l
is the following(
# e3 # e3
,
l #

(../<)
Considering for electric "ield sensor the 5orton e*uivalent circuit from -ig.
..A, results the 4aplace transform of output voltage(

+ s
7
s
7 s %
c
i
e e3
c e

/
) (
L
) (
L
E l
(../G)
If
+ 7
" or
+ 7
s 7
+ s
c c
c

<<

<< >>
1
/ / /
5 results(

c e e3
i
e
7 + s s s % l E ) (
L
) (
L
5 (..1;)
Concluding, the sensor response is proportional to time derivative of field ( )
s s
i

L
( ) E
.
If
+ 7
" or
+ 7
s 7
+ s
c c
c

>>

>> <<
1
/ / /
5 results(

e e3
i
e
s s % l E ) (
L
) (
L
5 (..1/)
This time concluding, the sensor response is proportional to field ( )
L
( ) E
i
s
.
There were obtained for electric field sensor two operating regions, separated by
critical fre*uency, "
cr e
,

,
_

+ 7
"
c
e cr
1
/
.
These are(
region with response proportional to time derivative of field (
t
or s s

E
E ) (
L

) $
curve / from -ig... B, for
" "
cr e
<<
)
region with response proportional to field ( ) ( ) (
L
t or s
i
E E ) D curve 1 from -ig.
..B, for
" "
cr e
>>
)
%
oc e
Magnetic dipole
Electric dipole
&ensors
I
sc #
5orton
e*uivalent
circuits
Thevenin
e*uivalent
circuits
K
c
4
&ensor
4oad
# e3 # e3
# l ,
e e3 e e3
# l ,
1
i
E
i
K
c
4
&ensor 4oad
C
K
c
+
h
+
e
+
e
+
h
I
h
I
h
I
e
I
e
&ensor 4oad
i
e e3
E l
C
K
c
&ensor 4oad
i
e e3
t
2 #

i
# e3
t
+ #

i
# e3
1 l
Fi". 4.6. &ensors (electric dipole and magnetic dipole) with e*uivalent circuits.
L
( ) ,
L
( ) % s % s
e #
c # e3 #
e e3 e
7 s s %
s s %


) (
L
) (
L
) (
L
) (
L
1 l
E l
c e e3
i
e
7 + s s s % l E ) (
L
) (
L
, s s s %
e e3
i
#
l 1 ) (
L
) (
L
f
cr
s
cr
1
/
f
s
: d
Fi". 4.7 -re*uency response of electric and magnetic field sensors
If one consider for magnetic "ield sensor the 5orton e*uivalent circuit
from -ig. ..A, results the 4aplace transform of output voltage(

, s 7
s s
7 s %
c
# e3
i
c #
+


# + ) (
L
) (
L
(..11)
-or8
,
7
" or
,
7
s 7 , s
c c
c

<< << <<
1
5 results(

# e3
i
#
s s s % # + ) (
L
) (
L
5 (..1:)
and using relation (../<)(

, s s s %
e e3
i
#
l 1 ) (
L
) (
L
5 (..1.)
therefore the sensor response is proportional to time derivative of field ( )
s s
i

L
( ) 1
.
-or
,
7
" or
,
7
s 7 , s
c c
c

>> >> >>
1
5 results(

c # e3
i
#
7 s s % l 1 ) (
L
) (
L
5 (..1A)
In conse*uence, the sensor response is proportional to field ( )
L
( ) 1
i
s
.
There are, also, the two operating regions, separated by the critical fre*uency for
magnetic field, "
cr #
(

,
7
"
c
# cr

1
(..1B)
!urrent sensors and %olta"e sensors are closely associated with magnetic
field, respectively electric field sensors. The basic current sensor concept is to
measure the magnetic field (or its time derivative) at many places around the area
limited by the current flow. The e*uivalent circuits are identical to these of magnetic
field sensors.
4./.1.2. Sensor for simultaneous electric and ma"netic field measurements
The parasitic sensitivity to an electric field represents one of the ma2or
problems connected with the loop as a magnetic field sensor.
esides the preoccupations lin'ed with overcoming this inconvenience, notice should
be made for those concerning the utilisation of the double$loaded loop antenna E../.F,
E..//F, E..IF, E..<F. #hile eliminating the parasitic sensitivity in the measurement of
%, this method permits us to also measure E, by separating the contributions of E and
% in the induced voltages.
4et!s assume a conductive loop of radius b, loaded in each of the brea' points

/
and

/
+
with the load K
4/
respectively K
41
. The loop is illuminated by an
incidental plane wave E
i
from
) , (
i

and linearly polarised at an

angle
(-ig...Ia).
The current induced by the electric field from 7 (
E
i
;
) in the electrically small double
loaded loop is E..BF(
) , ( ) ( ) , ( ) ( ) ( 1 ) (
/ / / / ;
1 /
+ + ! 7 I ! 7 I u bE I
, ,
i


where
( )
1
]
1

+ ) sin( cos sin ) cos( cos

1
/ 1 /
cos sin
1
/
) (
/ ; ;
i i
a a
2:b
2
u

and

,
_

+ ) cos(
/
1
/ /
) , (
/
/ ; ;
/



a a 2
!

,
_

+ ) cos(
/
1
/ /
) , (
/
/ ; ;
/



a a 2
!
If we count the currents through the loads (

/
and

/
+
), we have got(
) , ( ) ( ) , ( ) ( ) ( 1 ) (
/ / / / / / / ; /
1 /
+ + ! 7 I ! 7 I u bE I
, ,
i

) , ( ) ( ) , ( ) ( ) ( 1 ) (
/ / / / / / / ; /
1 /
+ + + + + + ! 7 I ! 7 I u bE I
, ,
i
where(

/
/
/ / ; ; /
/ / ; ; /
/ ; / / / /
/ ; / / / /
) (
) (
) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , (

" ; " ; u
" ; " ; u
; ; ! !
; ; ! !
+
+
+ +
+ + +
with M
;
and M
/
, the admittance for the magnetic loop mode current, respectively the
admittance for the electric dipole mode current E..AF,
If , , ,
7 7 7
1 /
, the sum and the difference of the terminal voltages have the
values(

i
"
E

(b,)

7
b
8sin
8
I()

E
i
(R)
E
i
(8)sincos
E
i
(8)sin
E
i
(8)cos
E
i
(8)sinsin

/
6
K
4/
K
41
y
"
()
K
4
H(;) H()
K
4
%
6
E
y
a)
-igure ..I a) @ouble $ loaded loop antenna) b) &ingle loop for measuring %
6
and E
y
( )
, ,
,
i
7 I I 7
; 7
; " bE
< < ) ( ) (
1 /
.
) ( ) (
/ /
;
; ; ;
/ /

+ +
+
+ +
(..1I)
( )
, ,
,
i
7 I I 7
; 7
; " bE
< < ) ( ) (
1 /
.
) ( ) (
/ /
/
/ / ;
/ /
/

+
+
+
(..1<)
where
cos sin
1
;
:b
2 "
)
( )
( )
1
]
1

+ +

/
/
/
sin cos cos sin sin cos
cos sin cos sin cos cos
1
/
/

i i
i i
"
If we consider the particular case when
;
,

1
,

i
;
, and

/
;
, we get
1
;
:b
2 "
and
1
/
/
/

"
Moreover for
/ 1
;
>>
,
7 ;
and
/ 1
/
<<
,
7 ;
, we get(
-
i
5 2 b E
c
2 b < <
;
1
;
1
/
) ( ) ; ( +
(..1G)
y ,
i
,
E +7 b2 E +7 b2 < < 1 1 ) ( ) ; (
;

(..:;)
8eferring to double $ loaded loop antenna, we conclude(
a) 9y using a loop antenna 6it# t6o diametrically opposed loads 6e can
simultaneously measure bot# E and 5.
9s it can seen from relations (..1G) and (..:;) and from -ig. ..Ia, such a
sensor presents directivity as it determines the component of the vector %
perpendicular on the loop plane and the vector E tangent to the interstices. #ith a
single loop only % or E or both (E and %) can be measured by modifying the position
of the loop.
y increasing K
4
we achieve enhancement of the sensitivity to the electric
field.
There is an optimum charge, K
4;
, for which the sensitivities to E and % are
e*ual, i.e.,
) ( 1
; ; ;
1
- , -
5 7 +7 b2 5 2 b
resulting that,

,
_

1
<
ln
.
;
;
a
b 7
7
,
b) %sing a system o" t#ree loops perpendicular on eac# ot#er t#at surround a
sp#ere, in t#e case 6#en eac# loop is loaded 6it# t6o loads situated diametrically
opposed points, t#e t#ree components o" magnetic "ield and t#ree components o" t#e
electric "ield can be measured. T#us is obtained an isotropic "ield sensor or a more
comple4 system "or EM+ measurements &e.g. t#ree'loop antenna system ' T,S)
=4.1.>, =4.21>, =4.2.>.
4./.2. Si"nal transmission
The connections from sensor to measuring apparatus generally transfer
analogue signals.
Thus, the signal transmission lin' must be insensible to measuring field (elimination
of parasitic antenna effect), and it must not disturb the measurand (e.g. the
electromagnetic field).
It is also of greatest importance, matching the signal transmission lin' to sensor and
measuring apparatus, the impedance mismatch being a source of errors.
Common transmission methods of signal from sensor to measuring apparatus
are(
conducting lin' (shielded cables))
radio telemetry lin' E..GF)
microwave telemetry lin')
fibre optic lin'.
The conducting cables (shielded coa"ial, twin a"ial cables) are used at least
for very small distances.
There are two important concepts in the instrumentation cabling( topology and
symmetry E..1F.
a) T#e sensor must measure an electromagnetic 3uantity on a good conductor Fig.
4.?.
In this situation the original conductor becomes the local ground for the sensor, and it
influences the fre*uency response, accuracy, field configuration. The topology of
instrumentation cabling must fit with that of the conductors presented in the
e"perimental configuration, (-ig. ..<). Thus, the conducting cable leaving the sensor
is running along and in continuous electric contact to the original conductor.
9lso, the larger ob2ects (screen bo" for signal processing and0or transmission)
must be located at larger distances from the sensor to minimise the influence of their
electromagnetic scattering to the sensor. In -ig ..< the screen bo" of signal processing
is positioned as having its electromagnetic scattering shadowed by the original
conductor.
&ensor ground
plane
E
1
&ensor
&hielded
coa"ial cable
&ignal processing
and transmission
7riginal
conductor
(ground plane)
Fi". 4.9 Topology of instrumentation cabling for sensor on a good electric conductor
If it is possible, is advisable to use the original conductor as a shield to
minimise the influence of the conducting cable for a minimal noise pic'up in the
cables.
In -ig. ..G, is shown a possibility of measuring the electromagnetic fields with
only the sensitive element (an electrically small half$loop or semi$sphere) being
introduced in the region containing the field of interest. This method is used to
measure the electric and0or magnetic field in a shielded electronic system (plug$in) or
generally, in measurements close to a good conductor E..<F, e.g. inside a screened
room where a ground plane reference is available, near the earth.
b) I" someone 6is#es to measure an electromagnetic 3uantity in "ree space, far from
the conductors, then the symmetry of the sensor, cabling, and0or electromagnetic field
configuration can be used to minimise the errors due to the instrumentation cable
scattering.
-or accomplishing this, is recommendable E..1F(
$ The cabling to be orthogonal to the incident electric field.
$ The large field components scattered by the cabling to be orthogonal to the
response characteristics of the sensor.
ecause of their influence upon the field and their susceptibility to the field,
the conducting cables (shielded coa"ial, twin a"ial cables), are used and installed with
high precautions.
There are situations when one uses for signal transmission the resistive lin's.
In these cases, the sensors locally detect the electric or magnetic field (e.g., with a
diode situated between the electric dipole elements or at the gap of the loop) and
transmit the obtained dc signal to the receiver through a high resistance transmission
line.
9lthough has some disadvantages (fre*uency and phase information loss and signal
attenuation by the resistive lin'), the method is used with standard probes for
electromagnetic field measurements or with isotropic electric and magnetic field
sensors E../BF.
4././. Measurin" instruments
oard with
electrical circuits
&creen bo"
(subsystem with field of interest)
&ignal
processing
Measuring
e*uipment
&ensor ground
plane
&creen
&ensor
&hielded coa"ial cable
%
E
Fi". 4.: 9symmetrical sensor with signal processing and transmission system out of
measurement field.
4././.1 EMI recei%ers
The EMI receivers are fre*uency tuneable (audio, radio$fre*uency and
microwave), variable bandwidth selective voltmeters, presenting ade*uate parameters
(high sensitivity, wide dynamic range, good out of band signal re2ection) for
measuring and characterising the electromagnetic interference (a comple" un'nown
input signal).
The 'ernel of the EMI analyser is a super$heterodyne receiver (with one to
three stages of fre*uency conversion), which permits the selection of(
measurement intermediate fre*uency (I-) bandwidths (/ '%6 D /; M%6))
post detector bandwidths (/ %6 D /;; '%6))
detector functions)
out ports (the mode of present of results))
4././.1.1. Functional descri'tion
-igure ../; is a simplified bloc' diagram of a typical instrument, and -ig. ..// is a
more detailed diagram.
The sensors for connection to the EMI receiver input are antennas or other
devices for radiated measurements and current probes or voltage probes for conducted
measurements.
9s a source of reference input signal, is built$in an internal standard
interference generator that can provide a sine wave, an impulse or random >aussian
noise. The impulse generator produces a series of very shot subnanosecond duration
pulses with a variable pulse repetition of A; %6 /; '%6. The fre*uency coverage of
impulse generator is a few hundred %6 />%6 with a spectral flatness of t / d.
The impulse generator can be used(
to calibrate (amplitude accuracy) and chec' (dynamic range compression) EMI
receivers)
to obtain a very accurate measurement by substitution method.
&ensor
Input
atenuator
Calibration
source
8-
stages
Mi"er
@etectors
I-
amplifier
Hideo
output
9udio
output
Holtmeter
*F
band
9and6idt# @etector
selection
4ocal
oscillator
Fre3uency
+
M
N
-ig. ../; &implified bloc' diagram of EMI receiver
In the substitution method by switching N from M to C point (-ig.../;), the
measurand (un'nown interference signal) is replaced by a suitable *uantity which is
ad2ustable in value to bring the indicator bac' the value initially indicated by the
measurand.
The input signal is passed through a variable input attenuator, broadband and
accurate. It is a low noise 8- device increasing the dynamic range of EMI meter. It,
also, could be used for chec'ing for compression.
T#e radio "re3uency &*F) stages are low$pass or band$pass filters, e"pecting to
eliminate out of band signals, which might induce spurious response within the meter,
and preselectors or 8- amplifiers to eliminate signals outside the band of immediate
interest and thus further reducing the vulnerability to intermodulation and spurious
responses.
T#e preselector (a couple of band pass filters manually or automatically switched,
placed prior to the first preamplifier or mi"er circuit) improves dynamic range and
reduces spurious responses, but increases the receptor noise figure owing to additional
front$end components, and increases signal attenuation.
T#e mi4er and t#e local oscillator form t#e "irst stage o" "re3uency con!ersion.
The first conversion stage is generally one of down conversion.
, $ I
F F F
(..:/)
where,
-
7
is the original fre*uency)
-
4
is the fre*uency generated of local oscillator)
EMI
sensors
4inear I-
output
4og I-
output
8-
attenuator
4ow
pass
or
band
pass
filters
3reselector
8- amplifier
Mi"er
C
7verload
detector
I- amplifier5
filters and
attenuator

Impulse
generator
for
calibration
4ocal
oscillator
Manual or
electronic
drive
O a"is
output
scaler
9utomatic
gain
control
(9>C)
networ'
&ignal
weighting
circuits
&electable
detectors
*esults
presentation1
scope
spea'er
head set
pan display
meter
recorder
O$M plotter
7ut buffer
amplifier
(video, audio
amplifiers)

I- log
amplifier

eat
fre*uency
oscillator
>anged attenuator
-re*uency
a"is on
display
Fi". 4.11. loc' diagram of typical EMI receiver
-
I
is the intermediate fre*uency.
9t low fre*uency because
, $
F F <
, the up conversion is usually used.
T#e local oscillator &,$) is tuned manually by a variable capacitor, or using
an analogue voltage developed either by a front panel potentiometer or generated
internally or e"ternally as a voltage ramp. The voltage ramp can be scaled and used
simultaneously to drive the O$a"is of plotter or oscilloscope (fre*uency domain
display). The digitally synthesised 47, improves several specifications of the
instrument (fre*uency stability and its determining accuracy, finer resolution on
display, low noise). -or EMI testing, a very important of the digitally synthesised
design is that allowing direct control of the fre*uency from a driving computer.
The mi"ed output drives the IF stages (amplifier, attenuator, bandpass filter).
The I-, unli'e the 8- attenuator, reduces the level of the noise indication (advantage),
but also reduces the useful dynamic range of any preceding stages (disadvantage).
The rectangular filter, specific to EMI receivers, has a great selectivity. The >aussian
shape filter, specific to spectrum analyser, enables a fast sweep rate, but has a lower
selectivity E..1IF. -or e"ample comparing the : d down bandwidths of the EMI
receiver (8) and spectrum analyser (&9) we have(
1
/
B;
:

,
_

*
9
9
and
/.
/
B;
:

,
_

S
9
9
Thus, assuming
5- 9 /;;
:

results
5- 9 1;;
B;

for the receiver, and
5- 9 /.;;
B;

for the spectrum analyser.
The I- signal is applied to a selectable detector, and using the !ideo and audio
ampli"iers the results may be presented on an oscilloscope, spea:er, meter, recorder,
etc.
T#e beat "re3uency oscillator &9F$) is used for detection of the noise
embedded continuous wave (C#) signals, by obtaining an audible tone produced as a
result of the -7 beating with the I- signal.
Most EMI receivers have a sort of circuitry whose purpose is to compress the
amplitude of e"cursions at their outputs without compromising overall dynamic range
(an automatic gain control D9>C D voltage, a logarithmic characteristic onto I-
stages, appropriate weighting circuits).
4././.1.2 Selecti%it) and sensiti%it)
T#e selecti!ity c#aracteristic into the detector is determined almost entirely in
the final I- stage. ecause the large spectrum and the comple"ity of signals presented
to the input port, without narrow bandpass filters at the input to the receiver, the first
8- amplifier or mi"er stage will be overloaded.
Thus, the resulting signal into the detector, +
I-
is(
d" " ( " S %
IF
) ( ) (
;

(..:1)
where,
&(f) is the fre*uency domain characterisation (-ourier or 4aplace transform) of
the 8- signal
>(f) is the fre*uency domain characterisation of the EMI receiver gain from
the 8- input to its detector input.
The bandwidths E...F commonly used in EMI testing are represented in -ig. ../1a,
where(

:
is the : d down bandwidth of EMI receiver.

B
is the B d down bandwidth of EMI receiver.

n
, the random noise bandwidth, is the width, in hert6, of a rectangle which has an
area e*ual to that of the predetector amplitude s*uared versus fre*uency response
curve and a height e*ual to the ma"imum value of that curve D -ig. ../1b.

i
is the impulse bandwidth of the receiver (essentially for the I- stages).
ecause
i
, is fre*uency variable, it must be determined by using a calibrated impulse
generator (I>), or an impulse generator and a continuous wave (C#) generator.
If the impulse bandwidth of the EMI receiver is 'nown, then(
$ the spectrum amplitude of an un'nown broadband signal, +
b
, in dH0M%6,
can be determined(
i s b
9 % % log 1;
(..::)
where,
+
s
is its pea' detected amplitude, in dH, read on the EMI analyser)

i
is the impulse bandwidth, in M%6.
$ the amplitude of an un'nown narrowband signal, +
n
in dH, can be
determined by the substitution method(
i i n
9 % % log 1; +
(..:.)
where +
i
is the calibrated output of an impulse generator which produces an EMI
receiver reading e*ual to that for the un'nown narrowband signal, +
n
.
7n the other hand, from the relation (..::) or (..:.), results that
i
can readily
be determined by substitution testing, if both a calibrated impulse generator and a
calibrated continuous wave generator are available.
T#e recei!er sensiti!ity depends on the types of EMI (narrowband and
coherent or incoherent broadband signals), that are handled by EMC measuring
e*uipment(
a) For narro6band and inco#erent broadband signals, receiver sensitivity, &,
is defined in terms of its internal noise power, 5, as referred to the receiver input port.
f
;

B
d down
;
:
B
>(f)0>(f
;
)
/
;.I
f
a)
f

:
;.A
E*uivalent
area rectangle
E>(f)0>(f
;
)F
1
/
9mplitude
s*uared
response
(9rea of rectangle J 9rea
under curve)
b)
-ig. ../1 a) andwidths of typical bandpass amplifier) b) 8ectangular area method for
determining random noise bandwidth
1
+
0
0 S
, or & J 5 (..:A)
The noise power, 5, is defined as(
n
F:T9 0
(..:B)
where,
5 J noise power in #)
- J noise factor of the receiver and -
d
J /; log -, is the receiver noise figure)
5- A
B
:

1:
/; :< . /
, is olt6mann constant)
T J temperature of receiver front end in N (typically T J 1G: N))

n
J receiver random noise bandwidth in %6.
Thus, for a receiver front end at typical room temperature(
n
F9 0 S
1/
/; .

E#F (..:I)
or in d, with / m# reference(
n d9 d9m d9m
9 F 0 S log /; /I. + +
, for
n
in %6 (..:<)
n d9 d9m d9m
9 F 0 S log /; //. + +
, for
n
in M%6
(..:G)
-or a A; input impedance, the voltage sensibility in dH is(
/;I +
d9m < d9
S S
(...;)
n d9 n < d9
9 F % S log /; BI +
, for
n
in %6
(.../)
n d9 n < d9
9 F % S log /; I +
, for
n
in M%6 (...1)
The receiver sensitivity versus bandwidth for various receiver noise figures is plotted
in -ig. ../:, E...F, E../GF.
b) If the input signal is broadband co#erent, the sensitivity in dH0M%6 is E...F(
/ '%6 /;; %6
/; '%6 /;; '%6
/ M%6
/; M%6 /;; M%6
$A; d
$.; d
$:; d
$1; d
$/; d
; d
/; d
1; d
:; d
$/.I d
$/AI d
$/:I d
$/1I d
$//I d
$/;I d
$GI d
$<I d
$II d
-
d
J .;
-
d
J ;
-
d
J :;
-
d
J /;
-
d
J 1;
8eceiver bandwidth
8eceiver sensitivity in
dH (A; ) for & J 5
8eceiver sensitivity in
dm for & J5
-ig. ../: 8eceiver sensitivity for narrowband signals versus random noise bandwidth
and various noise figures
i d9 i M5- < d9
9 F % S log /; I
0

(...:)
where,
i
is impulse bandwidth in M%6.
It results an improving of sensitivity to the broadband coherent signal as the receiver
bandwidth is increased.
In case of the broadband coherent input signal, the receiver sensitivity versus
bandwidth for various receiver noise figures is plotted in -ig. ../..
The resultant noise factor of the receiver, -, is(
1 /
:
/
1
/
/ /
( (
F
(
F
F F

+

+

(....)
where (referring to simplified bloc' diagram of EMI receiver D -ig. ../;),
-
/
J noise factor of all circuits preceding the mi"er,
>
/
J power gain of all circuits preceding the mi"er,
-
1
J noise factor of the mi"er,
>
1
J power gain of the mi"er,
-
:
J noise factor of the I- stages.
The greater >
/
and >
1
, the lower mi"er and I- stages contribution to resultant
noise factor, -. Conse*uently, a low noise 8- amplifier with ade*uate gain inserted
ahead of the mi"er, can establish the noise factor of the receiver, -.
9lso, for obtaining a low noise factor in the older receivers, were preferred I-
attenuators, because 8- attenuator has fractional gain, but the involvement of I-
attenuator reduces the useful dynamic range of preceding stages.
In design and using of EMI receiver is made a compromise between the noise
factor and the dynamic range.
4././.1./ 2etectors
/ '%6 /;; %6
/; '%6 /;; '%6
/ M%6
/; M%6
$1; d
$/; d
; d
/; d
1; d
:; d
.; d
A; d
-
d
J .;
-
d
J ;
-
d
J :;
-
d
J /;
-
d
J 1;
8eceiver bandwidth
8eceiver sensitivity in
dH0M%6
-ig. ../.. 8eceiver sensitivity for broadband coherent signals versus bandwidth and
various noise figures
The re*uirements of various EMC standards and test specification re*uires for
EMI receivers, a number of special detection "unctions &pea: detection, 3uasi'pea:
detection, a!erage detection, root mean s3uare ' *MS detection), and a multitude of
statistical detection processes (amplitude probability distribution 8@, noise
amplitude distribution 0@, pulse duration distribution 8@@, a!erage crossing
rate +*).
a) 8ea: detector
This detector measures the pea' value of an envelope s(t) of I- stages
resulting signal,
+
p
J ma"Ps(t)Q, (...A)
and displays the 8M& value of the e*uivalent sine wave

,
_

1
p
%
.
The pea' detector is characterised by rapid charge time (the charge time is
shorter than the rise time of the faster I- pulse produced by the foregoing stages in
response to an impulsive signal), and a discharge time ade*uate to the response of the
display devices.
@ue to its fast settling time, it is used in spectrum analysers and, generally, in
automated EMI testing.
b) Cuasipea: detector
The function of this detector is to give a reading proportional to the
sub2ectively annoyance effect of a discontinuous impulsive noise (a succession of
brief pulses with repetition fre*uency more or less stable, e.g., EMI produced by
corona discharges on %H transmission lines) on listeners to broadcast radio receiver.
This is obtained by appropriate weighting of output voltage of pea' detector, acting
on electrical charge time constant, electrical discharge time constant and mechanical
time constant of the critically damped meter.
-ig. ../A shows the *uasi$pea' detector and the postdetection circuits (buffer
amplifier, simulator of mechanical time constant), E..:1F.
The charge time constant is(
+ *
c c

(...B)
The discharge time constant, ad2ustable by the switch N is(
+ *
d d

(...I)
If the switch N is in position ., we have a pea' detector.
9fter the buffer amplifier 9
/
, there is a two$order low pass active filter, which
simulates the movement of the mechanical indicator. Mechanical time constant is(
/ /
+ *
m

(...<)
C
/
C
/
&imulator of mechanical time
constant
uffer
amplifier
Ruasi$pea' detector
N
.
: 1 /
@
$
$
C
9
/
9
1
C
C
8
/
8
/
8
1
8
c
8
d/
8
d1
8
d:
Fi". 4.16 Ruasi$pea' detection
The time constant of the *uasi$pea' detector for different fre*uency range are given in
Table ..:, E...F, E../GF.
Table ..:. CI&38 Ruasi$pea' detector characteristics
-re*uency range
;.;/ 1;
'%6
G /A; '%6 ;./A :;
M%6
:; /;;;
M%6
B d bandwidth G '%6 1;; %6 G '%6 /1; '%6
Electrical charge time
constant
/ ms .A ms / ms / ms
Electrical discharge time
constant
/B; ms A;; ms /B; ms AA; ms
Mechanical time constant
of critically damped meter
/B; ms /B; ms /B; ms /;; ms
3redetection overload
factor
:; d 1. d :; d .:.A d
3osdetection overload
factor
/1 d /1 d /1 d B d
ecause the rise time of a *uasi$pea' detector is much greater than the rise
time of I- stages, they are not recommended for using with spectrum analysers and,
generally, with automated EMI testing.
The output of a given *uasi$pea' detector will always decrease along with a
decrease in the repetition rate of the pulsed input (38-), whereas the pea' detector
output is repetition rate independent. The output of the *uasi$pea' asymptotically
approaches to that of pea' detector while the 38- increases, as illustrated in -ig ../B
and -ig ../I, where are given the relative output of all four of the detector types for G
'%6, respectively /1; '%6 predetection bandwidth, E...F, E../GF.
/; %6 / %6
/;; %6 / '%6
/; '%6
$A; d
$.; d
$:; d
$1; d
$/; d
; d
3ulse repetition fre*uency (38-) of EMI signal in %6
@etector output relative
to a pea' detector
3ea' detector
9verage
True 8M&
Ruasi$pea'
-ig. ../B 8elative output of CI&38 detectors as function of 38- for
B
J G '%6
4././.2. T&e s'ectrum anal)ser
The spectrum analyser allows measuring the harmonic content of an electric
signal, otherwise the power of every spectral components. It displays the amplitude of
signals versus fre*uency (fre*uency domain measurements), complementary to the
oscilloscope, displaying the signals amplitude versus time (time domain
measurements).
There are three principal types of spectrum analyser(
fre*uency scanning superheterodyne receivers)
contiguous bandpass filter ban's (spectral analysis in real time for single pulsed
waveform))
digital signal capture and software -ourier transform systems or computation of
signal autocorrelation function (generally, for fre*uency less than a few tens of
M%6).
9 basically bloc' diagram of a fre*uency scanning heterodyne spectrum
analyser is shown in -ig ../<.
/ %6 ;./ %6
/; %6 /;; %6
/ '%6
$A; d
$.; d
$:; d
$1; d
$/; d
; d
3ulse repetition fre*uency (38-) of EMI signal in %6
@etector output relative
to a pea' detector
3ea' detector
Ruasi$pea'
$B; d
/; '%6 /;; '%6
True 8M&
9verage
-ig. ../I 8elative output of CI&38 detectors as function of 38- for
B
J /1; '%6
ecause the spectrum analyser is an alternative for the EMI receiver,
especially in diagnostic and pre$compliance EMC testing, and these instruments are
similar in their basic functions, a comparative description will be performed.
The input of the spectrum analyser is switchable between EMI sensors and the
internal source used for fre*uency and amplitude calibration. +sually EMI sensors are
separate delivered, having their individual calibration curves.
+nli'e the EMI receiver, no preselector or tunable 8- amplifier normally is
incorporated as a standard component in the front ends of a spectrum analyser. This
involves the principal disadvantages of the spectrum analyser (lac' of front end
selectivity, and thus overloading the mi"er with low signal amplitude levels) high
noise figure, and thus low sensitivity).
The wide bandwidth front ends ma'es the spectrum analyser more e"posed to
compression and overload. The variable input attenuator increases the dynamic range
of the spectrum analyser and may be used to chec' the compression.
The hori6ontal scale of the instrument (the O a"is of the C8T) is driven by a
sweep generator, which also commands the voltage tuned local oscillator (47)
producing linear e"cursion of fre*uency versus sweep on the O$a"is.
The sweep generator allows the scan speed and widths (domains) choice.
The sensitivity of the spectrum analyser is defined as that of EMI receiver, but
the noise figure for spectrum analyser (typically 1; :; d) is higher than for an
EMI receiver (typically B /1 d).
The front panel of the spectrum analyser contains controls for the1 Fre3uency
span) S6eep time) *esolution band6idt#) <ideo band6idt#, *e"erence le!els.
T#e resolution band6idt#, sometimes referred to as the I- bandwidth, may
determines the displayed signal to noise ratio (the narrower the resolution bandwidth,
the lower the noise level), selectivity (differentiating between fre*uency ad2acent
signals) and sweep time.
The bandwidth of measuring instrument is used for definition and the
discrimination between the broadband and narrowband emissions.
8- input
attenuator
Mi"er I- amplifier
4ogarithmic
amplifier
@etector I- filters
Hideo filters
@isplay
<ideo
band6idt#
4ocal
oscillator
&weep
generator
*esolution
band6idt#
*e"erence
le!el
&ensors
Calibration
source
Fi". 4.19 &implified bloc' diagram of a spectrum analyser
If the bandwidth of the instrument (EMI analyser, spectrum analyser),
bb
, is less than
that of the emissions being considered in -ig. ../G, the emission will appear as
broadband.
If the bandwidth
nb
is wider than that of the emissions being considered in -ig. ../G,
the emission will appear as narrowband.
Thus, whether impulsive noise is displayed as narrowband or broadband, it is
up to the resolution bandwidth.
There are four basic methods for differentiating between the broadband and
narrowband emissions(
band6idt# test (using the two bandwidths by changing the resolution bandwidth))
tuning test (by tuning the instrument for ma"imum response and then deliberate
detuning higher and lower in fre*uency by an amount e*ual to two of its impulse
bandwidths))
detection test (by comparing the readings for pea' detector and average detector))
8*F test (by comparing the repetition rate of the EMI pulse to the impulse
bandwidth of the EMI instrument). 8eferring to -ig. ..1;, if the pulse repetition
fre*uency $ 38- of EMI e"ceeds the impulse bandwidth of the instrument the
EMI is narrowband. #hen 38- is less than the impulse bandwidth, the EMI is
broadband.
T#e "re3uency span determines the spacing of the spectral emission lines. The
spectral emissions lines may be either narrowband signals (sine wave sources) or
impulsive noise, which is displayed as narrowband signals (resolution bandwidth of
instrument is less than pulse repetition fre*uency D 38- of EMI) as is illustrated in
-ig. ..1; E..1IF.
If the repetition rate of EMI pulse is much lower and resolution bandwidth is
increased to include more spectral lines, the signal will be displayed as a broadband
signal (the amplitude of the display is proportional to the spectrum envelope
amplitude at the fre*uency to which the instrument is tuned). In this case the spacing
between the pulses is changed by t#e s6eep time and is not modified by changing the
fre*uency span. Thus the 38- is found by ta'ing the reciprocal of the sweep time
between the individual pulses E..1IF.
9mplitude spectrum
distribution of pulse
8adio fre*uency
$:0
$10
$/0
/0
10
:0

nb

bb

9
Time domain
response of pulse
Fi". 4.1: Comparison of bandwidths of the instrument to pulsed 8- spectrum
-igure ..1/ is a functional bloc' diagram for a modern 8- spectrum analyser
E..1AF. The 8- fre*uency range is G '%6 .; >%6, and may be e"tended up to
hundred of >%6 by using e"ternal mi"er.
To allow scanning over multiple octave ranges of fre*uency, three stages for
fre*uency conversion are used.
The *uality parameters of the local oscillators 47 (fre*uency stability and
accuracy, low$noise, fine resolution on display) are improved by using a synthesised
unit referenced to a very stable *uart6 oscillator.
-or using in EMC wor' tests, the spectrum analyser also contains( bandpass or
trac'ing preselectors) a range of I- bandwidth) the specific detector functions.
The microprocessor controlling of the analyser is very important for operation
and data recording simplicity. It is also necessary for including the analyser in an
automatic measurement system (automated EMI testing).
9mplitude spectrum distribution
of repetitive pulse for 8 S 38-
8adio fre*uency

9
Time domain response
of repetitive pulse
8esolution
bandwidth (8)
T J /038-
&pectral
lines
38-
Time
5arrow band characteristics
(38- ? 8)(
38- J spectral line spacing
4ine spacing changes with
fre*uency span, but
independent of sweep time
Fi". 4. 2; 5arrowband display of repetitive pulse
The strong points of spectrum analysers lie with(
their e"tremely wide input fre*uency range (typically /; '%6 to /.: >%6
but as wide as /;; %6 to hundred of >%6), with lower cost per covered
octave comparing to the EMI receiver)
functional display (C8T display is often superior to that used in EMI
receiver))
capability of displaying a large part of the spectrum in a short duration
sweep time, almost real time (the short duration changes in amplitude are
more easily discernible))
adaptability to a broad palette of applications)
compact nature.
4./././. T&e Oscillosco'e
There are plenty of situations demanding time$domain measurements for
electromagnetic fields(
Measurements of transients in studies of natural and man$made phenomena as
lightning, electrostatic discharges (E&@), nuclear electromagnetic pulse (5EM3).
EMC emission and immunity tests. The detection of pea' amplitude, wave shape,
repetition fre*uency of transient or very low repetition rate fast burst type signals.
:
3reselector
1B.<
.; >%6
G '%6
1B.< >%6
G '%6
.; >%6
3reselector
:.G/;
>%6
:/;.I
M%6 :/;.I
M%6
/;.I
M%6
:1
/ st 47
synthesi6er
B
/; M%6
8ef.
B;; M%6
7sc.
1
/ st 47
:.B
>%6
:.G/;
>%6
I-
4og.
4in.
@etectors Hideo
9@C
C
@isplay
&T%
:/;.I
M%6
Fi". 4.21 loc' diagram of modern spectrum analyser
+onducted emission tests call measurements of the e"ported spi'es from an
e*uipment under test (E+T) to be measured when the whole device or only some
users dealing with the power management system are on0off switched. EM+
immunity tests call to monitoring the amplitude and wave shape of transients or
spi'es being in2ected on power lines connected to an E+T, or illuminating an E+T
(5EM3 waveform, E&@ pulse).
The main e*uipment used in this scope is the oscilloscopes and the digital transient
recorders.
The oscilloscope displays voltage waveforms, being one of the most versatile and
fastest measuring instruments.
9lthough very comple", the oscilloscope contains the following basic circuit bloc's(
a channel for processing and vertical defle"ion (amplitude a"e))
a channel for synchronising and hori6ontal defle"ion (time a"e) )
a display.
9t the first channel input, one applies the signal of interest. In order to achieve
high fidelity for displaying the high$speed signals, the data ac*uisition system must
have a wide bandwidth and a constant group delay.
The other channel, consisting of trigger and time base, ma'e input signal to be
displayed as a function of time. The sweep constants are ad2ustable from /;
$G
second0division to seconds0division.
The display is a direct$view vector cathode$ray tube (@HHC8T) C8T), or is
based on computer display technology (digital scope display).
T&e #nalo"ue Oscillosco'e
-rom the beginning, the oscilloscope was analogue, so it has a simple and a
well$'nown operation mode.
The display for the analogue oscilloscope is a C8T, having the advantages(
real time operation, short dead time, high hori6ontal resolution and many shades of
grey$scale information.
The real time fre*uency range is ;,A / >%6, seldom reaching a few >%6.
9lso, the sweep rate is very good (/; div0ns). 9ll these recommend the analogue
oscilloscopes for processing very fast and fast time variable signals. If the signals are
repetitive, the real time display represents an advantage. 5ot being repetitive, the
ac*uired signals storage could by accomplished by using a camera or an analogue
memory.
The disadvantages of the analogue oscilloscopes are(
their dependence on a C8T display, constantly being refreshed, so they do not
have any waveform storage facility)
difficulties in triggering on0and visualising a specific interference signal having
the amplitude and position variable with respect to the mains fre*uency)
lac' of post and pre triggering possibility (inability to display information before
its trigger))
the impossibility of including the analogue oscilloscope in an automatic
measurement system controlled by computer.
T&e 2i"ital Oscillosco'e
The main difference versus the analogue oscilloscope is the analogue to digital
conversion of the input signal and in conse*uence, it could be controlled by an
embedded microprocessor and0or included in a numerical measurement system, with
all the advantages deriving from this.
a) 9loc: diagram and "unctional modes
The digital oscilloscope diagram is shown in -ig...11
The M (vertical) deflection system contains a data ac*uisition bloc'
(amplification, analogue$digital conversion), a memory, and an interface with display.
This three operation may could be done in different times.
The O defle"ion system (the hori6ontal system) is constituted of the trigger
circuit and the time base. The time base is controlled by a *uart6 oscillator, which has,
also, the role of generating the impulses driving the sampling and the conversion
process.
In -ig. ..11 the display is a direct$view vector cathode$ray tube (@HHC8T or
C8T), but it may be based on computer display technology (digital scope display).
The ability of the digital oscilloscope to capture signals is based on operating modes,
timing resolution, t#e scope band6idt#.
a) There are two basically ac*uisition modes(
e3ui!alent time sampling, the signal capture is done in many synchronising cycles,
only applicable for repetitive (periodic) signals)
real time sampling, the signal capture being performed in a single synchronising
cycle.
a
1
) In e3ui!alent time sampling mode, the oscilloscope may display the events shorter
than the sample spacing, the signal being repetitive.
Implementing the sampling method, the oscilloscope could reach a A; >%6
bandwidth (only for long se*uence of identical pulses or periodic waveform).
&ometimes the periodicity is obtained due to the repetition of the phenomenon, (e.g.
for an electrostatic discharge simulator which has the possibility of generating a series
of almost identical discharges).
@igital
memory
Control
logic
Trigger
circuit
Input
attenuator0
amplifier
@9C
@9C
u(t)
9
9
E"t.
9@C
#nalo" to di"ital
con%ersion
9nalog shift
register
&amples and
hold
IEEE .<<
Computer
C8T
display
Fast Slo6
Fi".4.22. The digital oscilloscope
a
2
) In case of singular signals (single pulsed waveform), having high fre*uency
components, the sampling must be done in real time. The sampling fre*uency is high,
namely, the oscilloscope has a very large bandwidth.
Thus, increasing the analogue to digital conversion speed is the basic difficulty of the
digital oscilloscopes.
The direct analogue$to$digital conversion, usually, permits a /;; M%6 real
time bandwidth.
a
21
) 9 method for increasing the analogue bandwidth and thus for displaying single
shot fast transients is the one based on Uendless loopV mode recording or circular
addressing mode.
-or this type of recording, the sampling and the data storage in memory continuously
happens from the beginning to the end and bac' in a circular fashion until a trigger
event occurs causing the end of the capture phase or the going on till a user$specified
post trigger time.
#riting is done using an interleaving memory(
the memory is partitioned, for e"ample, into :1 sections with a view to capture a
data word every 1 nanoseconds, if the write cycle time of memory is AA
nanoseconds)
the first data word is routed to the first memory location in memory section one,
after two nanoseconds the second data word is routed to the first memory location
in memory section two, and in this mode after 1 ns :1 JB. ns is reached again
the first memory section, which has completed its write cycle (AA nanoseconds)
E..1F.
The recorded data is then permanent stored at a slower rate, the captured waveform is
displayed, and then the instrument is ready for ac*uisition of the ne"t signals.
This method permits an analogue bandwidth of A;; M%6, and thus recording single
shot fast transitions, having the fre*uency components in this range (lightning
impulses, electrostatic discharge).
a
22
) 9nother method for increasing the bandwidth and thus for capturing fast single
events is based on a short time analogue storage of the input waveform, (e.g. using an
analogue shift register E../1F), later performing the analogue$to$digital conversion and
the digital storage, at a much lower speed.
() T#e timing resolution informs the operator how closely are spaced the samples in
the scopeWs data record.
+sually the manufacturers of digital oscilloscopes specify t#e ma4imum
sampling speed, memory dept# and number o" bits =4.2.>.

EsecF
F E
secF 0 E
base time scale "ull
samples dept# memory
samples speed sampling
(...G)
-rom this relation, we remar' that unli'e t#e memory dept# and number o" bits that
are constants, the ma4imum sampling speed changes with the sweep speed (full scale
time base). Thus, the scopeWs ma"imum sampling speed applies only to its faster
sweep speed. The increase of memory dept# permits the increase of "ull'scale time
base, without diminishing t#e sampling speed.
The time record (time span) may be from nanoseconds till hundreds of
milliseconds. The longer the time span to be captured and the finer the resolution
re*uired, the more memory is re*uired.
9 method for e"tending the scopeWs sampling speed to longer time records is
by using a pea: detection mode. 9lso this mode can reduce the possibility of an
aliased display, allowing to display high$fre*uency noise that might not be within the
bandwidth (display short impulse of duration smaller then sample spacing).
9nother method for overcoming this recording limitation is by employing
multiple oscilloscopes or recorders set to different sweep speeds (different time$base
setting).
This method is used, generally, for determining the un'nown parameters of signals
with 'nown waveform.
-or e"ample, a transient electromagnetic field, -ig...1:a may be recovered by
matching the segments obtained from three oscilloscopes (recorders), wor'ing in
parallel (-ig...1:b, c, d), suitable triggered, and having set the sweep speeds in
concordance with the region displayed. The recording is done se*uentially and
processing system lin's the three spots by time tied points 9
/
$ 9
1
and
/
$
1
E../<F.
T&e ad%anta"es of di"ital oscillosco'e %ersus analo"ue oscillosco'e8
1) T#e capability o" pro!iding special modes o" operation Dpretrigger !ie6E (scope
can display what happened before the applying of a trigger signal) and
Dpostrigger !ie6E (scope can display what happened before and after the trigger
signal, ta'ing into account an ad2ustable time portion ).
Time tie point
Time tie point
1;;ns0div.
A;ns0div.
/;ns0div.
8ecorder : (/B;;$1;;;ns)
8ecorder 1 (.;;$A;;ns) 8ecorder /(<;$G;ns)
u
/
(t)
u
:
(t)
u
1
(t)
u(t)
b) c) d)

1
9
1
9
/
t t
t
t
a)
s
Fi". 4.2/. &e*uential recording to different sweep speeds( a) signal of interest) b), c),
d) recorders (/, 1, :) to different sweep speeds
T
i
$

T
i
3re triggering
Trigger timing pulse
3ost triggering
Fi". 4.24. #indow visibility.
-or this wor'ing regime, the scope operates in a Dendless loopE mode, while the
recorder continuously samples and stores data (constantly overwrite a bloc' of
memory from start to finish and bac' to the start) until a trigger occurs, causing the
record phase to finish, respectively to continue a user$specified post trigger time, ,
-ig. ..1..
The pre trigger and post trigger view permits(
a) to display what happened before a failure is occurred, or time variation of
electromagnetic field before a lighting, for e"ample)
b) to visualise , in the middle of the display, a transient interference (in this
mode is observed what happened before and after interference), or generally, the
history of any phenomena.
2) T#e "acility o" digital oscilloscope triggering on the wanted interference signal, the
amplitude and position with respect to the mains fre*uency being variable, -ig...1A
E../GF.
F) 9etter accuracy "or bot# de"lection systems. The calibration errors of the scopeWs
vertical system could be reduced because microprocessor or computer can apply
correction factors to data. 9lso, the accuracy of time base is few orders of magnitudes
better than the correspondent one from an analogue oscilloscope.
4) T#e possibility o" storing t#e 6a!e"orm for visual analysing, comparing to other test
results, or analysing performed by computer. It is possible to perform mathematical
operations giving additional insight into waveforms (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, integration, differentiation and -ast -ourier Transform). The selected
signal must not be continuously present to input, because it ma'es not the refresh of
display. Thus, it is possible to display a single shot event.
5evertheless, the digital oscilloscope presents a more comple" operation mode
then analogue scope one, and some disadvantages typical for analogue to digital
conversion process (aliasing error) and computer mode display (low hori6ontal
resolution and large dead times D the period when the oscilloscope is not capturing the
input signal).

+i(lio"ra'&)
E../F 9ntoniu M., altag 7., @avid H.( MGsurGri electrice, IaXi, &atya,/GGG.
Mains power waveform
EMI signal (transient
noise burst)
Trigger
level
4ine voltage
t
u(t)
1; ms
Fi". 4.26. Transient capture of noise burst on mains power line
E..1F aum Carl E.( Electromagnetic Sensor and Measurement Tec#ni3ues, -ast
Electrical and 7ptical Measurements vol./, @ordrecht, Martinus 5i2hoff 3ublishers,
/G<B.
E..:F oll 8., 7vershott N.Y.( Magnetic Sensors, #einheim,HC%, /G<G, cap.B.
E...F ronaught E. 4. 4ambdin #. &.( Electromagnetic Inter"erence Test
Met#odology and 8rocedures, >ainesville, Interference Control Technologies,/G<G.
E..AF Collin 8. E. Kuc'er -. Y.( ntenna T#eory 5ew Mor' , Mc>raw $ %ill, /GBG.
E..BF @avid H.( +ercetGri legate de mGsurarea cHmpurilor electromagnetice
perturbatoare, IaXi (Te6Z de doctorat), /GG<.
E..IF @avid H., 9ntoniu M., Matei 4.( Sensor "or Electric and Magnetic Field
Measurements, IEEE @igest $ Conference on 3recision Electromagnetic
Measurements, #ashington @C., /GG<.
E..<F @avid H., Cretu M., &alceanu 9.( n symmetrical Sensor "or Simultaneous
Electric and Magnetic Field Measurements, IEEE @igest $ Conference on 3recision
Electromagnetic Measurements, &ydney, 1;;;.
E..GF @ega*ue 3.( +EM bruit et perturbations radioelectric, 3aris, @unod, /GG;.
E../;F >ardiol -.( Electromagnetism, 4ausanne, @unod, /G<I.
E..//F >assman -., ouriot .( Capteur de mesure simultanee de champs electri*ue et
magneti*ue en 6one proche, 4yon (EMC) /GG1
E../1F %elfric' 9. @., Coper #. @.( Modern Electronic Instrumentation and
Measurement Techni*ues, 3retince %all International Inc., /GG;
E../:F Ishimaru 9.( Electromagnetic Ba!e 8ropagation, *adiation and Scattering,
5ew Yersey, 3retince %all, /GG/.
E../.F Nanda M.( n Electromagnetic 0ear ' Field Sensor "or Simultaneous Electric
and Magnetic ' Field Measurements, IEEE Trans on EMC, Hol. 1B, 5o. :,/G<..
E../AF Nanda M and %ill 9. @.( T#ree ' ,oop Met#od "or @etermining t#e *adiation
+#aracteristics o" a electrically Small Source, IEEE Trans. on EMC, Hol. :., 5o. /,
/GG1.
E../BF Nanda M.( Standard 8robes "or Electromagnetic Field Measurements, IEEE
Trans. on 9ntennas and 3ropagation, Hol. ./, 5o. /;, /GG:.
E../IF Neiser .( 3rinciple of Electromagnetic Compatibility, :
rd
Edition, 4ondon,
9rtec %ouse, /G<<.
E../<F Miller E.N.( Time'@omain Measurements in Electromagnetics, 5ew Mor',Han
5ostrand 8einhold, /G<B.
E../GF Morgan @.( 5andboo: "or EM+ Testing and Measurement, 4ondon, 3eter
3eregrinus 4td., /GG..
E..1;F 5ahman 5. &. X.a.( Met#odology "or Standard Electromagnetic Field
Measurements, IEEE Trans on Instr. and Meas., 5o. ., /G<A.
E..1/F 5ovotny @., X.a.( n $ptically ,in:ed T,S "or @etermining t#e *adiation
+#aracteristics o" an Electrically Small Source, @allas (IEEE$EMC) /GG:.
E..11F &mith >. &.( ,oop ntennas, in 9ntenna Engineering %andboo', Yohnson
8.C.and Yasi' %., third ed., 5ew Mor', Mc>raw$%ill, /GG:.
E..1:F &piegel 8 Y.( *adiation Measuring System 6it# 8otential utomoti!e %nder'
5ood pplication, IEEE Trans. on EMC, 5o. 1, /G<:.
E..1.F &tuchly M., &tuchly &. &.( Measurements o" Electromagnetic Fields, in
iomedical 9pplications, Critical 8eviews in iomedical Engineering, Hol./., C8C
3ress, Inc. oca 8aton, -lorida, /G<B.
E..1AF #ebster Y. >. (ed)( T#e Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensor 5andboo:,
C8C 3ress. IEEE 3ress, +nited &tates of 9merica, /GGG.
E..1BF #ehr M., Monich >.( @etection o" *adiation ,ea:s by Sp#erically Scanned
Field @ata, Kurich (EMC) /GG:.
E..1IF #eston @.( Electromagnetic Compatibility 3rinciples and 9pplications, 5ew
Mor', Marcel @e''er, Inc, /GG/.
E..1<F #illiams T., 9rmstrong N.( EMC for &ystems and Installations, 7"ford,
5ewnes, 1;;;
E..1GF #u T. T.( T#eory o" t#e T#in +ircular ,oop ntenna, Yournal of Mathematical
3hysics, Cambrige, Massachusetts, Hol :, /GB1.
E..:;F Magh2ian 9. @.( n $!er!ie6 o" 0ear'Field ntenna Measurements, IEEE
Trans. on 9ntenna and 3ropagation, 5o. /, /G<B.
E..:/F [[[ 8eviews( IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement) IEEE
Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility) IEEE Transactions on 9ntennas and
3ropagation) IEEE Transactions on 3ower @elivery) IEEE Transactions on
Magnetics.
E..:1F [[[ &ymposiums( International &ymposium on EMC from 9nglia (Mor'),
&wiss (Kurich), -rance, 3oland (#roclaw), IEEE International &ymposium on EMC
(+&9), Conference on 3recision Electromagnetic Measurement (3aris /GG1)
raunschweig /GGB) #ashington /GG<) &ydney 1;;;)
E..::F [[[ Catalogues( 8ohde T &chwar6, %ewlett 3ac'ard, Tec'troni".