Statistical Treatment

Many researchers find difficulty to use the appropriate statistical tools in processing the
data. It is a must that researcher diagnose the problem by using the appropriate statistical tool
to arrive at accurate and definite interpretation of results. A researcher is similar with a
physician wherein the latter diagnoses the ailment and prescribes the appropriate medicine to
cure the ailment. An ailment cannot be cured if the physician prescribes inappropriate medicine.
For instance, the problem is How effective is the teaching of Miss Y in Biology to
teacher education students? Of the 200 teacher education students, 15 said very much effective
or 4; 90 much effective or 3; 55, effective or 2; and 40, not effective at all or 1. Weighted
arithmetic mean is the appropriate statistical tool to this particular problem. For illustration
purposes, consider the computation below:
f x fx
15 4 60
90 3 270
55 2 110
40 1 40
Total 200 480
(effective)

The mean value obtained is 2.4 which means effective. Hence, the teaching of Miss
Y in Biology to teacher education students is effective.
The appropriate statistical tool is weighted arithmetic mean because there is only one
descriptive interpretation that describes the whole performance of Miss Y in teaching Biology
to teacher education students.
Data Processing
And
Statistical
Treatment
Incorrect Statistical Tool

The author read several theses and dissertations in which the researchers used
percentage in scale options (4, 3, 2, 1) and the like. This is a common error. Percentage is
incorrect or inappropriate statistical tool to scale options due to vague interpretation of the
result. For illustration purposes, consider the computation below using the same problem and
responses of teacher education students to the teaching of Miss Y in Biology where 15
students rated Miss Ys teaching in Biology as very much effective or 49O, rated much
effective or 3;55,
W f Percent Interpretation
15 7.5
very much
effective
90 40.0 much effective
55 27.5 effective
40 20.0 not effective at all
Total 200
Comparing the weighted arithmetic mean and percentage as statistical tools to
scale options, the former has exact, precise interpretation of the whole results and the
latter has varied or vague interpretation of the results. In other words, there is no
specific or exact interpretation of results for percentage.
For instance, the mean score is 2.4. This quantitative value of 2.4 has only one
qualitative description, effective, which describes the performance of Miss Y in teaching
Biology to teacher education students. Whereas, percentage has many interpretations, i.e., 15
or 7.5% teacher education students rated very much effective; 90 or 45% much effective,
55 or 27.5%, effective; and 40 or 20%, not effective at all. Hence, percentage is incorrect
statistical tool to scale options.
Univariate Statistical Treatment

The appropriate statistical tool for Univariate problem, both experimental and
descriptive designs, is weighted arithmetic mean for scale options (i.e., 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3,
2, and 1) and the like.
Experimental research. For instance the experimental research problem is What is
the acceptability of the flavor of fish burger from offal boneless milkfish? Of the 30 panelists who
evaluated the product using the 9-point Hedonic Scale, 5 rated like extremely or 9; 23 rated
like very much or 8; and 2, like moderately or 7. For illustration purposes, consider the
formula (7.1) of weighted arithmetic mean.
The above formula is simply written as:
where:
= Sum of all the products of f and x; where f is the frequency of each weight and x is the
weight, i.e., 9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1.
= Sum of all the frequency/subject
Using formula (7.1), the weighted arithmetic mean is:
(like very much)
or it can be written as shown in Table 7.5 on sample computation of weighted arithmetic mean
used in univariate experimental research.
Table 7.5 Sample Computation of Weighted Arithmetic Mean Used in Univariate
Experimental Research
f x fx
5 9 45
23 8 184
2 7 14
Total 80 243
(like very much)
The input is the evaluation of the 30 panelists such as 5 panelists rated 9; 23, 8; and
2, 7. The throughput is the statistical technique or weighted arithmetic mean and the output is
the result 8.1 or like very much.
Descriptive research. In descriptive research, weighted arithmetic mean is appropriate
for scale options (i.e. 5, 4, 3, 2. and 1) and the like for univariate research problem. For
instance, How serious are the job related problems met by staff nurses in private and
government hospitals in Iloilo City in relation to administration of top management
when classified as a whole?

The quantitative mean value is 3.325 and the qualitative description is serious. Thus, the
job-related problems met by staff nurses in private and government hospitals in Iloilo City in
relation to administration of top management when classified as a whole is serious.
The input is the responses of staff nurses, namely, 25 said 5; 50, 4; 100, 3; 15. 2;
and 10, 1. The throughput is the statistical technique or weighted arithmetic mean. And
the output is the results, 3.325 or serious.
Bivariate Statistical Treatment

Experimental research. The statistical tools for bivariate (two variables) problem in
experimental research are f-test and linear correlation. For instance, the experimental
research problem is Is there a significant difference on the mean catch of squid using horizontal
and vertical fishing for 21 days operation ? The appropriate statistical tool is t-test. Consider
formula (7.2) below.
where, X1 stands for the mean of the first variable (horizontal fishing) X2, mean of the second
variable (vertical fishing); SD1
2
, variance of X1: SD2
2
variance of X2; N1, total number of
operations of the first variable; and N total number of operations of the second variable.
The steps in using t-test are as follows:
Step 1. Find the arithmetic mean of each variable.
Step 2. Solve for the variance (SD
2
) of each variable (X1 and X2).

The formula is (working formula) or

(machine formula)

Step 3. Compute the t-value by using formula (7.2).
Step 4. Get the degrees of freedom (df) by using this formula df = N-1, if N is the same
for the two variables or df = N1 + N2 - 2, if N is different for the two variables.
For illustration purposes, consider Table 7.7 sample computation using t-test as
statistical tool for bivariate experimental research.


effective or 2; and 40, not effective at all or 1.
= Weighted arithmetic mean
Of the 200 staff nurses in private and government hospitals in Iloilo City.,25 staff
nurses said very, very serious or 5; 541 said very serious or 4; 100, serious or 3; 15, less
serious or 2; 10, not serious at all or I For illustration, consider Table 7.6 on the sample
computation of weighted arithmetic mean used in univariate descriptive research.

Table 7.6 Sample Computation of Weighted Arithmetic Mean Used in Univariate
Descriptive Research
f x fx
25 5 125
50 4 200
100 3 300
15 2 30
10 1 10
Total 200 665
(serious)
Table 7.7 Sample Computation using t-test as Statistical Tool for Bivariate
Experimental Research

X1
(horizont
al)

X2
(Vertical)


(Squid
catch in
kg)

(Squid catch
in kg)

Operation X1 (X1 - X1) (X1 - X1)
2
X2 (X2 X2) (X1 - X1)
2

1 25 -13.19 173.9761 13 -3.24 10.4976
2 30 8.19 67.0761 10 -6.24 38.9376
3 28 -10.19 103.8361 12 4.24 17.9776
4 45 6.81 46.3761 20 3.76 14.1376
5 35 -3.19 10. 1761 15 -1.24 1.5376
6 40 1.81 3.2761 19 2.76 7.6176
7 37 -1.19 1.4 161 14 -2.24 5.0176
8 42 3.81 14.5161 10 -6.24 38.9376
9 50 11.81 139.4761 20 3.76 14.1376
10 27 -11.19 125.2161 11 -5.24 27.4576
11 39 0.81 0.6561 18 1.76 3.0976
12 44 5.81 33.7561 21 4.76 22.6576
13 55 16.81 282.5761 23 6.76 45.6976
14 25 -13.19 173.9761 8 -8.24 67.8976
15 38 -0.19 0.0361 12 -4.24 17.9776
16 42 3.81 14.5161 25 8.76 76.7376
17 28 -10.19 103.8361 9 -7.24 52.4176
18 30 -8.19 67.0761 10 -6.24 38.9376
19 53 14.81 219.3361 28 11.76 138.2976
20 47 8.81 77.6161 25 8.76 76.7376
21 42 3.81 14.5161 18 1.76 3.0976
Total 802

1673.2381 341

737.7872
Mean (X) Computation
First Variable Second Variable

Given:
Variance (SD
2
) Computation (Working Formula)
First Variable Second Variable
Computation of t-test
The t-value obtained is 9.16096 which is significant at 1 percent level of confidence. Tb
be significant, the tabular value is 2.845 at .01 level of probability with 20 degrees of freedom
(df). This means that the mean catch of squid using horizontal and vertical fishing really differ
with each other because horizontal fishing has more or better catch than vertical fishing in
catching of squid.
Another example of statistical treatment used in bivariate experimental research is
linear correlation or correlation of the variables. Formula (7.3) presents the linear correlation
or Pearson Product-Moment Coefficient of Correlation.
Where:
The steps in computing Pearson Product-Moment Coefficient of Correlation are as
follows:
Step 1. Find the sum of X and Y.
Step 2. Square all X and Y values.
Step 2. Sum X
2
and Y
2

Step 4. Find the product of X and Y.
Step 5. Get the sum of the product XY.
Step 6. Apply formula (7.3).

To apply formula (7.3) in bivariate experimental research problem, for instance, the
research problem as What is the relationship between the weight (X) and length (Y) of grouper
cultured in fish cage using bread meal as supplemental feed?
For illustration of formula (7.3), consider Table 7.8 on the sample computation of Pearson
Product-Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) on the weight (X) and length (Y)
relationship of milkfish (Chanos chanos) cultured in the fishpond using bread meal as
supplemental feed.
Table 7.8 Sample Computation of Pearson Product-Moment Coefficient of Correlation of
Weight (X) and Length (Y) Relationship of Grouper Cultured Fish Cage Using
Bread Meal as Supplemental Feed
Weight Length
Milkfish X Y X
2
Y
2
XY
1 1.0 0.50 1.00 0.2500 0.500
2 1.9 0.63 3.61 0.3969 1.197
3 1.7 0.55 2.89 0.3025 0.935
4 1.5 0.52 2.25 0.2704 0.780
5 2.0 0.60 4.00 0.3600 1.200
6 1.4 0.53 1.96 0.2809 0.742
7 2.3 0.67 5.29 0.4489 1.541
8 2.1 0.58 4.41 0.3364 1.218
9 1.2 0.49 1.44 0.2401 0.588
10 1.8 0.62 3.24 0.3844 1.116
Total 16.9 5.69 30.09 3.2705 9.817
(high relationship)
The rxy value obtained is 0.90 which denotes high relationship. This means the
heavier the weight, the longer the length and the lighter the weight, the shorter the length
or as the weight increases the length also increases of grouper cultured in fish cage using
bread meal as supplemental feed.
Bivariate Statistical Treatment in Descriptive Research

The statistical tools used for bivariate descriptive research problems are z-test and
linear correlation. For instance, the research problem is What is the relationship
between capital (X) and profit (Y) of milkfish burger from offal of boneless milkfish? To
find out the relationship between capital (X) and profit (Y) of milkfish burger from offal of
boneless milkfish, consider formula (7.4) of Spearman rank-coefficient of correlation or
Spearman rho (rs).
Where:
To apply formula (7.4), the steps are as follow
Step 1. Rank the values from highest to lowest in the first set of variable (X) and mark
them Rx. The highest value is given the rank of 1; the second, 2; third, 3; and so on.
Step 2. Rank the second set of values (Y) in the same manner as in Step 1 and mark
them Ry.
Step 3. Determine the difference in ranks for every pair of ranks
Step 4. Square the difference to get D
2
,
Step 5. Sum the square difference to find D
2
.
Step 5. Compute Spearman rho (rs) by applying formula (7.4).
Spearman rho (rs) is also applicable to both descriptive and experimental research.

For illustration purposes, consider the sample computation of Spearman rho (rs)
using fictitious data between capital (X) and profit
(Y) of milkfish burger from offal of boneless milkfish as shown in Table 7.9.
Table 7.8 Sample Computation of Spearman rho between Capital (X) and Profit (Y) of Milkfish
Burger from Offal of Boneless Milkfish
Businessman X Y Rx Ry D D
2

1 5,000 3,000 10 9.5 0.50 0.25
2 11,000 6,000 8 6.0 2.00 4.00
3 40,000 15,000 4 3.5 0.50 0.25
4 20,000 5,000 6 7.0 -1.00 1.00
5 150,000 70,000 1 1.0 0.00 0.00
6 50,000 15,000 3 3.5 -0.50 0.25
7 25,000 9,000 5 5.0 0.00 0.00
8 10,000 3,000 9 9.5 -0.50 0.25
9 18,000 4,000 7 8.0 -1.00 1.00
10 100,000 30,000 2 2.0 0.00 0.00
Total 7.00
The rs value obtained is 0.96 which denotes very high relationship. This means the
higher the capital, the higher is the gain; the lower the capital, the lower is the profit. If the
specific research problem is Is there a significant relationship between capital and profit of
milkfish burger from offal of boneless milkfish? The interpretation is based on the level of
significance at 1 percent or 5 percent. By referring to the Table of Critical Values; to be
significant at .01 level having 10 N (number of cases), tabular value is 0.746 and k
at 0.05 level with N = 10, the tabular value is 0.564. Since the computed value is 0.96 which is
higher than 0.746 and 0.564 at .01 and .05 levels, hence the result is significant both at 1 percent
and 5 percent. This means that capital and profit of milkfish burger from offal of boneless milk
fish really differ with each other because the higher the capital is, the higher the gain will be
and the lower the capital is, the lower the profit will be.
z-test as Bivariate Statistical Tool in Descriptive Research

z-test between perentages. The z-test is used to determine the significant difference
between two percentages of related individuals in which the data are collected through
survey. The z-test formula as formulated by Ferguson and Takane (1989) is as follows:





Where:
Suppose the researcher wishes to conduct a study on the job-related problems met
by research-oriented and non-research-oriented Biology faculty at the Northern Iloilo
Polytechnic State College. The specific problem is Is there a significant difference between
the job-related problems met by research-oriented and non-research oriented Biology faculty at
the Northern bib Polytechnic State College in relation to instructional materials?

There were 27 research-oriented Biology faculty members and 18 non- research-oriented
faculty members. Of the 27 research-oriented Biology faculty members, 27 or 100% considered
instructional materials as a problem and only 13 or 72.22% of the non-research-oriented
Biology faculty members said that instructional material is a problem. For illustration
purposes, consider the same computation of z-test between percentages below.
Pooled Percentage Computation
z tabular values
1% = 2.58**
5% = 1.96*
if CV > TV = significant
if CV < TV = insignificant
Since the computed value (CV) 2.87 is greater than (>) the tabular value (TV) 2.58 at 1
percent level of confidence, the result is significant. This means that the job-related problem,
met by research-oriented and non-research-oriented Biology faculty members at the Northern
Iloilo Polytechnic State College in relation to instructional materials really differ with each
other.
Multivariate Statistical Treatment
Experimental research. The statistical tools used in multivariate experimental research
problems with three or more variable, are F-test or ANOVA (analysis of variance),
Kruskal-Wallis One-way Analysis of Variance, and Friedmans two-way Analysis of Variance by
Ranks.
F-test as Statistical Tool in Multivariate Experimental Research
F-test or two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) involves three or more independent
variables as bases of classification. For instance, the researcher wishes to study the effect of fish
meal, trash fish, bread meal, and fish silage as supplemental feeds upon the growth of grouper
cultured in fish cages for three replications .Table 7.10 shows the results on the effect of fish
meal, trash fish, bread meal, and fish silage as supplemental feeds upon the growth of grouper
cultured in fish cages for three replications.
Table 7.10 Results on the Effect of Fish Meal, Trash Fish, Bread Meal and Fish Silage
as Supplemental Feeds upon the Growth of Grouper Cultured in Fish Cages for
Three Replication. (Fictitious Data )
Supplemental Feeds
Replicati
ons (kg)
Total
1 2 3
Fish Meal (T1) 7 6 5 18
Trash Fish(T2) 10 9 5 24
Bread Meal (T3) 15 12 9 36
Fish Silage (T4) 16 13 13 42
Total 48 40 32 120
The formula for f-test are as follows:
Where:
To apply the foregoing formula, the steps are as follows:
Step 1. Partition of the sum of squares for replication, treatment, error, by using the
appropriate formula:
Where:
To apply the formula, consider the computation below using Table 7.10 data.
Sum of Squares for Treatment Formula
Where:
To apply the formula, consider the computation below using Table 7.10 data.
Sum of Squares for Total Formula
Where:
To apply the formula, consider the computation below using Table 7.10 data.
Sum of Squares for Error Formula
Where:
To apply the formula, consider the computation below using Table 7.10 data.
Step 2. Divide the sum of squares for replication, treatment, total and error with their corresponding
degrees of freedom, N - 1 to get the mean squares by using formula (7.11)
Where:

MS =
Mean Square

SS =
Sum of Squares

df
= Degrees of freedom
To get the mean squares for replication treatment error and total consider the
computation of formula using Table 7.10 data.
Mean Squares for Replication
Mean Squares for Treatment
Mean Squares for Error
The mean squares for total is no longer computed since it is not needed in getting the
F- value.
Step 3. Divide the mean squares for replication by the mean squares for error to get the
F-value for replication : and divide the mean squares for treatment by the mean squares for
error to the F-value for treatment. F-test formula (7.6) is computed as follows:
Step 4. Refer to the tabular Fdistribution if the computed or observed F is significant
at 0.01** and 0.05* level of probability. To determine if the computed F-value is significant, the
computed F-value is equal or greater than the tabular F-value; and not significant, if the
computed F-value is less than the tabular F-value. It is written as,
CV = TV = Significant
CV < TV = Not significant
Where:
CV = Computed value
TV = Tabular Value
In finding the tabular F, the degrees of freedom for replication and degrees of freedom
for treatment is the numerator and the degrees of freedom for error is the denominator. For
instance, the df for replication is 2 and the df for error is 6; and the df for treatment is3 and
the df for error is 6. The tabular F is shown in the Appendix of any Statistics Book, thus,
Df
denominator
Numerator
2
3
6 5.14
4.76
10.92
9.78
Above is .05 level and below, .01 level. The computed f-value obtained for replication is
12.03. The tabular F (2,6) = 5.14 at .05 and 10.92 at .01.Hence, the replication is significant.
This means replication really differ with each other.
For treatment, the computed F-value obtained is 30.075 and the tabular F ( 3.8 ) = 4.76
at .01 level of probability thus, the treatment is significant. This means the treatment of
supplemental feeds such as fish meal, trash fish, bread meal and fish silage really differ with
each other because the weight of grouper with fish silage has the heaviest weight.
Step 5. Prepare the F-test or ANOVA Table by entering the values in Steps 1,2 and
3.Table 7.10 presents the F-test or ANOVA Table on the effect of fish meal, trash fish, bread
meal and fish silage as supplemental feeds in culturing grouper in fish cages for three
replications.
Table 7.10. F-test or ANOVA Table on the Effect of Fish Meal, Trash Fish, Bread Meal and
Fish Silage as supplemental Feeds in Culturing of Grouper in Fish Cages for Three
Replication
Source of
Variance
Degrees
Freedom
Sum of
Squares
Mean Squares Observed F Tabular
F


1% 5%
Replication 2 32 16 12.03** 10.92 9.78
Treatment 3 120 40 30.075** 5.14 4.76
Error 6 8 1.33

Total 11 160