Simple machine

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Table of simple mechanisms, fromChambers' Cyclopedia, 1728.
[1]
Simple machines provide a vocabulary for
understanding more complex machines.
A simple machine is a non-motorized device that changes the direction or magnitude of a force.
[2]
In
general, a simple machine can be defined as one of the simplest mechanisms that
provide mechanical advantage (also called leverage).
[3]

Usually the term refers to the six classical simple machines which were defined
by Renaissance scientists:
[4]
Lever, Wheel and axle,Pulley, Inclined plane, Wedge, and Screw.
A simple machine is an elementary device that has a specific movement, often called a mechanism,
which can be combined with other devices and movements to form a machine. Thus simple
machines are considered to be the building blocks of more complicatedmachines. This analytical
view of machines as decomposable into simple machines first arose in the Renaissance as
a neoclassicalamplification of ancient Greek texts on technology,
[5]
and is still a central part
of engineering and applied science. For example, wheels, levers, and pulleys are all used in the
mechanism of a bicycle.
[6][7]
Between the simple machines and complex assemblies, several
intermediate classes may be defined, termed compound machines
[8][3][9]
or machine
elements.
[10]
The mechanical advantage of a compound machine is simply the product of the
mechanical advantages of the simple machines of which it is composed.
Various authors have compiled lists of simple machines and machine elements, sometimes lumping
them together under a single term such as simple machines,
[1]
basic machines,
[6]
compound
machines,
[8]
or machine elements; the use of the term simple machines in this broader sense is a
departure from the neoclassical sense of the six essential simple machines, which is the reason
many authors prefer to avoid its use, preferring the other terms, such as machine element. In all
cases, the theme of an analytical and synthetic connection from simple to compound and complex is
at work. A page from a 1728 text by Ephraim Chambers
[1]
(in the figure to the right) shows more
machine elements. By the late 1800s, Franz Reuleaux
[11]
identified hundreds of machine elements,
calling themsimple machines. Models of these devices may be found at Cornell University's
KMODDL website.
[12]

Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Mechanical advantage
3 Compound machine
4 Energy losses and efficiency
5 Kinematic chains
6 Classification of machines
7 See also
8 References
History[edit]
The idea of a simple machine originated with the Greek philosopher Archimedes around the 3rd
century BC, who studied the Archimedean simple machines: lever, pulley, andscrew.
[3][13]
He
discovered the principle of mechanical advantage in the lever.
[14]
Later Greek philosophers defined
the classic five simple machines (excluding the inclined plane) and were able to roughly calculate
their mechanical advantage.
[5]
Heron of Alexandria (ca. 1075 AD) in his work Mechanics lists five
mechanisms that can "set a load in motion"; lever, windlass, pulley, wedge, and screw,
[13]
and
describes their fabrication and uses.
[15]
However the Greeks' understanding was limited to
the statics of simple machines; the balance of forces, and did not include dynamics; the tradeoff
between force and distance, or the concept of work.
During the Renaissance the dynamics of the Mechanical Powers, as the simple machines were
called, began to be studied from the standpoint of how much useful work they could perform, leading
eventually to the new concept of mechanical work. In 1586 Flemish engineer Simon Stevin derived
the mechanical advantage of the inclined plane, and it was included with the other simple machines.
The complete dynamic theory of simple machines was worked out by Italian scientist Galileo
Galilei in 1600 in Le Meccaniche (On Mechanics).
[16][17]
He was the first to understand that simple
machines do not create energy, only transform it.
[16]

The classic rules of sliding friction in machines were discovered by Leonardo da Vinci (14521519),
but remained unpublished in his notebooks. They were rediscovered byGuillaume Amontons (1699)
and were further developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1785).
[18]

Mechanical advantage[edit]
A simple machine has an applied force that works against a load force. If there are no friction losses,
the work done on the load is equal to the work done by the applied force. This allows an increase in
the output force at the cost of a proportional decrease in the distance moved by the load. The ratio of
the output force to the input force is themechanical advantage of the machine.
If the simple machine does not dissipate or absorb energy, then its mechanical advantage can be
calculated from the machine's geometry. For example, the mechanical advantage of a lever is equal
to the ratio of its lever arms. A simple machine with no friction or elasticity is often called an ideal
machine.
[19][20]

For an ideal simple machine the rate of energy in, or power in, equals the rate of energy out, or
power out, that is

Because power is the product of a force and the velocity of its point
of application, the applied force times the velocity the input point
moves, v
in
, must be equal to the load force times the velocity the
load moves, v
out
, given by

The ratio of output to input force, the mechanical advantage, of
a frictionless machine is equal to the ratio of input velocity to
output velocity:
(Ideal Mechanical Advantage)
This shows that mechanical advantage can be calculated
from the speed ratio of the device. Speed ratios are
generally easy to calculate from the dimensions of the
machine using the principle of virtual work.
In the screw, which uses rotational motion, the input force
should be replaced by the torque, and the velocity by the
angular velocity the shaft is turned.
Compound machine[edit]
A compound machine is a machine formed from a set of
simple machines connected in series with the output force
of one providing the input force to the next. For example
abench vise consists of a lever (the vise's handle) in series
with a screw, and a simple gear train consists of a number
of gears (wheels and axles) connected in series.
The mechanical advantage of a compound machine is the
ratio of the output force exerted by the last machine in the
series divided by the input force applied to the first
machine, that is

Because the output force of each machine is the input
of the next, and ,
this mechanical advantage is also given by,

Thus, the mechanical advantage of the compound
machine is equal to the product of the mechanical
advantages of the series of simple machines that
form it,

Energy losses and
efficiency[edit]
Machines lose energy through friction,
deformation and wear, which is dissipated as
heat. This means the power out of the machine
is less than power in. The ratio of power out to
power in is the efficiency of the machine, and
is a measure of the energy losses,

The velocity ratio of a machine is fixed by
its dimensions, so it is the mechanical
advantage that is reduced by the losses,
that is

So in non-ideal machines, the
mechanical advantage is always less
than the velocity ratio by the product
with the efficiency . So a machine that
includes losses such as friction,
deformation and wear, will not be able
to move as large a load as a
corresponding ideal machine using the
same input force.
The efficiency of a compound machine
is the product of the efficiencies of the
series of simple machines that form it,

Kinematic chains[edit]


Illustration of a four-bar linkage
from Kinematics of Machinery, 1876
Simple machines are elementary
examples of kinematic chains that
are used to model mechanical
systems ranging from the steam
engine to robot manipulators. The
bearings that form the fulcrum of a
lever and that allow the wheel and
axle and pulleys to rotate are
examples of akinematic pair called
a hinged joint. Similarly, the flat
surface of an inclined plane and
wedge are examples of
the kinematic pair called a sliding
joint. The screw is usually
identified as its own kinematic pair
called a helical joint.
Two levers, or cranks, are
combined into a planar four-bar
linkage by attaching a link that
connects the output of one crank
to the input of another. Additional
links can be attached to form a six-
bar linkage or in series to form a
robot.
[19]

Classification of
machines[edit]
The identification of simple
machines arises from a desire for
a systematic method to invent new
machines. Therefore, an important
concern is how simple machines
are combined to make more
complex machines. One approach
is to attach simple machines in
series to obtain compound
machines.
However, a more successful
strategy was identified by Franz
Reuleaux, who collected and
studied over 800 elementary
machines. He realized that a lever,
pulley, and wheel and axle are in
essence the same device: a body
rotating about a hinge. Similarly,
an inclined plane, wedge, and
screw are a block sliding on a flat
surface.
[21]

This realization shows that it is the
joints, or the connections that
provide movement, that are the
primary elements of a machine.
Starting with four types of joints,
the revolute joint, sliding joint, cam
joint and gear joint, and related
connections such as cables and
belts, it is possible to understand a
machine as an assembly of solid
parts that connect these joints.
[19]

See also[edit]
Linkage (mechanical)
References[edit]
1. ^ Jump up
to:
a

b

c
Chambers, Ephraim
(1728), "Table of
Mechanicks", Cyclopaedia,
A Useful Dictionary of Arts
and Sciences (London,
England), Volume 2: 528,
Plate 11.
2. Jump up^ Paul, Akshoy;
Roy, Pijush; Mukherjee,
Sanchayan
(2005), Mechanical
sciences: engineering
mechanics and strength of
materials, Prentice Hall of
India, p. 215, ISBN 81-203-
2611-3.
3. ^ Jump up to:
a

b

c
Asimov,
Isaac
(1988), Understanding
Physics, New York, New
York, USA: Barnes &
Noble, p. 88, ISBN 0-
88029-251-2.
4. Jump up^ Anderson,
William Ballantyne
(1914). Physics for
Technical Students:
Mechanics and Heat. New
York, USA: McGraw Hill.
pp. 112122. Retrieved
2008-05-11.
5. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Usher,
Abbott Payson (1988). A
History of Mechanical
Inventions. USA: Courier
Dover Publications.
p. 98. ISBN 0-486-25593-X.
6. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Prater,
Edward L. (1994), Basic
machines, U.S. Navy Naval
Education and Training
Professional Development
and Technology Center,
NAVEDTRA 14037.
7. Jump up^ U.S. Navy
Bureau of Naval Personnel
(1971), Basic machines and
how they work, Dover
Publications.
8. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Compound
machines, University of
Virginia Physics
Department, retrieved
2010-06-11.
9. Jump up^ Wallenstein,
Andrew (June
2002). "Foundations of
cognitive support: Toward
abstract patterns of
usefulness". Proceedings of
the 9th Annual Workshop
on the Design,
Specification, and
Verification of Interactive
Systems. Springer. p. 136.
Retrieved 2008-05-21.
10. Jump up^ Matthews,
Clifford; ASME (2005), ASM
E engineer's data book (2nd
ed.), ASMEPress,
p. 249, ISBN 978-0-7918-
0229-8.
11. Jump up^ Reuleaux, F.
(1963) [1876], The
kinematics of machinery
(translated and annotated
by A.B.W. Kennedy), New
York, New York, USA:
reprinted by Dover.
12. Jump up^ Cornell
University, Reuleaux
Collection of Mechanisms
and Machines at Cornell
University, Cornell
University.
13. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Chiu, Y. C.
(2010), An introduction to
the History of Project
Management, Delft: Eburon
Academic Publishers,
p. 42, ISBN 90-5972-437-2
14. Jump up^ Ostdiek, Vern;
Bord, Donald
(2005). Inquiry into Physics.
Thompson Brooks/Cole.
p. 123. ISBN 0-534-49168-
5. Retrieved 2008-05-22.
15. Jump up^ Strizhak, Viktor;
Igor Penkov, Toivo Pappel
(2004). "Evolution of
design, use, and strength
calculations of screw
threads and threaded
joints". HMM2004
International Symposium on
History of Machines and
Mechanisms. Kluwer
Academic publishers.
p. 245. ISBN 1-4020-2203-
4. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
16. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Krebs,
Robert E.
(2004). Groundbreaking
Experiments, Inventions,
and Discoveries of the
Middle Ages. Greenwood
Publishing Group.
p. 163. ISBN 0-313-32433-
6. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
17. Jump up^ Stephen,
Donald; Lowell Cardwell
(2001). Wheels, clocks, and
rockets: a history of
technology. USA: W. W.
Norton & Company. pp. 85
87. ISBN 0-393-32175-4.
18. Jump up^ Armstrong-
Hlouvry, Brian
(1991). Control of machines
with friction. USA: Springer.
p. 10. ISBN 0-7923-9133-0.
19. ^ Jump up to:
a

b

c
Uicker,
Jr., John J.; Pennock,
Gordon R.; Shigley, Joseph
E. (2003), Theory of
Machines and
Mechanisms (third ed.),
New York: Oxford
University Press, ISBN 978-
0-19-515598-3
20. Jump up^ Paul, Burton
(1979), Kinematics and
Dynamics of Planar
Machinery, Prentice
Hall,ISBN 978-0-13-
516062-6
21. Jump up^ Hartenberg,
R.S. & J. Denavit
(1964) Kinematic synthesis
of linkages, New York:
McGraw-Hill, online link
from Cornell University.
[show]
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