Cobalt

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This article is about the chemical element. For other uses, see Cobalt (disambiguation).
Cobalt
27Co

















-

Co

Rh

iron cobalt nickel
Cobalt in the periodic table
Appearance
hard lustrous gray metal

General properties
Name, symbol,number cobalt, Co, 27
Pronunciation /koblt/ KOH-bolt
[1]

Element category transition metal
Group, period,block 9, 4, d
Standard atomic weight 58.933195(5)
Electron configuration [Ar] 4s
2
3d
7

2, 8, 15, 2

History
Discovery Georg Brandt (1732)
Physical properties
Color metallic gray
Phase solid
Density(near r.t.) 8.90 g cm
3

Liquid density atm.p. 7.75 g cm
3

Melting point 1768 K2723 F 1495 C, ,
Boiling point 5301 F 2927 C, 3200 K,
Heat of fusion 16.06 kJmol
1

Heat of vaporization 377 kJmol
1

Molar heat capacity 24.81 J mol
1
K
1

Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1790 1960 2165 2423 2755 3198

Atomic properties
Oxidation states 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, -1
[2]

(amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity 1.88 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies
(more)
1st: 760.4 kJmol
1

2nd: 1648 kJmol
1

3rd: 3232 kJ mol
1

Atomic radius 125 pm
Covalent radius 1263 (low spin), 1507 (high spin) pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure hexagonal close-packed

Magnetic ordering ferromagnetic
Electrical resistivity (20 C) 62.4 nm
Thermal conductivity 100 W m
1
K
1

Thermal expansion (25 C) 13.0 mm
1
K
1

Speed of sound(thin rod) (20 C) 4720 ms
1

Young's modulus 209 GPa
Shear modulus 75 GPa
Bulk modulus 180 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.31
Mohs hardness 5.0
Vickers hardness 1043 MPa
Brinell hardness 700 MPa
CAS registry number 7440-48-4
Most stable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of cobalt
iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
56
Co syn 77.27 d 4.566
56
Fe
57
Co syn 271.79 d 0.836
57
Fe
58
Co syn 70.86 d 2.307
58
Fe
59
Co 100%
59
Co is stable with 32 neutrons
60
Co syn 5.2714 y

, 2.824
60
Ni

V

T

E

ref
Cobalt is a chemical element with symbol Co and atomic number 27. Like nickel, cobalt in the Earth's crust is
found only in chemically combined form, save for small deposits found in alloys of natural meteoric iron. The
free element, produced by reductive smelting, is a hard, lustrous, silver-gray metal.
Cobalt-based blue pigments (cobalt blue) have been used since ancient times for jewelry and paints, and to
impart a distinctive blue tint to glass, but the color was later thought by alchemists to be due to the known
metal bismuth. Miners had long used the name kobold ore (German for goblin ore) for some of the blue-
pigment producing minerals; they were named because they were poor in known metals and gave
poisonous arsenic-containing fumes upon smelting. In 1735, such ores were found to be reducible to a new
metal (the first discovered since ancient times), and this was ultimately named for the kobold.
Today, some cobalt is produced specifically from various metallic-lustered ores, for example cobaltite (CoAsS),
but the main source of the element is as a by-product of copper and nickel mining. The copper belt in
the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia yields most of the cobalt mined worldwide.
Cobalt is primarily used as the metal, in the preparation of magnetic, wear-resistant and high-strength alloys. Its
compounds cobalt silicate and cobalt(II) aluminate (CoAl
2
O
4
, cobalt blue) give a distinctive deep blue color
to glass, smalt, ceramics, inks, paints and varnishes. Cobalt occurs naturally as only one stable isotope, cobalt-
59. Cobalt-60 is a commercially important radioisotope, used as a radioactive tracer and for the production of
high intensity gamma rays.
Cobalt is the active center of coenzymes called cobalamins, the most common example of which is vitamin B12.
As such it is an essential tracedietary mineral for all animals. Cobalt in inorganic form is also an active nutrient
for bacteria, algae and fungi.
Contents
[hide]
1 Characteristics
2 Compounds
o 2.1 Oxygen and chalcogen compounds
o 2.2 Halides
o 2.3 Coordination compounds
o 2.4 Organometallic compounds
3 Isotopes
4 History
5 Occurrence
6 Production
7 Applications
o 7.1 Alloys
o 7.2 Batteries
o 7.3 Catalysis
o 7.4 Pigments and coloring
o 7.5 Radioisotopes
o 7.6 Other uses
8 Biological role
9 Precautions
10 References
11 External links
Characteristics[edit source | editbeta]


A block of electrolytically refined cobalt (99.9% purity) cut from a large plate
Cobalt is a ferromagnetic metal with a specific gravity of 8.9. The Curie temperature is 1115 C
[3]
and the
magnetic moment is 1.61.7 Bohr magnetons per atom.
[4]
Cobalt has a relative permeability two thirds that
of iron.
[5]
Metallic cobalt occurs as two crystallographic structures: hcp and fcc. The ideal transition temperature
between the hcp and fcc structures is 450 C, but in practice, the energy difference is so small that random
intergrowth of the two is common.
[6][7][8]

Cobalt is a weakly reducing metal that is protected from oxidation by a passivating oxide film. It is attacked
by halogens and sulfur. Heating in oxygen produces Co
3
O
4
which loses oxygen at 900 C to give
the monoxide CoO.
[9]
The metal reacts with Fluorine gas (F
2
) at 520 K to give CoF
3
;
with chlorine(Cl
2
), bromine (Br
2
) and iodine (I
2
), the corresponding binary halides are formed. It does not react
withhydrogen gas (H
2
) or nitrogen gas (N
2
) even when heated, but it does react
with boron, carbon,phosphorus, arsenic and sulphur.
[10]
At ordinary temperatures, it reacts slowly with mineral
acids, and very slowly with moist, but not with dry, air.
Compounds[edit source | editbeta]
See also category: Cobalt compounds
Common oxidation states of cobalt include +2 and +3, although compounds with oxidation states ranging from
3 to +4 are also known. A common oxidation state for simple compounds is +2. Cobalt(II) salts form the red-
pink [Co(H
2
O)
6
]
2+
complex in aqueous solution. Addition of chloride gives the intensely blue [CoCl
4]2
.
[2]

Oxygen and chalcogen compounds[edit source | editbeta]
Several oxides of cobalt are known. Green cobalt(II) oxide (CoO) has rocksalt structure. It is readily oxidized
with water and oxygen to brown cobalt(III) hydroxide (Co(OH)
3
). At temperatures of 600700 C, CoO oxidizes
to the blue cobalt(II,III) oxide (Co
3
O
4
), which has a spinel structure.
[2]
Black cobalt(III) oxide (Co
2
O
3
) is also
known.
[11]
Cobalt oxides are antiferromagnetic at low temperature: CoO (Neel temperature 291 K) and
Co
3
O
4
(Neel temperature: 40 K), which is analogous to magnetite (Fe
3
O
4
), with a mixture of +2 and +3 oxidation
states.
[12]

The principal chalcogenides of cobalt include the black cobalt(II) sulfides, CoS
2
, which adopts a pyrite-like
structure, and Co
2
S
3
. Pentlandite(Co
9
S
8
) is metal-rich.
[2]

Halides[edit source | editbeta]


Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate
Four dihalides of cobalt(II) are known: cobalt(II) fluoride (CoF
2
, pink), cobalt(II) chloride (CoCl
2
, blue),cobalt(II)
bromide (CoBr
2
, green), cobalt(II) iodide (CoI
2
, blue-black). These halides exist in anhydrous and hydrated
forms. Whereas the anhydrous dichloride is blue, the hydrate is red.
[13]

The reduction potential for the reaction
Co3+
+ e
-
Co2+

is +1.92 V, beyond that for chlorine to chloride, +1.36 V. As a consequence cobalt(III) and chloride would
result in the cobalt(III) being reduced to cobalt(II). Because the reduction potential for fluorine to fluoride is
so high, +2.87 V, cobalt(III) fluoride is one of the few simple stable cobalt(III) compounds. Cobalt(III)
fluoride, which is used in some fluorination reactions, reacts vigorously with water.
[9]

Coordination compounds[edit source | editbeta]
As for all metals, molecular compounds of cobalt are classified as coordination complexes, that is
molecules or ions that contain cobalt linked to several ligands. The principles
of electronegativity and hardnesssoftness of a series of ligands can be used to explain the usual
oxidation state of the cobalt. For example Co
+3
complexes tend to have ammine ligands. As phosphorus is
softer than nitrogen, phosphine ligands tend to feature thesofter Co
2+
and Co
+
, an example being
tris(triphenylphosphine)cobalt(I) chloride ((P(C
6
H
5
)
3
)
3
CoCl). The more electronegative (and harder) oxide
and fluoride can stabilize Co
4+
and Co
5+
derivatives, e.g. caesium hexafluorocobaltate (Cs
2
CoF
6
) and
potassium percobaltate (K
3
CoO
4
).
[9]

Alfred Werner, a Nobel-prize winning pioneer in coordination chemistry, worked with compounds
of empirical formula CoCl
3
(NH
3
)
6
. One of the isomers determined was cobalt(III) hexammine chloride. This
coordination complex, a "typical" Werner-type complex, consists of a central cobalt atom coordinated by
six ammine ligands orthogonal to each other and three chloride counteranions. Using
chelating ethylenediamine ligands in place of ammonia gives tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III)
chloride ([Co(en)
3
]Cl
3
), which was one of the first coordination complexes that was resolved into optical
isomers. The complex exists as both either right- or left-handed forms of a "three-bladed propeller". This
complex was first isolated by Werner as yellow-gold needle-like crystals.
[14][15]

Organometallic compounds[edit source | editbeta]
Main article: Organocobalt chemistry
Cobaltocene is a structural analog to ferrocene, where cobalt substitutes for iron. Cobaltocene is sensitive
to oxidation, much more than ferrocene.
[16]
Cobalt carbonyl (Co
2
(CO)
8
) is
a catalyst in carbonylation reactions.
[17]
Vitamin B
12
(see below) is an organometallic compound found in
nature and is the only vitamin to contain a metal atom.
[18]

Isotopes[edit source | editbeta]
Main article: Isotopes of cobalt
59
Co is the only stable cobalt isotope and the only isotope to exist naturally on Earth.
22 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being
60
Co with a half-life of
5.2714 years,
57
Co with a half-life of 271.79 days,
56
Co with a half-life of 77.27 days, and
58
Co with a half-
life of 70.86 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than 18 hours,
and the majority of these are shorter than 1 second. This element also has 4 meta states, all of which have
half-lives shorter than 15 minutes.
[19]

The isotopes of cobalt range in atomic weight from 50 u (
50
Co) to 73 u (
73
Co). The primary decay mode for
isotopes with atomic mass unit values less than that of the most abundant stable isotope,
59
Co, is electron
capture and the primary mode of decay for those of greater than 59 atomic mass units is beta decay. The
primary decay products before
59
Co are element 26 (iron) isotopes and the primary products after are
element 28 (nickel) isotopes.
[19]

History[edit source | editbeta]


Early Chinese blue and white porcelain, manufactured circa 1335
Cobalt compounds have been used for centuries to impart a rich blue color to glass, glazes and ceramics.
Cobalt has been detected in Egyptian sculpture and Persian jewelry from the third millennium BC, in the
ruins of Pompeii (destroyed in 79 AD), and in China dating from the Tang dynasty(618907 AD) and
the Ming dynasty (13681644 AD).
[20]

Cobalt has been used to color glass since the Bronze Age. The excavation of the Uluburun
shipwreck yielded an ingot of blue glass, which was cast during the 14th century BC.
[21][22]
Blue glass items
from Egypt are colored with copper, iron, or cobalt. The oldest cobalt-colored glass was from the time of
the Eighteenth dynasty in Egypt (15501292 BC). The location where the cobalt compounds were
obtained is unknown.
[23][24]

The word cobalt is derived from the German kobalt, from kobold meaning "goblin", a superstitious term
used for the ore of cobalt by miners. The first attempts at smelting these ores to produce metals such as
copper or nickel failed, yielding simply powder (cobalt(II) oxide) instead. Also, because the primary ores of
cobalt always contain arsenic, smelting the ore oxidized the arsenic content into the highly toxic and
volatile arsenic oxide, which also decreased the reputation of the ore for the miners.
[25]

Swedish chemist Georg Brandt (16941768) is credited with discovering cobalt circa 1735, showing it to
be a new previously unknown element different from bismuth and other traditional metals, and calling it a
new "semi-metal."
[26][27]
He was able to show that compounds of cobalt metal were the source of the blue
color in glass, which previously had been attributed to the bismuth found with cobalt. Cobalt became the
first metal to be discovered since the pre-historical period, during which all the known metals (iron, copper,
silver, gold, zinc, mercury, tin, lead and bismuth) had no recorded discoverers.
[28]

During the 19th century, a significant part of the world's production of cobalt blue (a dye made with cobalt
compounds and alumina) and smalt (cobalt glass powdered for use for pigment purposes in ceramics and
painting) was carried out at the Norwegian Blaafarvevrket.
[29][30]
The first mines for the production of
smalt in the 16th to 18th century were located in Norway, Sweden, Saxony and Hungary. With the
discovery of cobalt ore in New Caledonia in 1864 the mining of cobalt in Europe declined. With the
discovery of ore deposits in Ontario, Canada in 1904 and the discovery of even larger deposits in
the Katanga Province in the Congo in 1914 the mining operations shifted again.
[25]
With the Shaba
conflict starting in 1978, the main source for cobalt, the copper mines of Katanga Province, nearly stopped
their production.
[31][32]
The impact on the world cobalt economy from this conflict was however smaller than
expected. Cobalt being a rare metal and the pigment being highly toxic, the industry had already
established effective ways for recycling cobalt materials and in some cases was able to change to cobalt-
free alternatives.
[31][32]

In 1938, John Livingood and Glenn T. Seaborg discovered cobalt-60.
[33]
This isotope was famously used
at Columbia University in the 1950s to establish parity violation in radioactive beta decay.
[34][35]

After World War II, the US wanted to be sure it was never short of the ore needed for military cobalt uses
(as the Germans had been during that war) and explored for cobalt within the U.S. border. A good supply
of the ore needed was found in Idaho near Blackbird canyon in the side of a mountain. The firm Calera
Mining Company got production started at the site.
[36]

Occurrence[edit source | editbeta]
The stable form of cobalt is created in supernovas via the r-process.
[37]
It comprises 0.0029% of the Earth's
crust and is one of the first transition metals.
Free cobalt (the native metal) is not found in on Earth, except as recently delivered in meteoric iron (see
below). Though the element is of medium abundance, natural compounds of cobalt are numerous. Small
amounts of cobalt compounds are found in most rocks, soil, plants, and animals.
In nature, it is frequently associated with nickel, and both are characteristic components of meteoric iron,
though cobalt is much less abundant in iron meteorites than nickel. As with nickel, cobalt in meteoric iron
alloys may have been well enough protected from oxygen and moisure to occur as the free metal,
[38]
a
state which otherwise is not seen with either element in the ancient terrestrial crust.
Cobalt in compound form occurs as a minor component of copper and nickel minerals. It is the major
metallic component in combination with sulfur and arsenic in the
sulfidic cobaltite (CoAsS),safflorite (CoAs
2
), glaucodot ((Co,Fe)AsS), and skutterudite (CoAs
3
)
minerals.
[9]
The mineral cattierite is similar to pyrite and occurs together with vaesite in the copper deposits
of the Katanga Province.
[39]
Upon contact with the atmosphere, weathering occurs and the sulfide minerals
oxidize to form pink erythrite ("cobalt glance": Co
3
(AsO
4
)
2
8H
2
O) and spherocobaltite (CoCO
3
).
[40][41]

Production[edit source | editbeta]


Cobalt ore


Cobalt output in 2005


World production trend
See also: Cobalt extraction techniques
The main ores of cobalt are cobaltite, erythrite, glaucodot and skutterudite (see above), but most cobalt is
obtained not by active mining of cobalt ores, but rather by reducing cobalt compounds that occur as by-
products of nickel andcopper mining activities.
[42][43]

In 2005, the copper deposits in the Katanga Province (former Shaba province) of the Democratic Republic
of the Congo were the top producer of cobalt with almost 40% world share, reports the British Geological
Survey.
[44]
The political situation in the Congo influences the price of cobalt significantly.
[45]

The Mukondo Mountain project, operated by the Central African Mining and Exploration Company in
Katanga, may be the richest cobalt reserve in the world. It is estimated to be able to produce about one
third of total global production of cobalt in 2008.
[46]
In July 2009 CAMEC announced a long term agreement
under which CAMEC would deliver its entire annual production of cobalt in concentrate from Mukondo
Mountain to Zhejiang Galico Cobalt & Nickel Materials of China.
[47]

Several methods exist for the separation of cobalt from copper and nickel. They depend on the
concentration of cobalt and the exact composition of the used ore. One separation step involves froth
flotation, in which surfactants bind to different ore components, leading to an enrichment of cobalt ores.
Subsequent roasting converts the ores to thecobalt sulfate, whereas the copper and the iron are oxidized
to the oxide. The leaching with water extracts the sulfate together with the arsenates. The residues are
further leached with sulfuric acid yielding a solution of copper sulfate. Cobalt can also be leached from the
slag of the copper smelter.
[48]

The products of the above-mentioned processes are transformed into the cobalt oxide (Co
3
O
4
). This oxide
is reduced to the metal by the aluminothermic reaction or reduction with carbon in ablast furnace.
[9]

Applications[edit source | editbeta]
The main application of cobalt is as the free metal, in production of certain high performance alloys.
[42][43]

Alloys[edit source | editbeta]
Cobalt-based superalloys consume most of the produced cobalt.
[42][43]
The temperature stability of these
alloys makes them suitable for use in turbine blades for gas turbines and jet aircraftengines, though nickel-
based single crystal alloys surpass them in this regard.
[49]
Cobalt-based alloys are also corrosion and
wear-resistant. This makes them useful in the medical field, where cobalt is often used (along
with titanium) for orthopedic implants that do not wear down over time. The development of the wear-
resistant cobalt alloys started in the first decade of the 19th century with the stellite alloys, which are
cobalt-chromium alloys with varying tungsten and carbon content. The formation
of chromium and tungsten carbides makes them very hard and wear resistant.
[50]
Special cobalt-chromium-
molybdenum alloys like Vitallium are used for prosthetic parts such as hip and knee
replacements.
[51]
Cobalt alloys are also used for dental prosthetics, where they are useful to avoid allergies
to nickel.
[52]
Some high speed steel drill bits also use cobalt to increase heat and wear-resistance. The
special alloys of aluminium, nickel, cobalt and iron, known asAlnico, and of samarium and cobalt
(samarium-cobalt magnet) are used in permanent magnets.
[53]
It is also alloyed with 95% platinum for
jewelry purposes, yielding an alloy that is suitable for fine detailed casting and is also slightly magnetic.
[54]

Batteries[edit source | editbeta]
Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO
2
) is widely used in lithium ion battery cathodes. The material is composed of
cobalt oxide layers in which the lithium is intercalated. During discharging the lithium intercalated between
the layers is set free as lithium ion.
[55]
Nickel-cadmium
[56]
(NiCd) and nickel metal hydride
[57]
(NiMH)
batteries also contain significant amounts of cobalt; the cobalt improves the oxidation capabilities of nickel
in the battery.
[56]

Catalysis[edit source | editbeta]
Several cobalt compounds are used in chemical reactions as oxidation catalysts. Cobalt acetate is used
for the conversion of xylene to terephthalic acid, the precursor to the bulk polymerpolyethylene
terephthalate. Typical catalysts are the cobalt carboxylates (known as cobalt soaps). They are also used in
paints, varnishes, and inks as "drying agents" through the oxidation ofdrying oils.
[55]
The same
carboxylates are used to improve the adhesion of the steel to rubber in steel-belted radial tires.
Cobalt-based catalysts are also important in reactions involving carbon monoxide. Steam reforming, useful
in hydrogen production, uses cobalt oxide-base catalysts. Cobalt is also a catalyst in the FischerTropsch
process, used in the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide into liquid
fuels.
[58]
The hydroformylation of alkenes often rely on cobalt octacarbonyl as the catalyst,
[59]
although such
processes have been partially displaced by more efficient iridium- and rhodium-based catalysts, e.g.
the Cativa process.
The hydrodesulfurization of petroleum uses a catalyst derived from cobalt and molybdenum. This process
helps to rid petroleum of sulfur impurities that interfere with the refining of liquid fuels.
[55]

Pigments and coloring[edit source | editbeta]


Cobalt blue glass


Cobalt-colored glass
Before the 19th century, the predominant use of cobalt was as pigment. Since the Middle Ages, it has
been involved in the production of smalt, a blue colored glass. Smalt is produced by melting a mixture of
the roasted mineral smaltite, quartz and potassium carbonate, yielding a dark blue silicate glass which is
ground after the production.
[60]
Smalt was widely used for the coloration of glass and as pigment for
paintings.
[61]
In 1780, Sven Rinman discovered cobalt green and in 1802 Louis Jacques
Thnard discovered cobalt blue.
[62]
The two varieties of cobalt blue pigment, cobalt blue (cobalt aluminate)
and cobalt green (a mixture of cobalt(II) oxide and zinc oxide), were used as pigments for paintings
because of their superior stability.
[63][64]

Radioisotopes[edit source | editbeta]
Cobalt-60 (Co-60 or
60
Co) is useful as a gamma ray source because it can be produced in predictable
quantity and high activity by bombarding cobalt with neutrons. It produces two gamma rays with energies
of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV.
[19][65]

Its uses include external beam radiotherapy, sterilization of medical supplies and medical waste, radiation
treatment of foods for sterilization (cold pasteurization),
[66]
industrial radiography (e.g. weld integrity
radiographs), density measurements (e.g. concrete density measurements), and tank fill height switches.
The metal has the unfortunate habit of producing a fine dust, causing problems with radiation protection.
Cobalt from radiotherapy machines has been a serious hazard when not disposed of properly, and one of
the worst radiation contamination accidents in North America occurred in 1984, after a discarded
radiotherapy unit containing cobalt-60 was mistakenly disassembled in a junkyard in Juarez, Mexico.
[67][68]

Cobalt-60 has a radioactive half-life of 5.27 years. This decrease in activity requires periodic replacement
of the sources used in radiotherapy and is one reason why cobalt machines have been largely replaced
by linear accelerators in modern radiation therapy.
[69]

Cobalt-57 (Co-57 or
57
Co) is a cobalt radioisotope most often used in medical tests, as a radiolabel for
vitamin B12 uptake, and for the Schilling test. Cobalt-57 is used as a source in Mssbauer
spectroscopy and is one of several possible sources in X-ray fluorescence devices.
[70][71]

Nuclear weapon designs could intentionally incorporate
59
Co, some of which would be activated in
a nuclear explosion to produce
60
Co. The
60
Co, dispersed as nuclear fallout, creates what is sometimes
called a cobalt bomb.
[72]

Other uses[edit source | editbeta]
Other uses of cobalt are in electroplating, owing to its attractive appearance, hardness and resistance
to oxidation,
[73]
and as ground coats for porcelain enamels.
[74]

Biological role[edit source | editbeta]


Cobalamin
Cobalt is essential to all animals. It is a key constituent of cobalamin, also known as vitamin B12, which is
the primary biological reservoir of cobalt as an "ultratrace" element.
[75]
Bacteria in the guts
of ruminant animals convert cobalt salts into vitamin B12, a compound which can only be produced by
bacteria or archaea. The minimum presence of cobalt in soils therefore markedly improves the health
of grazing animals, and an uptake of 0.20 mg/kg a day is recommended for them, as they can obtain
vitamin B12 in no other way.
[76]
In the early 20th century during the development for farming of the North
Island Volcanic Plateau of New Zealand, cattle suffered from what was termed "bush sickness". It was
discovered that the volcanic soils lacked cobalt salts, which was necessary for cattle.
[77]
The ailment was
cured by adding small amounts of cobalt to fertilizers.
In the 1930s "coast disease" of sheep in the Ninety Mile Desert of the Southeast of South Australia was
found to be due to nutrient deficiencies of the trace elements cobalt and copper. The cobalt deficiency was
overcome by the development of "cobalt bullets", dense pellets of cobalt oxide mixed with clay, which are
orally inserted to lodge in the animal's rumen.
[78]

Non-ruminant herbivores produce vitamin B12 from bacteria in their colons which again make the vitamin
from simple cobalt salts. However the vitamin cannot be absorbed from the colon, and thus non-ruminants
must ingest feces to obtain the nutrient. Animals that do not follow these methods of getting vitamin
B12 from their own gastrointestinal bacteria or that of other animals, must obtain the vitamin pre-made in
other animal products in their diet, and they cannot benefit from ingesting simple cobalt salts.
The cobalamin-based proteins use corrin to hold the cobalt. Coenzyme B
12
features a reactive C-Co bond,
which participates in its reactions.
[79]
In humans, B
12
exists with two types of alkyl ligand: methyl and
adenosyl. MeB
12
promotes methyl (-CH
3
) group transfers. The adenosyl version of B
12
catalyzes
rearrangements in which a hydrogen atom is directly transferred between two adjacent atoms with
concomitant exchange of the second substituent, X, which may be a carbon atom with substituents, an
oxygen atom of an alcohol, or an amine. Methylmalonyl coenzyme A mutase (MUT) converts MMl-
CoA to Su-CoA, an important step in the extraction of energy from proteins and fats.
[80]

Although far less common than other metalloproteins (e.g. those of zinc and iron), cobaltoproteins are
known aside from B
12
. These proteins include methionine aminopeptidase 2 an enzyme that occurs in
humans and other mammals which does not use the corrin ring of B
12
, but binds cobalt directly. Another
non-corrin cobalt enzyme is nitrile hydratase, an enzyme in bacteria that are able to metabolize nitriles.
[81]

Precautions[edit source | editbeta]
Main article: Cobalt poisoning
Cobalt is an essential element for life in minute amounts. The LD
50
value for soluble cobalt salts has been
estimated to be between 150 and 500 mg/kg. Thus, for a 100 kg person the LD
50
for a single dose would
be about 20 grams.
[82]

However, chronic cobalt ingestion has caused serious health problems at doses far less than the lethal
dose. In 1966, the addition of cobalt compounds to stabilize beer foam in Canada led to a pecular form of
toxin-induced cardiomyopathy, which came to be known as beer drinker's cardiomyopathy.
[83]

After nickel and chromium, cobalt is a major cause of contact dermatitis.
[84]


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobalt

A goblin or kobold (often accused of leading German miners astray in their search for Tin) against a backdrop of early Chinese porcelain
using the element as a now familiar blue glaze.
Appearance
A lustrous, silvery metal with a blue cast. It can be magnetised like iron and so is used to make magnets, as well as in ceramics and paints.
The radioactive isotope cobalt-60 is used in medical treatment and, in some countries, to irradiate food to preserve it. Cobalt is an essential
element for humans since it is part of vitamin B12. The amount needed is very small, and the body contains only about 1 milligramme.
Uses
Cobalt metal is used in electroplating because of its attractive appearance, hardness and resistance to oxidation. It is alloyed with iron, nickel
and other metals, and used in jet turbines and gas turbine generators. Cobalt salts have been used for centuries to produce brilliant blue
colours in porcelain, glass, pottery and enamels. It can be magnetised like iron and so is used to make magnets, as well as in ceramics and
paints. Radioactive cobalt-60 is used in the treatment of cancer.
Biological role
Cobalt is an essential trace element, and forms part of the active site of vitamin B12. The amount needed is very small, and the body
contains only about 1 milligramme. Cobalt salts in small doses have been found to be effective in correcting mineral deficiencies in certain
animals. Cobalt in large doses is carcinogenic. Radioactive artificial cobalt-60 is an important gamma-ray source, and is used extensively as
a tracer and radiotherapeutic agent. The radioactive isotope cobalt-60 is sometimes used in some countries to irradiate food to preserve it.
Natural abundance
Cobalt is found in the minerals cobaltite, smaltite and erythrite. Important ore deposits are found in Zaire, Morocco and Canada. There is
evidence that the floor of the north central Pacific Ocean may have cobalt-rich deposits.
http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/27/cobalt



Discovery: George Brandt, circa 1735, maybe 1739 (Sweden)
Electron Configuration: [Ar] 4s
2
3d
7

Word Origin: German Kobald: evil spirit or goblin; Greek cobalos: mine
Isotopes: Twenty-six isotopes of cobalt ranging from Co-50 to Co-75. Co-59 is the only stable isotope.
Properties: Cobalt has a melting point of 1495C, boiling point of 2870C, specific gravity of 8.9 (20C), with a valence of
2 or 3. Cobalt is a hard, brittle metal. It is similar in appearance to iron and nickel. Cobalt has a magnetic permeability
around 2/3 that of iron. Cobalt is found as a mixture of two allotropes over a wide temperature range. The b-form is
dominant at temperatures under 400C, while the a-form predominates at higher temperatures.
Uses: Cobalt forms many useful alloys. It is alloyed with iron, nickel, and other metals to form Alnico, an alloy with
exceptional magnetic strength. Cobalt, chromium, and tungsten may be alloyed to form Stellite, which is used for high-
temperature, high-speed cutting tools and dies. Cobalt is used in magnet steels and stainless steels. It is used in
electroplating because of its hardness and resistance to oxidation. Cobalt salts are used to impart permanent brilliant blue
colors to glass, pottery, enamels, tiles, and porcelain. Cobalt is used to make Sevre's and Thenard's blue. A cobalt chloride
solution is used to make a sympathetic ink. Cobalt is essential for nutrition in many animals. Cobalt-60 is an important
gamma source, tracer, and radiotherapeutic agent.
Sources: Cobalt is found in the minerals cobaltite, erythrite, and smaltite. It is commonly associated with ores of iron,
nickel, silver, lead, and copper. Cobalt is also found in meteorites.
Element Classification: Transition Metal
Density (g/cc): 8.9
Melting Point (K): 1768
Boiling Point (K): 3143
Appearance: Hard, ductile, lustrous bluish-gray metal
Atomic Radius (pm): 125
Atomic Volume (cc/mol): 6.7
Covalent Radius (pm): 116
Ionic Radius: 63 (+3e) 72 (+2e)
Specific Heat (@20C J/g mol): 0.456
Fusion Heat (kJ/mol): 15.48
Evaporation Heat (kJ/mol): 389.1
Debye Temperature (K): 385.00
Pauling Negativity Number: 1.88
First Ionizing Energy (kJ/mol): 758.1
Oxidation States: 3, 2, 0, -1
Lattice Structure: Hexagonal
Lattice Constant (): 2.510
CAS Registry Number: 7440-48-4
Cobalt Trivia:
Cobalt derived its name from German miners. They named cobalt ore after mischievous spirits called kobalds. Cobalt ores commonly contain the useful
metals copper and nickel. The problem with cobalt ore is it usually contains arsenic as well. Attempts to smelt the copper and nickel typically failed and
would often produce toxic arsenic oxide gases.
The brilliant blue color cobalt gives to glass was originally attributed to bismuth. Bismuth is often found with cobalt. Cobalt was isolated by Swedish
chemist, Georg Brandt who proved the coloring was due to cobalt.
The isotope Co-60 is a strong gamma radiation source. It is used to sterilize food and medical supplies as well as radiation therapy in the treatment of
cancer.
Cobalt is a central atom in vitamin B-12.
Cobalt is ferromagnetic. Cobalt magnets stay magnetic to the highest temperature of any other magnetic element.
Cobalt has six oxidation states: 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, and +5. The most common oxidation states are +2 and +3.
The oldest cobalt colored glass was found in Egypt dated between 1550-1292 B.C.
Cobalt has an abundance of 25 mg/kg (or parts per million) in the Earth's crust.
Cobalt has an abundance of 2 x 10
-5
mg/L in sea water.
Cobalt is used in alloys to increase temperature stability and decrease corrosion.

http://chemistry.about.com/od/elementfacts/a/cobalt.htm

The Basics
Who discovered cobalt and cobalt-60?
In 1735, a Swedish scientist, George Brandt, demonstrated that a blue color common in colored glass was caused by a
new element, cobalt. Previously, people thought that bismuth, which occurs in nature with cobalt, was the cause.
Radioactive cobalt-60 was discovered by Glenn T. Seaborg and John Livingood at the University of California - Berkeley in
the late 1930's.
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Where do cobalt and cobalt-60 come from?
Non radioactive cobalt occurs naturally in various minerals, and has been used for thousands of years to impart blue color
to ceramic and glass. The radionuclide, cobalt-60, is produced for commercial use in linear accelerators. It is also produced
as a by-product of nuclear reactor operations, when structural materials, such as steel, are exposed to neutron radiation.
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What are the properties of cobalt-60?
Cobalt (including cobalt-60) is a hard, brittle, gray metal with a bluish tint. It is solid under normal conditions and is
generally similar to iron and nickel in its properties. In particular, cobalt, like iron, can be magnetized.
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What is cobalt-60 used for?
Cobalt-60 is used in many common industrial applications, such as in leveling devices and thickness gauges, and in
radiotherapy in hospitals. Large sources of cobalt-60 are increasingly used for sterilization of spices and certain foods. The
powerful gamma rays kill bacteria and other pathogens, without damaging the product. After the radiation ceases, the
product is not left radioactive. This process is sometimes called "cold pasteurization.
Cobalt-60 is also used for industrial radiography, a process similar to an x-ray, to detect structural flaws in metal parts.
One of its uses is in a medical device for the precise treatment of otherwise inoperable deformities of blood vessels and
brain tumors. Radionuclides, such as cobalt-60, that are used in industry or medical treatment are encased in shielded
metal containers or housings, and are referred to as radiation sources.' The shielding keeps operators from being exposed
to the strong radiation.
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Exposure to Cobalt-60
How does cobalt-60 get into the environment?
Occasionally, medical or industrial radiation sources are lost or stolen. We call these "orphan sources." They pose a
significant risk:
On a number of occasions, people have handled them, not knowing what they were, and have been exposed.
Sometimes sources find their way into municipal landfills, where it is illegal to dispose of them.
Because of their metallic housings, sources can get mixed in with scrap metal and pass undetected into scrap
metal recycling facilities. If melted in a mill, they can contaminate the entire batch of metal and the larger
facility, costing millions of dollars in lost productivity and cleanup costs. The scrap industry uses radiation
detectors to screen incoming material. However, sources that are under large loads may be undetected initially.
Cobalt-60 can also be released to the environment through leaks or spills at nuclear power plants, and in solid waste
originating from nuclear power plants. Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulations allow small amounts of cobalt-60 to be
released into the air, or poured down drains as part of a liquid.
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How does cobalt-60 change in the environment?
Cobalt-60 undergoes radioactive decay with the emission of beta particles and strong gamma radiation. It ultimately
decays to non radioactive nickel. The half-life of cobalt-60 is 5.27 years. This is short enough to make isolation a useful
treatment strategy for contaminated areas. In some cases, simply waiting 10 to 20 years allows for sufficient decay to
make the site acceptable for use again.
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How do people come in contact with cobalt-60?
Most exposure to cobalt-60 takes place intentionally during medical tests and treatments. Such exposures are carefully
controlled to avoid the adverse health impacts and to maximize the benefits of medical care. Accidental exposures may
occur as the result of loss or improper disposal of medical and industrial radiation sources. Though relatively rare,
exposure has also occurred by accidental mishandling of a source at a metal recycling facility or steel mill.
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How does cobalt-60 get into the body?
People may ingest cobalt-60 with food and water that has been contaminated, or may inhale it in contaminated dust. The
major concern posed by cobalt-60, however, is external exposure to its strong gamma rays. This may occur if you are
exposed to an orphaned source, or if you come in contact with waste from a nuclear reactor (though this is very unlikely).
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What does cobalt do once it gets into the body?
Once in the body, some cobalt-60 is quickly eliminated in the feces. The rest is absorbed into the blood and tissues, mainly
the liver, kidney, and bones. Absorbed cobalt leaves the body slowly, mainly in the urine.
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Health Effects of Cobalt-60
How can cobalt-60 affect people's health?
All ionizing radiation, including that of cobalt-60, is known to cause cancer. Therefore, exposures to gamma radiation from
cobalt-60 result in an increased risk of cancer.
Because it emits such strong gamma rays, external exposure to cobalt-60 is also considered a significant threat. The
magnitude of the health risk depends on the quantity of cobalt-60 involved and on exposure conditions:
length of exposure
distance from the source (for external exposure)
whether the cobalt-60 was ingested or inhaled.
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Is there a medical test to determine exposure to cobalt-
60?
Yes, there are several. However they are not routinely available in a doctor's office because they require special laboratory
equipment.
Some tests can measure the amount of cobalt-60 in urine, even at very low levels. Scientist can estimate the amount in
the body from the amount measured in the urine.
A technique called "whole-body counting" can detect gamma radiation emitted by cobalt-60 in the body. A variety of
portable instruments can directly measure cobalt-60 on the skin or hair.
Other techniques include measuring the level of cobalt-60 in soft tissues (such as organs) and in blood, bones, milk, or
feces.
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Protecting People from Cobalt-60
How do I know if I'm near cobalt-60?
You need special equipment to detect the presence of any radionuclide.
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What can I do to protect myself and my family from
cobalt-60?
You are unlikely to encounter cobalt-60 unless you undergo certain medical treatments. Thorough discussions with your
doctor about the amount of exposure and potential alternatives allow you to make informed decisions about the relative
risks.
Although it is very unlikely, you may accidentally encounter a sealed radiation source containing cobalt-60 that has
escaped proper control ("orphaned sources").
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What is EPA doing about cobalt-60?
Cobalt-60 is regulated by both the EPA and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission has
jurisdiction over the licensing and use of cobalt-60 sources, and disposal of cobalt-60 sources.
EPA has several regulations that control cobalt-60 in the environment:
standards for the maximum amount of cobalt-60 that nuclear facilities may release to the air
maximum contaminant levels for cobalt-60 in drinking water
risk-based criteria for soil and groundwater at sites previously contaminated with cobalt-60


Toxic Metal: The Health Dangers of Cobalt



Cobalt is naturally occurring element that does have beneficial applications. For instance, cobalt is an essential
component of vitamin B12. Cobalt has been added to pigments to produce a distinct blue color. Lithium ion batteries
contain cobalt. In the medical field, cobalt-60 is used in radiotherapy and for sterilizing medical equipment. Hip
replacements are also made of cobalt. Regardless of these perceived advantages, cobalt is not without its
problems. Cobalt can accumulate to toxic levels in the liver, kidney, pancreas, and heart, as well as the skeleton and
skeletal muscle. Cobalt has been found to produce tumors in animals and is likely a human carcinogen as well.
Cobalt Exposure
Industrial plants may leak cobalt and other toxic metals into the environment. Once cobalt particles enter the
atmosphere, they settle to the ground and enter the food and water supply; most of the population is exposed to
cobalt through food, water, and air. Cobalt makes its way through the environment and cannot be destroyed. People
working in industrial settings have an increased risk of exposure to toxins, including cobalt. Also, its been reported
that hip replacements containing cobalt have caused problems due to nano particles of cobalt breaking away and
contaminating the body.
Occupational Exposure to Cobalt
Occupational cobalt exposure is a known problem and part of a larger problem that includes exposure to other toxic
metals such as arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury. All of these compounds are classified as carcinogens and
linked to cancer. When the body becomes exposed to these metals, a disruption of homeostasis is the result and that
causes oxidative stress, DNA damage, and serious degenerative diseases. Experiencing the effects of toxic metal
toxicity does not require nuclear meltdown levels of exposure either. Heart and lung problems have been shown to
follow exposure to levels of cobalt near or even under current occupational exposure limits.
[
1
]

Swedens Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine at Uppsala University Hospital warns that low
levels of cobalt exposure negatively impact lung function. Other studies have linked cobalt to occupational
asthma.
[
2
]

[
3
]

Occupational exposure to cobalt powder has been linked to vision and hearing problems. The toxic effect of cobalt on
vision was also noted in research conducted by the Robert Stempel School of Public Health at Florida International
University in Miami.
[
4
]
Unfortunately, now, patients with hip implants containing cobalt are suffering from similar
effects including tinnitus, deafness, vertigo, and blindness.
[
5
]

Cobalt and Hip Replacements
Advanced hip disease is a problem that generally requires a hip replacement and most hip replacements are made of
cobalt and chromium. Well over one million metal-on-metal hip replacement procedures have been completed, many
successfully. However, the use of cobalt-chromium alloys in orthopedic replacements has created a new source of
internal cobalt exposure. Wear and corrosion produce soluble metal debris in the form nano particles that
disseminate through the body via the lymph nodes and cardiovascular system, leading to toxicity.
[
6
]

[
7
]
This can affect
immune system function and damage DNA and chromosomes.
[
8
]
Furthermore, nano particles have properties that
their bulk states do not. At this time, much is unknown regarding toxic and carcinogenic effects of nano particles
although studies have linked them to oxidative stress and redness.
[
9
]

Testing for Cobalt Exposure?
Within days of exposure, a doctor can administer blood or urine tests to detect cobalt levels. Test results will indicate
the amount of cobalt in your body and, depending on what prompted your concern, you may be able to pinpoint
causes of exposure. However, tests cannot determine what health-related effects you will experience. In my opinion,
the health consequences from exposure to any toxic metal, including cobalt, isnt worth the risk. I would encourage
you to get your cobalt levels tested and perform a chemical and toxic metal cleanse if youre concerned about the
effects of exposure to cobalt.
-Dr. Edward F. Group III, DC, ND, DACBN, DABFM
References:
1. Koedrith P, Seo YR. Advances in carcinogenic metal toxicity and potential molecular markers. Int J Mol Sci.
2011;12(12):9576-95. doi: 10.3390/ijms12129576. Epub 2011 Dec 20.
2. Rehfisch P, Anderson M, Berg P, Lampa E, Nordling Y, Svartengren M, Westberg H, Gunnarsson LG. Lung
function and respiratory symptoms in hard metal workers exposed to cobalt. J Occup Environ Med. 2012
Apr;54(4):409-13. doi: 10.1097/JOM.0b013e31824d2d7e.
3. Walters GI, Moore VC, Robertson AS, Burge CB, Vellore AD, Burge PS. An outbreak of occupational asthma
due to chromium and cobalt. Occup Med (Lond). 2012 Oct;62(7):533-40. doi: 10.1093/occmed/kqs111.
4. Mendy A, Gasana J, Vieira ER. Urinary heavy metals and associated medical conditions in the US adult
population. Int J Environ Health Res. 2012;22(2):105-18. doi: 10.1080/09603123.2011.605877. Epub 2011 Aug
19.
5. Apostoli P, Catalani S, Zaghini A, Mariotti A, Poliani PL, Vielmi V, Semeraro F, Duse S, Porzionato A, Macchi V,
Padovani A, Rizzetti MC, De Caro R. High doses of cobalt induce optic and auditory neuropathy. Exp Toxicol
Pathol. 2012 Oct 12. doi:pii: S0940-2993(12)00087-5. 10.1016/j.etp.2012.09.006.
6. Campbell JR, Estey MP. Metal release from hip prostheses: cobalt and chromium toxicity and the role of the
clinical laboratory. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2013 Jan;51(1):213-20. doi: 10.1515/cclm-2012-0492.
7. Simonsen LO, Harbak H, Bennekou P. Cobalt metabolism and toxicologya brief update. Sci Total Environ.
2012 Aug 15;432:210-5. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.06.009. Epub 2012 Jun 23. Review.
8. Gill HS, Grammatopoulos G, Adshead S, Tsialogiannis E, Tsiridis E. Molecular and immune toxicity of CoCr
nanoparticles in MoM hip arthroplasty. Trends Mol Med. 2012 Mar;18(3):145-55. doi:
10.1016/j.molmed.2011.12.002. Epub 2012 Jan 12. Review.
9. Magaye R, Zhao J, Bowman L, Ding M. Genotoxicity and carcinogenicity of cobalt-, nickel- and copper-based
nanoparticles. Exp Ther Med. 2012 Oct;4(4):551-561. Epub 2012 Aug 7.
Cobalt
Cobalt is a hard ferromagnetic, silver-white, hard, lustrous, brittle element. It is a member of group VIII of the periodic
table. Like iron, it can be magnetized. It is similar to iron and nickel in its physical properties. The element is active
chemically, forming many compounds. Cobalt is stable in air and unaffected by water, but is slowly attacked by dilute
acids.
Applications
Cobalt is used in many alloys (superalloys for parts in gas turbine aircrafr engines, corrosion resistant alloys, high-speed
steels, cemented carbides), in magents and magnetic recording media, as catalysts for the petroleum and chemical
industries, as drying agents for paints and inks. Cobalt blue is an important part of artists' palette and is used bu craft
workers in porcelain, pottery, stained glass, tiles and enamel jewellery. The radioactive isotopes, cobalt-60, is used in
medical treatment and also to irradiate food, in order to preserve the food and protect the consumer.
Cobalt in the enviroment
Most of the Earth's cobalt is in its core. Cobalt is of relatively low abundance in the Earth's crust and in natural waters,
from which it is precipitated as the highly insoluble cobalt sulfine CoS.
Although the average level of cobalt in soils is 8 ppm, there are soils with as little as 0.1 ppm and others with as much as
70 ppm. In the marine environment cobalt is needed by blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) and other nitrogen fixing
organisms. Cobalt is not found as a free metal and is generally found in the form of ores. Cobalt is usually not mined
alone, and tends to be produced as a by-product of nickel and copper mining activities. The main ores of cobalt are
cobaltite, erythrite, glaucodot, and skutterudite. The world's major producers of cobalt are the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, mainland China, Zambia, Russia and Australia. It is also found in Finland, Azerbaijan, and Kazakhstan.
World production is 17.000 tonnes per year.
Health effects of cobalt
As cobalt is widely dispersed in the environment humans may be exposed to it by breathing air, drinking water and eating
food that contains cobalt. Skin contact with soil or water that contains cobalt may also enhance exposure.
Cobalt is not often freely available in the environment, but when cobalt particles are not bound to soil or sediment particles
the uptake by plants and animals is higher and accumulation in plants and animals may occur.

Cobalt is beneficial for humans because it is a part of vitamin B12, which is essential for human health. Cobalt is used to
treat anaemia with pregnant women, because it stimulates the production of red blood cells. The total daily intake of cobalt
is variable and may be as much as 1 mg, but almost all will pass through the body unadsorbed, except that in vitamine
B12.

However, too high concentrations of cobalt may damage human health. When we breathe in too high concentrations of
cobalt through air we experience lung effects, such as asthma and pneumonia. This mainly occurs with people that work
with cobalt.

When plants grow on contaminated soils they will accumulate very small particles of cobalt, especially in the parts of the
plant we eat, such as fruits and seeds. Soils near mining and melting facilities may contain very high amounts of cobalt, so
that the uptake by humans through eating plants can cause health effects.
Health effects that are a result of the uptake of high concentrations of cobalt are:

- Vomiting and nausea
- Vision problems
- Heart problems
- Thyroid damage

Health effects may also be caused by radiation of radioactive cobalt isotopes. This can cause sterility, hair loss, vomiting,
bleeding, diarrhoea, coma and even death. This radiation is sometimes used with cancer-patients to destroy tumors. These
patients also suffer from hair loss, diarrhea and vomiting.
Cobalt dust may cause an asthma-like disease with symptoms ranging from cough, shortness of breath and dyspnea to
decreased pulmonary function, nodular fibrosis, permanent disability, and death. Exposure to cobalt may cause weight
loss, dermatitis, and respiratory hypersensitivity. LD 50 (oral, rat)- 6171 mg/kg. (LD50 = Lethal dose 50 = Single dose of
a substance that causes the death of 50% of an animal population from exposure to the substance by any route other than
inhalation. LD50 is usually expressed as milligrams or grams of material per kilogram of animal weight (mg/kg or g/kg).)
Carcinogenicity- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) haslisted cobalt and cobalt compounds within group
2B (agents which are possibly carcinogenic to humans). ACGIH has placed cobalt and inorganic compounds in category A3
(Experimental animal carcinogen- the agent is carcinogenic in experimental animals at a relatively high dose, by route(s),
histologic type(s), or by mechanism(s) that are not considered relevant to worker exposure.) Cobalt has been classified to
be carcinogenic to experimental animals by the Federal Republic of Germany.

Environmental effects of cobalt
Cobalt is an element that occurs naturally in the environment in air, water, soil, rocks, plants and animals. It may also
enter air and water and settle on land through wind-blown dust and enter surface water through run-off when rainwater
runs through soil and rock containing cobalt.

Humans add cobalt by releasing small amounts into the atmosphere from coal combustion and mining, processing of
cobalt-containing ores and the production and use of cobalt chemicals.
The radioactive isotopes of cobalt are not present in the environment naturally, but they are released through nuclear
power plant operations and nuclear accidents. Because they have relatively short half-lives they are not particularly
dangerous.

Cobalt cannot be destroyed once it has entered the environment. It may react with other particles or adsorb on soil
particles or water sediments. Cobalt will only mobilize under acidic conditions, but ultimately most cobalt will end up in
soils and sediments.

Soils that contain very low amounts of cobalt may grow plants that have a deficiency of cobalt. When animals graze on
these grounds they suffer from lack of cobalt, which is essential for them.

On the other hand, soils near mining and melting facilities may contain very high amounts of cobalt, so that the uptake by
animals through eating plants can cause health effects. Cobalt will accumulate in plants and in the bodies of animals that
eat these plants, but cobalt is not known to bio magnify up the food chain. Because of this fruits, vegetables, fish and
other animals we eat will usually not contain very high amounts of cobalt.


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