Volume 30, Number 1,19-46 Visual Literacy and the Digital Native: An Examination of the Millennial Learner Eva Brumberger Virginia Tech Blacksburg, VA Abstract The so-called millennial learners who currentlv populate college classrooms are purportedlv digital natives whose repeated exposure to a host of new technologies has allegedlv resulted in enhanced skills in several areas, including those related to technologv and visual communication. Bv extension, the argument has been made that digital natives have a signihcant degree of visual literacv. This article reports the results of an empirical studv that examines these claims bv assessing post-secondarv students use of visuallv-oriented technologies and their interpretation of visual material. The survev data suggest that participants are not particularlv adept at producing and interpreting visual communication. Kev Words. digital natives, visual learners, visual literacy, technology Journal of Jisual Literacv, Jolume 30, Number 1 20 T he students who currently populate our classrooms are known as digital nativesmillennial learners (also known as the Net Gen) who have grown up with a host oI relatively new technologies, including computers, cell phones, and video games; they connect with Iriends and Iamily through social networking, text messaging, and other technology-mediated approaches. According to Marc Prensky (2001), who coined the term digital native, repeated exposure to these technologies has resulted in enhanced thinking skills in several areas, many oI which are visually-oriented: image reading and interpretation, mental mapping, mental paper Iolding, and so Iorth. By extension, the argument has been made that digital natives are intuitively visual learners who come to us with a signifcant degree oI visual literacy. In Iact, Coats (2007) argues that this group is 'the most visual oI all learning cohorts (p. 126). In Educating the Net Generation, Oblinger and Oblinger (2005) likewise maintain that digital natives have an inherent ability to read images, that 'they are intuitive visual communicators who are 'able to weave together images, text, and sound in a natural way (p. 2.5). Oblinger and Oblinger continue on to suggest that, 'The Net Generation is more visually literate than earlier generations. Many are fuent in personal expression using images (p. 2.14). Others make similar claims about the visual literacy skills oI digital natives. Tapscott, Ior example, argues that 'Net Geners who have grown up digital have learned how to read images, like pictures, graphs, and icons (p. 106). The digital natives argument presumes that repeated interaction with visual materialspecifcally visually-oriented technologiessomehow results in visual literacy. For example, Oblinger and Oblinger (2005) note that, although digital native characteristics are usually described as generational, 'age may be less important than exposure to technology (p. 2.9). Similarly, Tapscott claims that 'digital immersion has given the Net Generation the visual skills that make them superior scanners. They`ve learned to develop the flters they need to sort out what`s important Irom what`s not (p. 113). Although Prensky`s arguments, and extensions thereoI, have become very popular, those who advocate the digital natives perspective rarely provide any empirical evidence or classroom accounts to support their assertions. As Bennett, Maton, and Kervin (2009) note, the digital natives arguments 'have been subjected to little critical scrutiny, are undertheorised, and lack a sound empirical basis (p. 776). Instead, we are oIIered sweeping generalizations about the visual literacy oI millennial learners, Ior example, that they are 'visual experts (Tapscott, 2009, p. 106) who 'preIer their graphics beIore their text (Prensky, 2001). The study discussed in this article attempts to examine empirically whether millennial learners are particularly visually literate. Brumberger - Visual Literacy and digital native...... 21 Dening Visual Literacy Defnitions oI visual literacy are numerous and not entirely in agreement with one another (see, Ior example, Debes, 1969; SelIe, 2004), and they range Irom the decidedly theoretical to the solidly pragmatic. However, the richest defnitions include both an interpretative and a productive component. In other words, they stipulate that the ability to analyze and interpret images and other visual material, although critical, is not by itselI suIfcient Ior Iull visual literacy; it must be accompanied by some ability to create visual material. As Felten (2008) notes, 'Just as writing is essential to textual literacy, the capacity to manipulate and make meaning with images is a core component oI visual literacy (p. 61). Likewise, Bleed (2005) describes visual literacy as the ability to both interpret and create visual media, and argues that this Iorm oI literacy is now as essential as more traditional Iorms oI literacy (p. 3). In 21st Centurv Skills. Literacv in the Digital Age (2003), the North Central Regional Educational Library articulates Ior educators a number oI specifc visual literacy objectives, stipulating that visually literate students: Understand basic elements oI visual design, technique, and media Are aware oI emotional, psychological, physiological, and cognitive infuences in perceptions oI visuals Comprehend representational, explanatory, abstract, and symbolic images Are inIormed viewers, critics, and consumers oI visual inIormation Are knowledgeable designers, composers, and producers oI visual inIormation Are eIIective visual communicators Are expressive, innovative visual thinkers and successIul problem solvers (p. 24) This is a rather ambitious list, and conducting a large-scale assessment oI student perIormance on all oI the objectives simultaneously would be diIfcult, iI not impossible. In an attempt to gain some basic understanding oI students` visual abilities, the study discussed in this article Iocuses on students` use oI and profciency with visually-oriented technologies, as well as their skills in interpreting images and being inIormed and critical consumers oI visual material. Journal of Jisual Literacv, Jolume 30, Number 1 22 Methods The survey was conducted at Virginia Tech between the end oI April and the beginning oI September, 2009, in Iull compliance with the guidelines established by the Virginia Tech institutional review board Ior human subjects research. The survey was administered electronically, through a web-based survey tool (survey.vt.edu) available to Virginia Tech Iaculty, staII, and students. Population and Sample Virginia Tech is a research university with approximately 30,000 students. According to the university website (www.vt.edu), almost three-quarters (71.6) oI the student population is Caucasian; the percentage is even higher among the undergraduate student body. Just over halI (58) oI the students are male. The participants in the survey, although selected through convenience sampling, refect these demographics. Because there was no practical method Ior reaching a large number oI students directly, their participation was solicited through instructors. The survey respondents were undergraduate students enrolled in one oI fve coursesFirst-Year Writing I, First-Year Writing II, Business Writing, Technical Writing, and ProIessional Writingcourses that include students Irom multiple majors and across all class standings. I emailed all oI the instructors teaching these courses, asking them to encourage their students to participate. The emails included a brieI explanation oI the project, simply stating that I was surveying students about their use oI various technologies, as well as their ability to interpret visual materials. Over 500 students participated in the project, but a number oI surveys were discarded because participants skipped a section or did not fnish the survey. This reduced the number to 485 participants, who ranged in age Irom 18 to 23, with a mean age oI 19.4. In keeping with the demographics oI the undergraduate population at the university, 59 oI participants were male, and 41 were Iemale; 82 were Caucasian. The largest group (36) oI survey participants had majors within the College oI Engineering and Mathematics, but all oI the colleges were represented. Survey Design The survey had 90 questions, including those collecting demographic inIormation. Several oI the questions were subsequently discarded and omitted Irom the data analyses because a large number oI respondents skipped them or they were otherwise deemed problematic (unclear or ambiguous, Ior example). The survey took participants approximately 30 minutes to complete. Although Brumberger - Visual Literacy and digital native...... 23 the survey addressed a range oI technology and communication abilities, in this article, I discuss only the survey questions related to visual literacy (approximately 50 oI the total). These included questions about students` use oI a limited number oI visually-based technologies, their perceptions oI their skill with common technologies used to create visual communication, and their interpretations oI and ability to evaluate video and still images. The specifc questions Ior each oI these areas are included with the discussion oI the survey results. The survey items were intended to explore directly or indirectly the claims about digital natives` visual abilities. So, Ior example, a number oI questions attempted to gauge just how muchand howparticipants are using certain visual technologies that seem to play a pivotal role in the digital natives argument: television, video games, and personal computers. Likewise, several questions Iocused on participants` ability to 'read images, another oI the central claims oI the digital natives argument. Finally, the survey questions attempted to examine both productive and interpretive abilities, since Iull visual literacy depends on both. Data Analysis The survey data were analyzed through several statistical methods, including t-tests Ior comparing means, contingency tables and Pearsons` chi- squares, and Fisher`s Exact Tests. The analyses were completed using SAS JMP (version 8). The specifc analyses used are noted with the discussion oI the survey results. Use of Entertainment and Navigational Technologies The survey looked at students` use oI a handIul oI entertainment and navigational technologies in order to examine the claims that digital natives are inveterate TV watchers and video game players who preIer graphics over text. The results are not particularly supportive oI the digital natives argument. Entertainment 1echnologies The survey included two questions regarding the amount oI time students spend watching television: Approximately how many hours per week do you watch TV? Approximately how many hours per week do you watch TV content on the web (e.g. via Hulu?) The response choices and the distribution oI responses Ior both questions are shown in Figure 1. The data suggest that survey participants do not spend Journal of Jisual Literacv, Jolume 30, Number 1 24 hours each day in Iront oI the TV; in Iact, over three-quarters (79) watched seven hours or Iewer oI TV per weekthat is, one hour or less per day; halI oI the respondents (54) spent Iour hours or Iewer watching TV each week. Watching TV content on the web (e.g. via Hulu) was not particularly popular among survey respondents. Approximately two-thirds oI respondents (69) watched TV content online Ior Iewer than two hours per week, or not at all. Figure 1. Time per week spent watching television (a) and online TV content (b). (1 does not watch, 2 2 hours per week, 3 2-4 hours per week, 4 5-7 hours per week, 5 8-10 hours per week, 6 11 hours per week) A Pearson`s chi-square comparing male and Iemale TV viewing habits revealed a highly signifcant gender diIIerence (p.0003), with Iewer Iemales at the heavy end oI the viewing spectrum; no gender diIIerences were observed Ior watching TV content online. The survey also asked respondents at what age they started playing video games, the types oI games they play, and how Irequently they play them. Those respondents who were gamers started young, on average at age eight. The data suggest that respondents may be dedicating more time and energy to gaming than to TV, although a Iull quarter (25) said they did not play any sort oI video or computer-based games. There were three questions about how Irequently participants play video games: How oIten do you play video games on a game console (e.g. PlayStation, Nintendo, XBox, Wii)? How oIten do you play games on a personal computeronline or otherwise? How oIten do you participate in multiplayer online role-playing games (e.g. World oI WarcraIt)? The response choices and the distribution oI responses Ior each question are shown in Figure 2. Most gamers played on a video console (e.g. Xbox, PS3) or PC; multi-player online role-playing games (e.g. World oI WarcraIt) were not particularly popular; over three-quarters (79) oI gamers did not Brumberger - Visual Literacy and digital native...... 25 play them at all. A Fisher`s Exact Test revealed a highly signifcant gender diIIerence (p. .0001): males were more likely than Iemales to be gamers. This pattern carried through Ior each oI the gaming environments. Additionally, males tended to play video games more Irequently than did Iemales. Figure 2. Frequency oI gaming on a console (a), personal computer (b), and multi-player role-playing online environment (c). (1 does not play, 2 once per week, 3 once or twice per week, 4 several times per week, 5 daily) The survey also asked respondents which oI the Iollowing types oI video games they play most oIten: text-based games, games that rely almost entirely on still images (e.g. card games), or games that rely almost entirely on video images. Respondents reported playing predominantly visually-oriented games: three-quarters (76) oI the gamers most oIten played games that rely almost entirely on video, while only 20 played primarily games that rely almost entirely on still images (e.g. card games). A Pearson`s chi-square again revealed highly signifcant gender diIIerences (p.0001), with Iemales more likely than males to play text-based games and image-based games, and less likely to play video-based games. A chi-square showed an additional gender diIIerence (p..0001) in respondents` selI-perceptions oI gaming skill: Iemales generally reported lower skill levels than did males. Interestingly, there is a relationship between respondents` perceptions oI their gaming skill and the type oI game they were most likely to play (p.0001): as the reported skill level increased, so did the tendency to play primarily video-based games. The video gaming data may to some extent support the digital natives argument, but they may also simply refect longstanding user patterns, as well as an ongoing industry shiIt toward action-type video games. Journal of Jisual Literacv, Jolume 30, Number 1 26 Aavigational Websites Although respondents` video gaming behaviors reveal a general preIerence Ior graphics, their use oI websites Ior obtaining driving directions demonstrates the opposite. Navigational websites such as MapQuest, Inc. and Google Maps oIIer users both verbal and visual directions. The survey asked two questions about use oI navigational websites: When using Mapquest.com Ior directions, which oI the Iollowing do you rely on most heavily? When using Google Maps Ior directions, which oI the Iollowing do you rely on most heavily? The choices Ior each question included: verbal/written directions, interactive map, and I do not use Mapquest (or Google Maps). Use oI these technologies was common among the college students surveyed, but data suggest that there is little reliance on the visual displays. For example, over three-quarters (78) oI respondents said they used Mapquest Ior directions, but oI those respondents, only 15 relied heavily on the interactive map, while 85 relied on the written directions. Similarly, among the three-quarters (73) oI respondents who said they used Google Maps Ior directions, only one-third relied heavily on the interactive map, while two-thirds (67) relied instead on the written directions. Thus, although both oI these websites oIIer users interactive visual solutions, respondents` relied more heavily on the verbal inIormation provided, not the graphics, which seems directly contradictory to the notion that they preIer visual material over text. Use of Digital Cameras (Still and Video) Digital photographyboth still and videois one means oI producing visual communication, and one might expect a cohort oI visually-oriented students to be avid users oI this technology. However, like survey participants` use oI entertainment and navigational technologies, their use oI digital camerasand what they do with the images and video produced with those cameraswas somewhat contradictory. Overall, the data suggest that the students are not highly skilled in these technologies Ior producing visual communication. Still Cameras The survey included several questions about the use oI still cameras: Brumberger - Visual Literacy and digital native...... 27 Question Response type and choices At what age did you start using a digital camera? (open-ended) Open-ended How oIten do you use a digital camera? Multiple choice: Daily, Several times per week, Once or twice per week, Less than once per week How skilled a photographer do you consider yourselI to be? Multiple choice: Expert/proIessional, Very skilled, Somewhat skilled, Slightly skilled, Entry-level amateur What type oI digital camera do you use? Choose all that apply: Point and shoot, SLR (interchangeable lenses), Other Do you edit or modiIy the images you take? Multiple choice: Frequently, Sometimes, Rarely, Never How do you share the images you take? Choose all that apply: Upload them to a photo-hosting site (e.g. Flickr), Upload them to a social networking site (e.g. Facebook), Email them to people, Print them and send/give them to people, Other. Not surprisingly, well over three-quarters (82) oI respondents used a digital camera. However, a Pearson`s chi-square reveals that whether or not respondents used a digital camera diIIered signifcantly with major (p.02). Most oI the diIIerence is Iound between students in Art and Architecture and the remaining majors: within Art and Architecture, all respondents used a digital camera. Across all participants, a Fisher`s Exact Test indicates that women were signifcantly more likely to use a digital camera than were men (p.0001). The majority (55) oI respondents use a digital camera less than once per week, while almost one-third (30) use a camera once or twice per week. A Pearson`s chi-square indicates that Iemale participants tended to use their digital cameras more Irequently than did male participants (p.0001). A Spearman`s p indicates a positive correlation between a respondent`s age and the age at which he/she started using a digital camera; in other words, the older the respondents, the later they started using a digital camera (p.0001). This may appear to support the digital natives argument. However, it may as well be due to Iactors that are unrelated to the participant`s age, per se, such as the increasing availability and dropping cost oI digital cameras over the past Journal of Jisual Literacv, Jolume 30, Number 1 28 Iew years. Additionally, the age at which respondents started using a digital camera varied widelyIrom age 5 to age 21and, on average, they were almost 15 years old. Although they are camera users, respondents were by no means experts in this means oI visual communication. Over halI (54) oI the digital camera users considered themselves to be slightly skilled or entry-level amateurs, with just 11 describing themselves as very skilled photographers. Not surprisingly, reported skill level corresponded with camera type, with those who claimed a higher skill level typically being those who used a more powerIul and sophisticated SLR (single-lens-refex) camera. However, the vast majority (88) oI camera users relied only on a 'point and shoot camera. A Pearson`s chi-square indicates that respondents who reported a higher skill level also tended to edit their photos more Irequently (p.0001). Interestingly, Iemale respondents reported editing their photos more Irequently than did males, even though there was no gender diIIerence in reported skill level. Overall, though, respondents were less likely to edit their photos than one might think. Only 14 oI students reported that they Irequently edited or modifed their photos, while at the opposite end oI the spectrum, 10 said they never did so. The remainder oI students sometimes (37) or rarely (38) edited their photos. By Iar the most popular method oI sharing photos was to upload them to a social networking site, seconded by sending them via email. The least popular was to upload them to a photo-hosting site such as Flickr. In short, other than recording and sharing their images electronically, these students are not, Ior the most part, manipulating the images or otherwise using them in ways that mark the photographers as inherently diIIerent Irom previous generations. Jideo Cameras The questions pertaining to video camera usage were comparable to those Ior still cameras, with one exception. 'Daily was removed Irom the response choices Ior the question regarding how oIten participants use a video camera, and two additional choices were included: once or twice per month, and less than once per month. The reasoning behind these changes was that video camera use is more time-consuming, and potentially more costly, than still camera use, which suggests that students would probably use video cameras less Irequently. As expected, survey respondents were Iar less likely to use video cameras than still cameras: over halI (57) did not use a video camera at all (as compared to 18 who did not use a still camera). Almost two-thirds (62) oI those who used a video camera did so less than once per month. They started Brumberger - Visual Literacy and digital native...... 29 using a video camera, on average, between the ages oI 13 and 14, although the starting ages ranged Irom 4-22. Although videos tended to be shared as photos didthrough use oI a social networking sitereported skill levels were substantially lower, as was the prevalence oI editing or modiIying the video. Additionally, almost two-thirds oI those who used a video camera (63) described themselves as only slightly skilled or as entry-level amateurs; only one respondent described himselI as an expert videographer. Close to halI (43) oI those respondents who used a video camera said that they never edit the Iootage they take; in contrast, Iewer than 1 said they edit their videos on a Irequent basis. These data do not suggest that the survey respondents are particularly adept with video production technologies; in Iact, they seem to suggest the opposite. Use of Personal Computer Technologies As one might expect oI college students, the survey participants reported spending a signifcant amount oI time each day at a personal computer; over halI oI them (56) indicated that they use a computer Ior fve or more hours per day. Similarly to photographic technologies, students` use oI certain computer technologies may provide insight into how comIortable and capable these digital natives are with tools Ior creating visually communication. The survey thus asked respondents about their perceived skill level with soItware Ior presentations (e.g. MS PowerPoint), photo/image editing (e.g. Adobe Photoshop), drawing/illustration (e.g. Adobe Illustrator), and website authoring (e.g. Adobe Dreamweaver)all technologies that have a strong visual orientation. For each, the survey asked participants 'How skilled do you consider yourselI to be with., where the remainder oI the question was the type oI soItware; response choices included expert/proIessional, very skilled, somewhat skilled, slightly skilled, entry-level amateur, and 'I have no experience with this type oI soItware. The distribution oI responses Ior each oI these questions is shown in Figure 3. Because students are required to use presentation soItware in several oI their courses, it was expected that they would reported higher skill levels Ior this soItware. The survey thus included an additional set oI questions that asked about participants` actual use oI this soItware: Do you download PowerPoint slide designs and/or templates Irom the Web? Do you design your own PowerPoint slides and/or templates? Do you integrate images into your PowerPoint presentations? Response choices were Irequently, sometimes, rarely, never, and 'I don`t Journal of Jisual Literacv, Jolume 30, Number 1 30 know what you mean by slide designs or templates or (Ior the third question) 'I don`t know how to insert images. Finally, the survey included a question asked about perceived skill with HTML and/or XML coding and about whether respondents had ever created a website. Overall, survey responses to the questions about personal computer technologies do not suggest that students are particularly adept with soItware tools Ior producing visual communication. Figure 3. Perceived soItware skills. (1no experience, 2entry-level amateur, 3slightly skilled, 4somewhat skilled, 5very skilled, and 6expert/proIessional Presentations As Figure 3 illustrates, three-quarters (75) oI respondents considered themselves somewhat or very skilled with presentation soItware such as MicrosoIt PowerPoint, and a handIul oI respondents (8) described themselves as having expert/proIessional level skills. Just over one-tenth (13) said they were slightly skilled, while a handIul (3) said they were entry-level amateurs (see Figure 1). These data are comparable to those reported in studies by Kvavik (2005) and by Smith, Salaway, and Caruso (2009). However, supporting the notion that students` selI-assessment oI their computer abilities tends to be exaggerated (see, Ior example, Kvavik, 2005), the survey data suggest that respondents` use oI presentation soItware does not necessarily coincide with their selI-reported skill levels. Only 8 oI respondents said that they Irequently download slide designs or templates Irom the Web, and only 13 said they Irequently design their own slides or templates. In other words, the vast majority are simply using the pre-existing templates that come with their version oI the soItware rather than seeking out or developing more innovative, creative, or appropriate designs. Additionally, while one might expect somewhat or very skilled users (and visually-oriented Brumberger - Visual Literacy and digital native...... 31 digital natives) to consistently incorporate images into their presentations, only halI (49) oI the respondents reported Irequently doing so. An additional 40 sometimes incorporated images into presentations, while the remainder rarely or never used images in their presentations. Photo/Image Editing Reported skill levels with photo/image editing soItware (e.g. Adobe Photoshop) were lower than those reported Ior presentation soItware: only about a third (38) oI respondents described themselves as somewhat or very skilled, 21 said they were slightly skilled, and an additional 22 described themselves as entry-level amateurs. A mere 2 claimed an expert/proIessional skill level; moreover, 17 oI respondents had no experience at all with photo/ image editing soItware (see Figure 3). Illustration Survey participants reported even lower skill levels Ior illustration soItware (e.g. Adobe Illustrator). Only 18 described themselves as somewhat or very skilled, with a mere 1 claiming an expert skill level. Meanwhile, well over one-third (40) claimed they were only slightly skilled or were entry- level amateurs. And, 41 had no experience at all with illustration soItware (see Figure 3). The survey data are in keeping with other studies that have consistently shown graphics packages to be one oI the weakest areas oI students` soItware skills (Smith, Salaway, and Caruso, 2009; Kennedy, et al., 2006; Kvavik, 2005; McEuen, 2001). Website Authoring Finally, participants reported the lowest skill levels Ior website authoring soItware (e.g. Adobe Dreamweaver). Only 15 indicated that they were somewhat or very skilled with this type oI soItware, and only 1 claimed an expert or proIessional skill level. Meanwhile, 11 said they were slightly skilled, and 20 said they were entry-level amateurs. Over halI (53) oI the respondents had no experience with website authoring soItware (see Figure 3). The survey also asked students about their knowledge oI HTML and XML coding, since they may be skilled website designers without using website authoring soItware packages. The pattern oI responses was similar to that Ior website authoring soItware: only 1 claimed they were experts, while 15 said they were somewhat or very skilled. Meanwhile, 9 described themselves as slightly skilled, and 26 said they were entry-level amateurs. Finally, almost halI (48) had no experience whatsoever with HTML or XML coding. In Iact, well over halI (60) oI the survey respondents had never created a website, Journal of Jisual Literacv, Jolume 30, Number 1 32 either with a website authoring program such as Adobe Dreamweaver or through HTML/XML coding. The website authoring data are comparable to those reported in other studies that suggest college students are not particularly skilled in website creation (Kennedy, et al., 2006; Kvavik, 2005; McEuen, 2001). Interestingly, a chi-square suggests that the older participants were more likely to have created a website than were the younger students (p.002), which suggests that students` knowledge oI website creation and design is most probably learned in college. Evaluation of Images & Video In addition to their Iacility and comIort with visually-oriented technologies, another trait that supposedly characterizes digital natives is an awareness oI how easily visual material may be altered, and a concomitant mistrust oI such inIormation when it is presented to them. In order to examine the validity oI this claim, the survey included a series oI questions intended to gauge respondents` perceptions oI images and videos that reach them through the Web, through mainstream and non-mainstream news coverage, and through print media. The questions were as Iollows: When you see images on the Web, do you assume they have been altered in some way? When you see news video Iootage Irom mainstream sources (e.g. CNN, Fox, network television, etc.), do you assume it has been altered in some way? When you see news video Iootage Irom non-mainstream sources (e.g. YouTube), do you assume it has been altered in some way? When you see images in a newspaper, do you assume they have been altered in some way? When you see images in a magazine, do you assume they have been altered in some way? All oI the questions had the same response choices: always, usually, sometimes, rarely, never. Overall, the data revealed that respondents tended to suspect that the images they view on the web and in various media have been altered in some way, but the data do not oIIer clear cut evidence that respondents are consistently inIormed or critical viewers. That is, although respondents were inclined to assume that images have been altered, this tendency is not as strong as one might expect Irom students who are purportedly visually savvy media critics. The distribution oI responses Ior each question is shown in Figure 4. Brumberger - Visual Literacy and digital native...... 33
Figure 4. Evaluation oI Images and Video. (1 never altered, 2 rarely altered, 3 sometimes altered, 4 usually altered, 5 always altered) Web Images The data indicate that the prevalent belieI among survey participants is that images on the Web are typically altered (see Figure 4), although a handIul oI respondents (5) said they rarely made this assumption. The vast majority (87) indicated that they sometimes or usually assume that the images they see on the Web have been altered, and 8 always make that assumption. Aews Jideo Footage and Images Survey participants tended to view news video Iootage Irom non- mainstream sources (e.g. YouTube) in much the same way as they viewed Web images more generally. And, overall, participants considered non-mainstream news Iootage to be somewhat less trustworthy than news video Iootage Irom mainstream sources, as the distributions in Figure 4 illustrate. Well over one-third (40) oI respondents indicated that they usually or always assume non-mainstream news Iootage has been altered; Ior mainstream news sources (e.g. CNN, Fox, network television, etc.), the curve shiIts toward the leIt, with 30 oI respondents saying they usually or always assume the Iootage has been altered. Similarly, almost halI (49) oI the participants said they sometimes assume non-mainstream Iootage has been altered, while just over one-third (36) oI them assumed the same Ior mainstream Iootage. Finally, while only 11 oI respondents said they rarely or never assume that non-mainstream Journal of Jisual Literacv, Jolume 30, Number 1 34 video is altered, a Iull third (33) made this assumption about Iootage Irom mainstream news sources. In short, participants were less likely to think that mainstream news video Iootage has been altered. The curve shiIts even Iurther to the leIt Ior newspaper images. In other words, survey participants were much less likely to think that images in a newspaper were manipulated (see Figure 4). In Iact, almost halI oI respondents (47) said they never or rarely assume that images in a newspaper have been altered. One-third (35) indicated that they sometimes assume the images have been altered, and just over one-quarter (28) said they usually or always make that assumption. The data suggest that the respondents consider printed news sources more credible than television or internet news sources. Magazine Images Respondents were considerably less trusting oI images in magazines than oI those in newspapers (see Figure 4). Although 10 oI respondents said they never or rarely assume that magazine images have been altered, one-third (33) sometimes assume they are, and over halI (58) usually or always assume such images are altered. A Pearson`s chi-square revealed a highly signifcant gender diIIerence (p.0001) in respondents` perception oI magazine images, with Iemale respondents much more likely than male respondents to assume that magazine images are altered. Interpretation of Images The fnal section oI the survey continued the Iocus on reading visual inIormation by asking participants to interpret several images. The images represented a broad range oI subjects; the majority were Pulitzer prize winning journalistic photographs. The survey did not provide source inIormation Ior any oI the images, since that inIormation could bias participants` responses. The questions that accompanied the images were intended to assess participants` methods Ior determining whether or not an image had been altered as well as their ability to extract Iactual inIormation Irom a photograph (such as when and where the image was taken). Additionally, respondents were asked to indicate their perception oI the tone oI particular images. Overall, the survey participants did not demonstrate marked abilities in recognizing contextual clues in an image, although they were better able to interpret the tone. Alteration of Images For two images, the survey asked respondents whether or not they believed the image had been altered. The survey questions Ior each image were as Iollows: Brumberger - Visual Literacy and digital native...... 35 Do you think that this image has been altered? (response choices: defnitely, probably, probably not, defnitely not) Please explain your response. That is, what makes you think the photo was or was not altered? The frst image was a photograph taken in the Bitterroot National Forest in Montana, during a wildfre in August oI 2000 (see Figure 5). The image which had not been altereddepicts two elk standing in a stream, with the fre raging behind them. Figure 5. Bitterroot National Forest, Montana. Photo courtesy oI John McColgan, Alaska Forest Service. (2000). Available at http:// earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id843. Well over three-quarters (80) oI respondents indicated that the image had probably or defnitely been altered. However, what is most interesting is not that respondents thought the image was altered, but their reasons Ior thinking it. By Iar the most commonly cited explanation Ior this belieI was the color and lighting in the photo. Respondents repeatedly indicated that the colors were just too vivid and the contrasts too strong; they Ielt the lighting was too dramatic to be realistic. Additionally, many respondents simply said that the image did not look real or that it looked like a computer graphic or a scene Irom a video game, without explaining these statements Iurther. Another explanation given by many respondents was the placement oI the elk within the image; respondents argued that elk would not stand in the river looking at the fre, but rather would be running away. The prevailing sentiment among those who thought the image was altered seemed to be that, as several respondents put it, the image was just too 'perIectin composition, detail, contrast, dramatic lighting, vivid colorstoo be real. Journal of Jisual Literacv, Jolume 30, Number 1 36 Overall, respondents seemed to judge the veracity oI the image based on their own personal experiences rather than on a more objective set oI criteria Ior determining whether such a scene could be real. That is, iI they had never experienced a situation with such vivid colors, they judged the image to be altered. Many oI those respondents who indicated the image was not altered explained their response by saying that they had lived in an area subject to wildfres, had seen similar photos oI wildfres in CaliIornia, or had actually seen this particular photo on the news. Thus, again, Iamiliarity appeared to be an important criterion Ior judgment. The second image was a Ialse color composite satellite image oI FairIax County, Virginia (see Figure 6). A Ialse color composite is created digitally, using inIormation gathered by the satellite, in order to emphasize particular types oI inIormation (in this case, moisture diIIerences); the satellite image is initially black and white. The color version is reIerred to as a Ialse color composite because the colors are usually not representative oI the true colors oI the scene; in this case, the image relies on intense, almost neon, hues oI purple and green to highlight moisture diIIerences Figure 6. False Color Composite Satellite Image oI FairIax County. Courtesy oI the Chesapeake Bay Irom Space Program. Available at http:// www.cnr.vt.edu/dendro/sols/schoolTrees/IairIaxsatalite/IairIaximagemaps. htm. Given their comments about the color in the Iorest fre photo (Figure 5), Brumberger - Visual Literacy and digital native...... 37 one might expect survey respondents to have indicated resoundingly that the satellite image was altered. In Iact, Iewer respondentstwo-thirds (66)said the image was probably or defnitely altered. Not surprisingly, the explanation those respondents gave was that the colors were artifcial and overly vivid or intense Ior the subject matter, which the majority recognized as some sort oI satellite image. Interestingly, among the one-third (34) oI respondents who thought the image was probably or defnitely not altered, many noted that they recognized the image type (though some described it as a weather radar image). However, they questioned why anyone would alter this type oI image and indicated that it looked 'real. Several respondents said it was a map and made statements like this one: 'Maps don`t really need much editing. The remainder oI the respondents said that they did not know what the image was depicting and thereIore had no reason to believe it was altered. Thus, Ior an image that did not depict a clearly recognizable or Iamiliar scene, respondents used diIIerent criteria Ior assessing veracity and were more willing to accept that the image was unaltered. Extracting Factual Information Like respondents` ability to judge whether or not an image has been altered, their skill at extracting Iactual inIormationsuch as identiIying where or when a photograph might have been takenis inconsistent. In Iact, the data suggest that, overall, these students are not particularly adept at reading Iactual clues in images. Figure 7 shows a marine on the beach at Da Nang, Vietnam. The photo was presented to survey participants in black and white instead oI the original color in order to remove clues that might make it overly simple to identiIy. Respondents were asked when they thought the photograph was taken. Although a handIul oI respondents (5) thought it was taken in the 1920s or 1930s, the largest group (22) thought the image was taken in the 1940s. The remainder oI the responses were distributed Iairly evenly across the decades that Iollowed, with only 15 oI respondents placing the image in the 1960s, when it was actually taken. Thus, respondents were neither successIul at picking out visual clues that might date the photo (e.g. uniIorm style) nor at using their knowledge oI history to aid the interpretative process.t The photograph shown in Figure 8, taken in 2006, depicts a Iemale Jewish settler resisting Israeli security Iorces in the West Bank. The desert landscape, as well as the clothing and skin tone oI the fgures in the photograph, provides clues that might help a viewer determine the location. Respondents were asked where they thought the photograph was taken; the response choices were the United States, Iraq, Israel, and Mexico. While over halI (58) oI the survey Journal of Jisual Literacv, Jolume 30, Number 1 38 respondents chose Israel as the location Ior the photo; the remainder oI the responses were almost equally divided between Iraq (19) and Mexico (21), with 2 oI respondents choosing the United States. Figure 7. 'Da Nang, Vietnam..A young Marine private waits on the beach during the Marine landing. Public Domain. Records oI the U. S. Marine Corps (127-W-A-185146). Photographer unknown, August 3, 1965 (original in color) Figure 8. A Jewish settler challenges Israeli security oIfcers during clashes that erupted as authorities cleared the West Bank settlement oI Amona. (2006). Photo Oded Balilty, Associated Press. Brumberger - Visual Literacy and digital native...... 39 Similarly, the image in Figure 9, taken at the shrine oI Azrat Ali in Mazar- i-ShariI, AIghanistan in 2001, oIIers viewers several contextual clues that suggest where it might have been taken. In the background are domes and minarets typical oI a mosque. Additionally, most oI the men in the image have their heads wrapped in a characteristically Muslim headdress that would be commonly seen in the Middle East and Southern Asia. Finally, the clothing oI the background fgures suggests the location is a less developed eastern country. Survey participants were again asked where they thought the photograph was taken; the choices were Peru, AIghanistan, Russia, and the United States. Not surprisingly, respondents recognized that the image was not Irom the US. However, 9 oI respondents though the photo was taken in Peru. HalI (50) said the photograph was taken in Russia, while 41 were able to correctly identiIy the setting as AIghanistan. Figure 9. At the shrine oI Azrat Ali in Mazar-i-ShariI, AIghanistan. (2001). Photo James Hill, (New York Times). The fnal photograph (Figure 10) depicts a memorial service Ior two slurry bomber pilots whose plane crashed while they were fghting the Big Elk Fire near Estes Park, Colorado, in 2002. The photo includes several Iairly obvious clues as to where it might have been taken. It shows a woman walking toward the camera holding a Iolded US fag; in the background are Iorest service personnel in uniIorm, with the Iorest service patch clearly visible. Survey participants were asked at which oI the Iollowing events they thought the photograph was taken: the Iuneral oI a US soldier, the Iuneral oI a police oIfcer, the Iuneral oI a Canadian Mountie, and the Iuneral oI a Iorest ranger. Just over halI (57) oI the participants selected the correct response (Iuneral oI a Iorest ranger). The remainder oI the responses were distributed Journal of Jisual Literacv, Jolume 30, Number 1 40 as Iollows: 17 oI respondents thought it was taken at the Iuneral oI a US soldier, 13 at the Iuneral oI a police oIfcer, and 13 at the Iuneral oI a Canadian Mountie. Interestingly, a gender diIIerence appeared Ior this image but Ior none oI the other images. A Pearson`s chi-square revealed a signifcant gender diIIerence in the pattern oI responses (p.01), with a Fisher`s exact test confrming that male respondents were more likely to choose the correct response (p.005). Figure 10. At memorial services Ior pilots oI a slurry bomber that crashed fghting the Big Elk Fire near Estes Park. (2002). Photo Joe Mahoney, Rocky Mountain News. In short, although the images in the survey contained varying degrees oI contextual detail, respondents were not adept at identiIying and using even the most immediately visible clues. Visual Facts Composite In order to get a more holistic sense oI survey participants` ability to mine inIormation Irom images, a visual Iacts composite was created that incorporated the responses Ior all oI the images in Figures 7 through 10. First, the responses were recoded as correct and incorrect, then the correct responses were summed to produce the composite; the values ranged Irom zero (no correct responses) to Iour (all correct responses). Figure 11 shows the distribution Ior the visual Iacts composite; the mean was 1.87. That is, on average, survey participants were able to correctly extract inIormation Irom images just under 50 oI the time. Brumberger - Visual Literacy and digital native...... 41 Figure 11. Visual Facts Composite distribution (0 no correct responses, 4 all correct responses) In short, mining inIormation Irom images does not appear to be a strength oI the survey participants. There were no signifcant diIIerences in the visual Iacts composite due to age, gender, major, or class standing, nor were there diIIerences linked to technology skill, gaming or entertainment behavior, or any oI the other Iactors examined in the survey. Interpreting 1one In addition to asking respondents to extract objective inIormation Irom images, the survey required respondents to interpret the tone or mood oI several photographs. For each image, the question pertaining to image tone was as Iollows: 'Which oI these terms best describes the mood/tone oI this photograph? Like the survey questions Iocused on contextual details, the question about tone was multiple choice, with Iour possible responses Ior each question: Overall, respondents were much better at detecting visual tone than they were Iactual details. However, because photographs tend to be complex in their tone and message, and because viewers` interpretations oI images are inherently linked to their own experiences, in some cases more than one oI the choices provided could conceivably be justifed as 'correct. For example, Ior the Bitterroot wildfre photo (Figure 5), almost halI (47) oI survey participants described the tone oI the image as awe-inspiring, which was intended to be the correct response. But, the remainder oI respondents were divided between describing the tone as Irightening (28) and describing it as sorrowIul (24), with a scant 1 fnding it reassuring. It could be argued that the image refects elements oI each oI the frst three descriptors, and, depending on respondents` personal experiences, one message may emerge more strongly than the others. Similarly, 55 oI survey participants said the tone oI the Vietnam photo (Figure 7) was resigned, the intended response. However, another 40 identifed the tone as Irightened; it could be argued that the soldier`s expression contains both resignation and Iear. Only 5 oI respondents chose one oI the other two options: aggressive (3) and enthusiastic (2). Interestingly, when Journal of Jisual Literacv, Jolume 30, Number 1 42 the responses are re-coded 'right (resigned) and 'wrong (all other responses) a signifcant diIIerence due to class standing emerges in a Pearson`s chi-square (p.0006). This may suggest that respondents` interpretation oI the image relies more on what they have learned during college than it does on some inherent level oI visual literacy. Additionally, it proved extremely diIfcult to provide Iour equally plausible tone choices Ior each image, which may have helped respondents arrive at the appropriate response in part through process oI elimination. For example, Ior the West Bank image (Figure 8), 78 oI respondents choose the appropriate descriptor (desperate); the other choices were weak (12), proud (9), and respectIul (1). Similarly, almost three-quarters (75) oI survey participants chose spiritual as the correct descriptor Ior the photograph taken at the shrine oI Azrat Ali in Mazar-i-ShariI, AIghanistan (Figure 9); the other choices included cheerIul (19), tense (6), and IearIul (0). Interestingly, a Fisher`s exact test reveals that Iemale respondents were signifcantly more likely than male respondents (p.0001) to choose the appropriate descriptor Ior this image. Finally, 83 oI respondents labeled the memorial service image (Figure 10) as 'somber rather than peaceIul (11), Iorgiving (3), or angry (3).t Visual Tone Composite Similar to the visual Iacts composite, a visual tone composite was generated in order to provide a more holistic sense oI survey participants` ability to detect the tone/mood oI images. Again, the responses, based on the image in Figure 5 as well as those in Figures 7-10, were recoded as correct and incorrect, then the correct responses were summed to produce the composite; the values Ior the visual tone composite ranged Irom zero (no correct responses) to fve (all correct responses). The distribution is shown in Figure 16. Figure 12. Visual Tone Composite distribution (0 no correct responses, 5 all correct responses) As the fgure illustrates, survey participants` ability to detect visual tone was substantially stronger than their ability to extract Iactual inIormation; the mean was 3.39 correct responses out oI fve possible. However, the data Ior the tone composite also suggest that the ability to identiIy the visual tone oI images diIIers with gender; a Pearson`s chi-square revealed a highly signifcant Brumberger - Visual Literacy and digital native...... 43 diIIerence (p.0007). Overall, women were better able correctly identiIy visual tone, even though proportionally Iewer oI them received a perIect score. Limitations Although the data point to some clear patterns in participants` ability to produce and interpret visual material, patterns that seem to counter the digital natives arguments about visual literacy, the survey also has some important limitations. First, oI course, is the sample. Because oI the sampling method, the data cannot be assumed to be representative oI the entire population oI digital natives. A largerand randomsample would be required Ior that. Additionally, a broader sample would allow more meaningIul comparisons to be made based on socioeconomic Iactors as well as other demographics, including age. For example, the survey data revealed a statistically signifcant age diIIerence (p.0451) in respondents` perceptions oI news video Iootage Irom mainstream sources. Countering the notion oI the digital native, the oldest students (mean age19.76) were most likely to always assume that such Iootage has been altered; in contrast, the respondents who never assumed that such Iootage was altered were the youngest (mean age 19.00). However, the question remains as to whether such a slight age diIIerence is meaningIul in practical terms, and whether more such diIIerences would be apparent in a random sample with a broader age range. A second limitation is due to the survey instrument itselI. The survey was designed to capture a broad spectrum oI data regarding visual literacy, in order to establish a Ioundation and possible directions Ior Iuture studies. Because oI this approach, the survey was lengthy, which precluded asking more than a handIul oI open-ended questions. It is also possible that the length oI the survey impacted the time and thought respondents put into answering those open-ended questions. Thus, although the survey generated a substantial data set, it simultaneous limited the quantity oI in-depth qualitative inIormation gathered. A fnal limitation relates to both the research method and visual literacy itselI. A survey depends on careIully constructed questions that do not lead participants to respond in a particular way. At the same time, visual language depends upon the interaction oI a complex and interconnected set oI understandings, experiences, and abilities, and its meaning is oIten less clear cut than that oI verbal language. So, Ior example, respondents may have diIIerent conceptions oI what it means Ior an image to be altered. However, were the survey to provide a defnition Ior 'altered, the defnition could actually skew their responses. Additionally, the various nuances oI a complex imagethe Vietnam soldier in Figure 7, Ior examplemay not be equally important Journal of Jisual Literacv, Jolume 30, Number 1 44 Ior diIIerent viewers. As the data illustrate, one viewer may see Iear, while another sees resignation. But, how much oI this variation is due to diIIering levels oI visual literacy and how much to diIIering liIe experiences? Similarly, to what extent are diIIerences in the ability to extract contextual inIormation Irom images a product oI visual literacy and to what extent do they depend on knowledge oI history, geography, politics, cultures, and so on? And, can we entirely separate the two? These questions point not only to a limitation oI the survey but also, and more signifcantly, to the need Ior a deeper understanding oI visual literacy itselI. Implications & Conclusions While the study discussed here oIIers only a limited amount and type oI data, the results suggest that, contrary to the digital natives argument, the students who currently populate our classrooms do not possess a high degree oI visual literacy. The data indicate clearly that the survey participants are Iar Irom adept at producing and interpreting visual communication. Even according to survey participants` own selI-assessment, their skill with technologies Ior producing visual communication is limited. Further research might examine these skills through a more hands-on study, in which participants are actually required to complete a series oI tasks with the soItware in question. This approach would yield a more comprehensive understanding oI students` abilities. Given the tendency Ior students` to overestimate their technology skills, such a study may well indicate that students` skills are even weaker than the survey suggests. II conducted with a broad enough sample oI students, it could also point to usage patterns that highlight areas in which students might beneft Irom instruction. Ultimately, however, the question needs to be not just how profcient students are, but how profcient they need to be. The level oI soItware knowledge that students require will depend on their feld oI study and intended career path. That is, although we may defne visual literacy as both productive and interpretative, a less comprehensive set oI criteria may be more realisticand still appropriateIor many students. However, even with a pared down set oI criteria that Iocus solely on interpreting visual communication, the survey participants do not demonstrate a high level oI visual literacy. The data certainly give no indication that students can 'translate images and inIormation eIIortlessly (Riddle, 2007, p. 1) as the digital natives argument would have us believe; in Iact, their ability to respond critically to visual material appears rather weak. This is an area that merits Iurther research, particularly since the ability to read images seems to be more and more important, regardless oI academic or proIessional discipline. Repeating the second part oI the study with a broader base oI images and a Brumberger - Visual Literacy and digital native...... 45 more diverse group oI participants would be a valuable frst step, as would gathering more inIormation about participants` reasons Ior their responses, through Iollow-up interviews, Ior example. Additionally, a study that examines more closely students` interactions with mainstream and non-mainstream news images would be useIul. Further research in these two areas would be invaluable Ior educators, providing an empirical Ioundation that would enable us to better match pedagogical strategies and content to student needs as we help them to become more inIormed and critical consumers oI visual material. Ultimately, the survey results not only challenge the claims oI the digital natives argument, they also highlight two problematic assumptions oI that argument. First is the assumption that so-called digital natives share a particular characteristic that is linked to technological access and ability. As PalIrey and Gasser (2008) point out, 'The vast majority oI young people born in the world today are not growing up as Digital Natives. There is a yawning participation gap between those who are Digital Natives and those who are the same age, but who are not learning about digital technologies and living their lives in the same way(p. 14). Ironically, this suggests that a limitation oI the surveythe sampling methodmay have resulted in data that demonstrate stronger visual literacy traits than those oI the general digital natives age group, because the survey participants are Irom somewhat privileged backgrounds, and should, thereIore, have greater access to technology. Beyond the rather obvious Iact that not all members oI the generational cohort have equal access to the technologies in question, the survey data suggest that even those with access do not necessarily demonstrate Iacility with the technologies. In Iact, the survey results point to some distinct diIIerences in technology use linked to gender, in keeping with other studies that have Iound males are more likely than Iemales to play video games and to use technology tools more Irequently (Kennedy, et al., 2006). Second, and possibly even more important, the digital natives argument presumes that repeated interaction with visual material somehow results in visual literacy. However, as Felten (2008) notes, 'Living in an image-rich world.does not mean students.naturally possess sophisticated visual literacy skills, just as continually listening to an iPod does not teach a person to critically analyze or create music (p. 60). That is, exposure to visual inIormation does not necessarily lead to visual literacyto the ability to decode and create visual messageswhich is one oI the underlying assumptions oI the digital natives argument. As signifcantly, a students` ownership or mastery oI visual communication technology (a digital camera, graphics soItware, etc.) does not equate to an ability to create eIIective visual communication through the application oI design principles and techniques, nor does it show the way to Journal of Jisual Literacv, Jolume 30, Number 1 46 analyzing the visual work oI others. In short, even iI our students are exposed earlyand repeatedlyto visual material, be it through video games, television, advertisements, the World Wide Web, or a host oI other media, and even iI they have access to and skills with visual communication technologies, we cannot assume they are visually literate, as the digital natives argument suggests. II we accept that visual literacy is an essential ability Ior the 21 st century, we must teach our students to be visually literate, just as we teach them to be verbally literate. References Bennett, S, Maton, K., & Kervin, L. (2009). The Digital Natives` debate: A critical review oI the evidence. British Journal of Educational Technologv, 39(5), 775-786. Bleed, R. (2005). Visual literacy in higher education. EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative Explorations 1, 1-11. Available at http://net.educause.edu/ir/ library/pdI/ELI4001.pdI. Coates, J. (2006). Generational learning stvles. River Falls, Wisconsin: LERN Books. Debes, J. (1969). The loom oI visual literacy: An overview. Audiovisual Instruction, 14(8), 25-27. Felten, P. (2008). Visual literacy. Change, 40(6), 60-63. Kennedy, G., et al. (2006). First Year Students Experiences with Technologv. Are thev reallv Digital Natives? Internal report, The University oI Melbourne. Melbourne, Australia: University oI Melbourne Centre Ior Study oI Higher Education. Available at http://www.bmu.unimelb.edu.au/ research/munatives/nativesreport2006.pdI Kvavik, R.B. (2005). Convenience, communications, and control: How students use technology. In Oblinger, D.G., & Oblinger, J.L. (Eds.), Educating the net generation (p. 7.1-7.20). Educause, available online at www.educause.edu/educatingthenetgen/. Oblinger, D.G., & Oblinger, J.L. (2005). Is it age or IT: First steps toward understanding the net generation. In Oblinger, D.G., & Oblinger, J.L. (Eds.), Educating the net generation (p. 2.1-2.20). Educause, available online at www.educause.edu/educatingthenetgen/. PalIrey, J., & Gasser, U. (2008). Born digital. Understanding the first generation of digital natives. New York: Basic Books. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Hori:on 9(5), 1-6. Riddle, J. (2007). Engaging the eve generation. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers. Brumberger - Visual Literacy and digital native...... 47 SelIe, C.L. (2004). Toward new media texts: Taking up the challenges oI visual literacy. In Wysocki, A.F., Johnson-Eilola, J., SelIe, C.L., & Sirc, G. Writing new media. Theorv and applications for expanding the teaching of composition (p. 66-110). Logan: Utah State University Press: Smith, S., Salaway, G., & Caruso, J.B. (2009). The ECAR studv of undergraduate students and information technologv, 2009. Boulder, CO: EDUCAUSE Center Ior Applied Research. Tapscott, D. (2009). Grown up digital: How the net generation is changing your world. New York: McGraw Hill. 21 st centurv skills. Literacv in the digital age.(2003). enGauge. Available online at http://www.ncrel.org/engauge. . Copyright of Journal of Visual Literacy is the property of International Visual Literacy Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.