SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

MANUAL FOR ERITREA

Amanuel Negassi
Estifanos Bein
Kifle Ghebru
Bo Tengns
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CHAPTER 8
CONSTRUCTION AND DESIGN OF SMALL DAMS
8.5 Estimating Catchment Yield
The amount of run-off that can be expected to come from the catchment to the dam (the
catchment yield) should be estimated in order to determine the embankment height and
reservoir capacity. In most parts of the country there are no climatic data available to determine
the annual run-off of a specific area. However, a rainfall distribution map (Map 3) can give a
rough estimate and can be used for estimating the annual run-off from a certain catchment. The
following guidelines can be used to estimate annual run-off from a small catchment:
Roughly locate the dam site on Map 3 and read the annual rainfall, R.
Determine the run-off coefficient, C. This indicates the run-off as a percentage of the
annual rainfall. Areas covered with dense forest have a low C value, while at the other
extreme rocky areas with poor infiltration have a high value. The C-value depends not
only on the vegetation cover and topography of the area but also on the soil. A soil that
is easily drained has a lower C-value than a more impermeable soil. Different
approximate values for C are given in Table 8.1. Usually the C value in Eritrea is
between 10% and 20%. The steeper the slopes are in the catchment area, the higher
the value of the coefficient.
Determine the size of the catchment area, A, that contributes flow to the proposed dam
site.
Finally, calculate the annual yield, Y, of the catchment using the following formula:
Y = C x R x A
where Y = the annual water yield of the catchment area
C = the run-off coefficient
R = the annual rainfall
A = area of the catchment.
To avoid confusion, express R in metres (m) and A in square metres (m
2
). The result, Y, will
then be expressed in cubic metres (m
3
).

Example of catchment-yield calculation
A catchment area is bare of vegetation and moderately sloping
The run-off coefficient was estimated to be 15%
Catchment area (A) = 3.5 km
2
= 3,500,000 m
2

Annual rainfall (R) = 450 mm = 0.45 m
Run-off coefficient (C) = 15% = 0.15
Therefore, annual yield: Y = C x R x A=0.15x 3,500,000 x 0.45 = 236,250 m
3

Refer to Appendix 7 for additional examples and more precise methods of calculating both run-
off rate and volume of annual runoff.


Appendix 7
Estimation of catchment run-off
In natural catchments, any rainfall is either intercepted by vegetation, infiltrates into the soil,
starts moving over the surface as run-off or is lost through evaporation. In order to design
appropriate conservation structures such as diversion ditches or waterways it is important to be
able to make an estimate of run-off. For a rainfall episode of given duration and intensity, the
proportion which becomes run-off depends mainly on the cover of vegetation or crop residues,
the soil infiltration rate, water content and storage capacity, and the slope of the land.
For some purposes it is necessary to know the peak rate of run-off in cubic metres per second,
and for others it is necessary to know the volume of run-off in cubic metres. For example, if a
diversion ditch or waterway has to be designed, the critical factor is the rate of run-off, whereas
if a retention ditch has to be designed, the expected volume of run-off should be estimated so
that the ditch can be made large enough. Run-off rate and run-off volume are estimated in quite
different ways, as explained below.
There are two simple methods used for estimating run-off rate, known as the rational formula
and Cook's method. They are both useful, and as they will not give exactly the same result they
can both be used and the results compared to check on the reliability of the estimate.

1. Rational formula for estimating run-off rate
The rational formula is expressed as follows:
q = CiA/360
Where:
q = run-off rate (m
3
/s)
C = run-off coefficient (between 0 and 1)
i = rainfall intensity (mm/h)
A = area of catchment (ha)
The following points should be noted.

Run-off coefficient
This is the proportion of total rainfall that is expected to become run-off during the design storm
(see below). The assumption is made that the ground is already soaked and therefore the rate
of infiltration is determined by the permeability of the soil, the surface roughness (whether there
are furrows or depressions which can hold rain in situ) and the ground cover, if any, which may
impede the flow of water and increase the time for infiltration. For deep soils with naturally high
infiltration rates the run-off coefficient might be 0.25 or less. By contrast, heavy black soils would
have a low infiltration rate and the run-off coefficient might be 0.5 or more. A dense cover of
fodder grass on a deep red soil may have zero runoff, whereas denuded grazing land may have
a run-off coefficient of 0.75 or more. A tarmac road or parking area will have a run-off coefficient
of just under 1.0. Typical values for runoff coefficient are given in Table A7.1.



Rainfall intensity
The value of rainfall intensity in millimetres per hour for use in the rational formula is the highest
that can be expected in a ten-year return period for a time equal to the time of concentration of
run-off at the outlet of the catchment. This is known as the design storm.
'Time of concentration' is an important concept used with the rational formula in determining
peak discharge (m
3
/s) for designing a diversion ditch, waterway, weir, etc. It can be applied to
any catchment area.
Time of concentration is the longest time taken for water to travel by surface flow from any point
in a catchment to the outlet. The rationale behind the concept of time of concentration is that the
biggest storm will occur when all parts of the catchment are contributing simultaneously to
discharge at the outlet. For this to happen, there must be a storm over the whole catchment, the
ground must be wet and all the minor depressions must be filled. Peak discharge is not likely to
occur at the beginning of the rainy season when the ground is dry and receptive of rainfall but
after some days or weeks of continuous rainfall when the ground has become saturated with
water.
Figure A7.1 shows a typical rainfall intensity duration curve for a ten-year return period. Clearly
the longer the duration of the storm, the lower the average intensity. The value for intensity, i, to
be used in the rational formula (q = CiA/360) must be that with a duration equal to the time of
concentration. If a longer duration is used, the intensity value will be lower and the estimate of
peak discharge will be too low. If a shorter time period is used, the whole of the catchment will
not be contributing simultaneously to discharge at the outlet. Run-off close to the outlet would
have left the catchment before that from the furthest point had arrived and peak discharge
would not therefore occur. Hence, the need to use the intensity value for a storm which has a
duration equal to the time of concentration.
Note that Figure A7.1 shows an intensity value for a storm with a ten-year return period. This
means' that a storm of that intensity is likely to occur on average once every ten years. Heavier
storms may occur but will be less frequent. For most simple structures, a rainfall intensity with a
return period of five or ten years can be used when estimating peak discharge, but for major
concrete structures such as bridges or dam spillways return periods of 50, 100 or even longer
may be used. The greater the damage which could be caused by failure of the structure, the
longer the return period that should be used.
The time of concentration is dependent on various factors such as the size of the catchment, the
shape of the catchment, the steepness of the catchment, the density of the drainage network
and the ground cover. Because there are so many variables it is not easy to arrive at a precise
figure. However, estimates can be made, and the time of concentration for a specific catchment
is usually found from tables such as Table A7.2 which gives approximate values.

Figure A7.1 Rainfall-intensity curve

Obviously the bigger the catchment the longer the time of concentration. When the time of
concentration has been estimated, the rainfall intensity value to use in the equation can be
found from the rainfall intensity-duration-frequency curve for the locality in question.

Area of the catchment
The area of the catchment can be estimated by pacing, use of maps or aerial photos.

2. Cook's method for estimating run-off rate
This method was developed by the United States Conservation Service and adapted for African
conditions by Prof. Norman Hudson. The method is based on actual measurements of rainfall
intensity and run-off rate from small catchments. Hudson's approach is simple and suitable for
use in Africa. There are only three factors to be determined: the area of the catchment, the
shape of the catchment and the catchment characteristics. The shape of the catchment is
relevant because a short wide catchment will generally produce a higher peak run-off than a
long narrow catchment of the same size.
The catchment characteristic (CC) is determined from observation on the vegetative cover, the
soil and the slope. A value is attached to each of these components, as shown in Table A7.3,
and the sum of the three figures gives the total catchment characteristic.

Table A7.4 gives the values of run-off rate for different catchment sizes and characteristics and
Box 1 gives an example comparing Cook's method with the rational formula for estimating run-
off rate.

Note: Left-hand column is the area of the catchment in hectares, CC is the catchment
characteristics (African method) and the figures in the body of the table are the run-off in
cubic metres per second for a 10-year return period.

Adjustments to Cook's method
For areas known to experience less intense rainfall, multiply the values obtained from Table
A7.4 by 0.75. Since the shape of the catchment affects the time of concentration and hence the
design intensity and ultimately the peak run-off, multiply the run-off values obtained from Table
A7.4 by 0.8 or 1.25 for long narrow and broad short catchments, respectively.
Box 1. Run-off rate estimation-examples using the rational formula and Cook's method
Run-off from higher ground is causing damage to a farmer's land and the extension officer has
been asked to design a cut-off drain that can carry the run-off safely to a waterway. He inspects
the catchment and finds that the soil is deep and permeable. He estimates the size of the
catchment to be 5 ha and notes that there is an area of about 3 ha of eroded grazing land from
which high run-off can be expected. Cropland which is well managed occupies 1.5 ha, and there
is an area of woodlot occupying 0.5 ha. He estimates the discharge by the rational formula and
Cook's method in the following way.
Rational formula
1. Find the weighted mean value for the run-off coefficient (CW) using figures from Table A7.1.

2. The time of concentration for a 5-ha catchment is about 5 minutes (Table A7.2).
3. Select the rainfall intensity, i, for a very short storm with a ten-year return period from Figure
A7.1. The graph does not show a figure for a storm of 5 minutes, but a storm of 12 minutes (0.2
hr) is selected and a value of 130 mm/h is obtained.
4. The peak run-off rate q = CiA/360 = (0.41 x 130 x 5)/360 = 0.74 m
3
/s
Cook's method
1. Find the weighted mean catchment characteristic (CW) using figures from Table A7.3.

2. From Table A7.4 the peak run-off rate, q, for a catchment characteristic of 50 is 0.9 m
3
/s and
for 55 is 1.1 m
3
/s. Therefore the value of 51 is equivalent to a peak run-off rate of 0.92 m
3
/s.
The above calculations give slightly different results, which is only to be expected as there are
many assumptions made in selecting the data. The extension officer may reason that the
condition of the eroded grazing land is expected to improve with better management and will
therefore design the cut-off drain using the lower figure for a peak run-off of 0.74 m
3
/s.
* A value was chosen for scrub rather than forest since a woodlot will not usually protect the soil
as much as indigenous forest.
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