UNIT -1 BLEACHING:

The textile chemical processing sector of the textile industry covers all the processes on the textile that
involve some form of wet or chemical treatment. Processes such as scouring, bleaching, dyeing, printing
and finishing are carried out at different stages during textile manufacturing.
These processes all involve some form of chemical action on the material. The textile wet processing
sector can be divided into three distinct sections.
1. Preparation process
2. Coloration process
3. inishing process
1. PREPARATION PROCESS:
The pretreatment process is carried out to prepare the textile material for subse!uent processing, which
includes dyeing, printing and finishing. "t is the heart of textile processing
The processes are# $ingeing, %esi&ing, $couring, 'leaching, (erceri&ing, etc.
2. COLOURATION PROCESSES:
This process is to provide the textile with colour either for aesthetic reasons or for some functional
purpose determined by the end)use of the product.
The processes are# %yeing, Printing.
3. FINISHING PROCESSES:
This process is to provide the textile with the properties that the end)use demands and which have not
already been provided by any earlier processes. The finishing processes are normally given to the textile
material for aesthetic or functional purpose.
The finishing treatment is given to the !uality of the fabric in terms of appearance, handle, functionally
enhanced by some physical means or by chemicals.
The finishing process is two types
1. (echanical process
2. Chemical process
EXAMPLE:
(echanical processes# Compacting, Calendaring, *aising
Chemical processes# $oftening, stiffeneing,+ater *epellency, lame *epellency, ,ntisoiling finish etc.
PREPARATORY PROCESS
Pretreatment is a heart of processing of textile. "n Pretreatment, all these impurities are removed and
fabric is brought to a stage where it is more absorbent and white and can be easily processed further.
The process which is done to ma-e the textile materials suitable for dyeing and printing such as
singeing, desi&ing, scouring, bleaching etc.
DEFINITION:
Pretreatment means any treatment, which is done before actual .dyeing and printing/ process.
Textile pretreatment is the series of cleaning operations.
,ll impurities which cause adverse effect during dyeing and printing are removed in pretreatment
process.
OBJECTIVES:
*emove impurities .both natural and0or those added during production/ from the fibers.
"mprove the ability of the fibers to absorb water solutions of dyes and chemicals.
"mpart the proper brightness or whiteness to fibers according to need, especially when brilliant or
certain pastel shades are desired, and
"mpart dimensional stability to thermoplastic textile materials.
CONSTITUENTS OF COTTON:
,s discussed earlier pretreatment is the series of cleaning operations. "n pretreatment all the
impurities present in cotton are removed. Cotton fiber by nature contains#
Cellulose 12.13
4il and +axes 5.63
Pectin7s 1.53
Carbohydrates 5.83
Proteins 1.23
$alt 1.53
(oisture 1.83
Colour Pigments
4thers 2.53
9xcept cellulose and water all the other are called as natural impurities.
Theses all the natural impurities are removed in pretreatment process.
PROCESS INVOLVED FOR REMOVING THE NATURAL IMPURITIES DURING THE PRE-
TREATMENT PROCESS:
: $hort ibres ) $ingeing
: ,pplied "mpurities .$i&e (aterial/ ) %esi&ing
: ,rtificial "mpurities .4il, $trains, %ust, %irt/ ) $couring
: ;atural "mpurities .4il, +ax, Pectin7s, Proteins/ ) $couring
: Colour Pigments .;aturally present in cotton/ ) 'leaching
PRETREATMENT PROCESS OF COTTON FABRIC:
"nspection of grey fabric
(ar-ing of grey fabric
$titching
$hearing 0 Cropping
$ingeing
%esi&ing .only for woven fabric/
$couring
'leaching
1. INSPECTION OF GREY FABRIC:
,fter receiving the cloth from grey godown, it should be thoroughly chec-ed and inspected before
sub<ecting it to wet processing. The cloth is examined for the following#
FABRIC DEFECTS:
4il, rust, stains, holes, damage selvedge and weaving faults li-e floats and read mar-s etc.
FABRIC SPECIFICATIONS#
+idth, length, yarn count, ends and pic-s per inch and fabric composition.
2. MARKING OF GREY FABRIC:
'efore carrying out any process, mar-s are made on the material for identification. or mar-ing,
special in-s are used for capable of resisting all subse!uent treatment which the material may have to
go undergo.
3. STITCHING#
$mall pieces of fabric are stitched together so as to form a continuous length, which is wor-able in
the subse!uent processes. The stitching must be very secure so that the fabric may run smoothly on
various machines.
4. SHEARING CROPPING:
The tufts and loose threads from the surface of material removed by the cutting them with blades on
shearing or cropping machines. This process is carried out in open width form.
!. SINGEING:
$ingeing is the process for burning off of the protruding or short fiber ends on the surface of fabrics
to produce smooth fabric appearance and minimi&e pilling.
2. DESI"ING:
%esi&ing is the process in which si&e material is removed.
6. SCOURING:
$couring is the process in which natural as well as artificial impurities are removed
#- BLEACHING:
'leaching is the process in which we remove the colour pigments in order to achieve the degree
of whiteness.
$- MERCERI"ATION:
(erceri&ation is the optional process or in on the customer re!uirement. (erceri&ation is done to
achieve the luster, strength, more absorbent etc.
SINGEING
The verb =singe7 literally means =to burn superficially7. Technically, singeing refers to the burning)off
of#
> ?oose fibres not firmly bound into the yarn and0or fabric structure@
> ?oose yarns not firmly bound into the fabric structure@
> Protruding fibre ends stic-ing out of the textile yarns and0or abrics
O%&'()*+',:
'urning of protruding fibers from surface of yarn
or fabric
To improve the lustre and smoothness of the
material
$moother and more uniform surface
'righter appearance
$inged fabrics allow printing of fine intricate patterns with high clarity and detail.
T-.', /0 ,*12'*12 34(5*1',
There are three main types of singeing machines#
1. Plate singeing machine
2. *otary)cylinder singeing machine
3. Aas singeing machine
DESI"ING
: %esi&ing is used for removing si&ing compounds from woven fabric previously applied to warp
and is usually the first wet finishing operation performed on woven fabric
O%&'()*+',:
: *emoval of added impurities) startch
: +eight loss
: "mprove wettability
C64,,*0*(4)*/1 /0 D',*7*12 M')5/8,
The desi&ing methods can be classified as in
SCOURING:
$couring is the process by which all natural and additive impurities such as oil, wax, fat, hand dust etc.
are removed to produce hydrophilic and clean textile material. "t is one of the vital processes of wet
processing.
The action of scouring is performed by the al-ali .sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate/ together with
auxiliaries
The main effects of this treatment are a 8 to 153 loss in mass and a dramatic improvement in wettability
and absorbency
The natural and added impurities have to be removed for the following reasons#
The si&ing ingredients have to be removed for obtaining uniform reaction of chemicals during
bleaching operation.
The waxes, proteins, spinning oils need to be removed to get uniform absorbency for dyeing and
printing.
(ineral matter and natural coloring matter have to be removed to get uniform whiteness.
O%&'(), /0 S(/9:*12:
: To ma-e the fabric highly hydrophilic.
: To remove natural impurities such as oils, waxes, gum, hus-s as nearly as possible.
: To increase absorbency of fabric or textile materials without physical and chemical damage.
: To produce a clean material by adding al-ali.
: To ma-e the fabric ready for next process.
: To remove non)cellulosic substance in case of cotton.
T5' (5412', /((9::*12 /0 (/))/1 0*%':, 89:*12 ,(/9:*12:
: $aponifiable oils and free fatty acids are converted into soaps.
: Pectins and pectoses are converted into soluble salts of pectic acid.
: Proteins are degraded to simple soluble amino acids or ammonia.
: (ineral matters are mostly dissolved.
: ;on)saponifiable oils are emulsified by the soluble soaps generated from the saponifiable oils.
: ,dditive dirts are removed.
: *esidual si&ing materials are bro-en down into soluble products.
S(/9:*12 .:/(',, 8'.'18, /1:
: The type of cotton. B The color of cotton.
: The cleanliness of cotton.
: The twist and count of the yarn.
: The construction of the fabric.
: The shade 3 and type of shade of finished product
BLEACHING OF TEXTILES
I1):/89()*/1
The natural fibre and fabrics even after scouring still contain naturally occurring colouring matter. This
yellowish and brown discolouration may be related to flavones pigments of the cotton flower. The
climate, soil, drought and frost can also cause various degrees of yellowness. Tips of leaves or stal-s
coming in contact with the moist ball after opening will cause dar- spots and discolouration.
%iscolouration may also come from dirt, dust, and insects or from harvesting or processing e!uipment in
the form of oils and greases.
D'0*1*)*/1:
The process in which natural coloring matter is removed from a fiber to ma-e it white. The process may
be used on fiber, yarn, or fabric
O%&'()*+',:
To produce white fabrics by destroying the colouring matter with the help of bleaching agents with
minimum degradation of the fibre.

C64,,*0*(4)*/1 /0 %6'4(5*12 42'1),
The bleaching agents are classified in two types based the principles involved in removing of naturals
colouring matter in the fiber.
The bleaching agents either oxidi&e or reduce the colouring matter which is washed out and whiteness
thus obtained is of permanent nature.
$o that bleaching agents are called as /;*84)*/1 </;*8*7*12= %6'4(5*12 42'1), 418 :'89()*+'
<:'89(*12= %6'4(5*12 42'1),
Chlorine based materials such as sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite and sodium chlorite,
predominated until the late 1C25s when peroxide came into wider use with the cheaper electrolytic
synthesis of hydrogen peroxide.
'y 1CD5, about 283 and to)day about C53 of all cotton is bleached with hydrogen peroxide.
O;*84)*+' %6'4(5*12
The bleaching agent is a chemical reagent which decomposes in al-ali solution and produce active
oxygen.
The active oxygen is in fact the intrinsic bleaching agent as it will further destroy partly or completely
the coloring matter present in the textile material.
R'89()*+' %6'4(5*12
The bleaching agent will destroy the coloring matter by reductive reaction of $4
2
.
A9;*6*4:*',
"t is used for to support and improve the efficiency of bleaching process. The following auxiliaries is
used in bleaching process.
$tabili&ers
,ctivators
+etting agents0detergents
$e!uestering agents
,nti)corrosion agents
BLEACHING OF COTTON >ITH HYPOCHLORITES
: Eypochlorite bleaching .4Cl
)
/ is the oldest industrial method of bleaching cotton. 4riginally,
calcium hypochlorite, Ca.4Cl/
2
.bleaching powder/ was used. Fntil 1CD5 most cotton fabrics
were bleached with ;a4Cl. Today only 15 3 of the cotton fabrics bleached with sodium
hypochlorite method.
: Their use is declining because of anti)chlorine lobby and environmental pressures.
: Eypochlorites are excellent cidal agents for mildew and other bacteria and are used as
disinfectants and to control bacteria in swimming pools.
S/8*93 5-./(56/:*)'
$odium hypochlorite is a sodium salt of hypochlorous acid .E4C"/.
$odium hypochlorite can be prepared by passing chlorine gas into a tan- containing prepared solution of
caustic soda, sodium carbonate or mixture of the two .about D3 by weight/ at about 26GC
2;a4E H C1
2
I ;a4C1 H ;aC1 H E
2
5 H 28 Cal
2;a4E H 3C1
2
I ;aC1 H ;aC14
3
H 3E
2
5
$odium hypochlorite is called as the strongest oxidative bleaching agent used in textile processing
because of it is released the nascent oxygen .bleaching agents/ at room temperature in al-ali condition
.pE)15.8 to 11/
The strength of hypochlorites is generally expressed as the 4+4*64%6' (56/:*1' (/1)'1). The amount of
chlorine present in one liter of sodium hypochlorite solution.
Commercial ;a4Cl will have 12 )/ 1! ? active chlorine. Eousehold bleach is ! ? active chlorine.
Calcium hypochlorite is sold as a solid material and contains @! ? active chlorine.
Prior to bleaching with hypochlorite, it is necessary to thoroughly scour fabrics to remove fats, waxes
and pectin impurities. These impurities will deplete the available hypochlorite, reducing its effectiveness
for whitening fabric.
M'(541*,3 /0 %6'4(5*12
The mechanism of sodium hypochlorite .;a4Cl/ bleaching is four step processes.
1. Eydrolysis
2. *elease of bleaching agent
3. (aximum development of bleaching active agent .E4Cl/
D. ,vailable chlorine
1. Eydrolysis
$odium hypochlorite is dissolved in water and it7s release the Eypochlorous acid .E4Cl/
Eypochlorous acid .E4Cl/ is the active bleaching agent.
;a4Cl H E
2
4 ;a4E H E4Cl
2. *elease of bleaching agent
Eypochlorous acid .E4Cl/ is a wea-est acid in al-ali condition. $o that it is selfly decomposed in
this condition and disassociates in strongest hydrochloric acid .ECl/ and nascent oxygen .4/.
The nascent oxygen is a bleaching agent. "t is oxdising the natural colouring matters and converts to
simple colourless compound.
E4Cl J ECl H .4/
3. (aximum development of bleaching active agent .E4Cl/
To develop the maximum amount of amount bleaching active agent .E4Cl/ with help of
hydrochloric acid .ECl/ present solution.
;a4Cl H ECl J ;aCl H E4Cl
D. ormation of free chlorine
To release the chlorine for bleaching process
E4Cl H ECl E
2
4HCl
2
P:/(',,:
The process of hypochlorite bleaching is normally batch process.
1. abric preparation
2. 'leaching solution preparation
3. 'laching
D. +ashing
8. $ouring
2. washing
6. ,ntichlor treatment
1. +ashing
1. F4%:*( .:'.4:4)*/1
abric must be desi&ed and scoured.
2. B6'4(5*12 ,/69)*/1 .:'.4:4)*/1
The solution is prepared based on the below recipe
R'(*.'#
;a4Cl > 1.8 to 3 gpl of available chlorine
;a
2
C4
3
> 5.8 gpl
F91()*/1 /0 C5'3*(46
;a4Cl > 'leaching ,gent
;a
2
C4
3
> "ts act as a buffer and to control pE of the solution. "t7s also called bleaching active agent
3. B64(5*12
The bleaching normally done in batch process. Kigger, winch, -ier, cistern, softflow dyeing machine
normally used for bleaching process
C/18*)*/1 /0 .:/(',,:
Temperature # room temperature
pE # 15.8 > 11
Time # 1)2 Eours
Cistern machine#
P4:),:
4. >4,5*12
,fter bleaching, the bleached fabric washing with hot wash and clod wash
!. S/9:*12
'leached fabric is treated with diluted hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid with 35 mins to ma-e
neutral condition for bleached fabric.
@. >4,5*12
,fter bleaching, the bleached fabric washing with hot wash and clod wash
A. A1)* (56/:*1' ):'4)3'1)
,nti chlorine treatment is to remove the chlorine content present in the hypochlorite bleached fabric
to avoid the yellowise problem due to formation of chloramines by using sodium bisulphate or
sodium thiosulphate or sodium hydrosulphite.
#. >4,5*12
,fter bleaching, the bleached fabric washing with hot wash and clod wash
F4()/:, '00'()*12 *1 5-./(56/:*)' %6'4(5*12 /.':4)*/1,
Cotton can be bleached with hypochlorite solution at room temperature containing 1)3 g available
chlorine per litre at pE range of C.8 to 11. The pE is maintained by adding 8 g01 sodium carbonate in
the bleach bath. ,fter bleaching the cloth is treated with dilute hydrochloric acid to neutralise any al-ali
.souring/ present in the cloth. ,n antichlor treatment with sodium thiosulphate or bisulphite is also
recommended to remove any residual chlorine from the cloth. inally, the cloth is washed with water to
rinse out acid from the cloth.
E00'() /0 .H
"n the region of pE 6, when hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion are present approximate the
same concentrations, the rate of attac- on cellulose is greatly enhanced.
"n the case of bleaching powder the pE has fallen to within the danger &one after 18 min and after l
hours when sodium hypochlorite is used.
,s the pE falls below 8, the liberation of chlorine begins to ta-e place and pE below 1.8, the whole
of hypochlorous acid is converted into chlorine.
"n the pE range C to 11, a plateu occurs at which little change occurs and is the normal use range for
bleaching with hypochlorite solution.
E00'() /0 )'3.':4)9:'
Aenerally bleaching of cotton is carried out with 1.8 g01 of hypochlorite solution at about D5GC for 1
hours. Eigher temperature increases the rate of bleaching but at the same time degradation of cotton
is also increased.
, hypochlorite solution by themselves is !uite stable at the boil at pE values 11 or higher, but
decomposes at lower pE values.
%uring the decomposition of hypochlorite solutions, chlorate formation predominates in the absence
of cotton, while in the presence of cotton, it is practically absent under al-aline condition.
Eypochlorite solutions if buffered to pE 11, the rate of bleaching are increased by a factor of 2.3
times for every 15GC rise in temperature. "t is thus, possible to bleach at 25GC in 6 min, but is
difficult to control the degradation of cotton in such short period of bleaching.
E00'() /0 (/1('1):4)*/1
The commercial solution of sodium hypochlorite contains 1D)183 available chlorine, compared to
38)323 in bleaching powder. The concentration of hypochlorite in the bleaching bath generally
varies from 1 to 3 g01 available chlorine.
The optimum bleaching conditions, however, depend on the degree of discolouration of the cloth and
thus the temperature and time of reaction should be ad<usted according to the re!uirement. The
concentration of hypochlorite solution is normally estimated by means of standard thiosulphate or
arsenite titration.
E00'() /0 '6'():/6-)'
The addition of salt in the hypochlorite bleaching bath increases the activity in the initial period due to
the production of nascent chlorine. The addition of chloride moves the e!uilibrium to the left)hand side,
but after, say 18 rain, when the new e!uilibrium is reached, the sudden stimulated effect is ceased and
bleaching resumes its normal course and hence action of salt is only temporary and confined to the first
stage of bleaching.
A8+41)42', /0 ,/8*93 5-./(56/:*)' %6'4(5*12 /+': %6'4(5*12 ./B8':
$odium hypochlorite has practically replaced bleaching powder due to its various advantages although
solutions of hypochlorite are more expensive than calcium hypochlorite.
'leaching powder is a mixture of calcium hypochlorite with lime. Thus, calcium carbonate
settles on the fibre during bleaching process. 4n the contrary, sodium hypochlorite is free from
any such danger of spec-s of lime being deposited on the cloth.
'leaching powder is partially soluble in water and exists in a solid form. Eowever, sodium
hypochlorite, being sodium salt of hypochlorous acid, does not re!uire any dissolving
arrangement and are ready for immediate use.
Eypochlorites are easy to handle.
Chlorinated lime re!uires higher al-alinity than that of sodium hypochlorite solutions for active
bleaching conditions.
$odium hypochlorite solutions have fewer tendencies for the pE value to fall during bleaching.
Caustic soda is liberated by the hydrolysis of sodium hypochtorite form sodium carbonate under
the action of carbon dioxide from atmosphere. $odium carbonate thus formed can be easily
washed away with water and reduces acid re!uirement for souring. "n such case, sulphuric acid
may be used as souring agent in place of the more costly hydrochloric acid.
$odium hypochlorite can penetrate into the fabric more thoroughly than in the case of bleaching
powder and therefore shorter time of bleaching is possible in the case of sodium hypochlorite.
D*,48+41)42', /0 ,/8*93 5-./(56/:*)'
$odium hypochlorite does not produce completely satisfactory whites inspite of many
advantages.
'leaching with sodium hypochlorite produces slight damage to cellulosic fibres.
$odium hypochlorite cannot be used for the bleaching of synthetic fibres as it produces greater
damage to such fibres.
'leaching with sodium hypochlorite solution re!uires corrosion resistant e!uipment.
$odium hypochlorite produces unpleasant odours in wor-ing environment.
$odium hypochlorite solution is harmful to s-in in concentrated form.
"t produces harsh handle on fabric. urthermore, it cannot be used on natural animal fibres.
$tabilisation of sodium hypochlorite is difficult to achieve where pE varies.
The formation of highly toxic chlorinated organic biproducts .,4L/ during the bleaching
process has limited its use because these compounds are a potential ha&ard to the drin-ing water
resources when discharged
B6'4(5*12 B*)5 H-8:/2'1 P':/;*8'
The volume strength of hydrogen peroxide is expressed as the volume of liberated oxygen at on
heating one volume of hydrogen peroxide sample.
Eydrogen peroxide is generally made of 15, 12, 25, 155 and 135 volume strength.
, 15 volume peroxide solution is one which will liberate 15 times its own volume of oxygen. The
percentage concentration is expressed as the !uantity of pure hydrogen peroxide in 155 parts of
sample and is expressed as x3, y3 etc.
The commercial supply of hydrogen peroxide is generally 383 and 853. , 15 volume hydrogen
peroxide contains 33 hydrogen peroxide and thus, 13 E
2
4
2
I 3.3 volume concentration.
M'(541*,3 /0 .':/;*8' %6'4(5*12
Though hydrogen peroxide is stable in acidic medium, but bleaching occurs by the addition of al-ali or
by increased temperature.
1. A9)/6-,*,
E
2
4
2
C E24 H .4/ H x -cal
2. D*,,/6+'8 *1 AD9',*/9, M'8*93
E
2
5
2
E
H
H E4
2
)
3. B6'4(5*12 R'4()*/1
E4
2
)
J 4E
)
H .4/ atomic oxygen .bleach active/
4. B6'4(5*12 R'4()*/1 *1 46E46* 3'8*93 <4()*+4)*/1=
;aE4
2
;a
H
H E4
2
)
!. D'(/3./,)*/1
2E
2
4
2
J 2E
2
5 H 4
2
S)4%*6*,':, 0/: .':/;*8' %6'4(5*12
The process of regulation or control of per hydroxyl ion to prevent rapid decomposition of
bleach and to minimise fibre degradation is described as stabilisation.
$tabilisers for peroxide normally function by controlling the formation of free radicals.
The commonly used stabliser is sodium metasilicate. $odium silicate is the most conventional,
easily available and widely used stabiliser.
$odium silicate forms a complex compound with perhydroxyl ions which are liberated slowly at
higher temperature during bleaching process.
P4:43')':, *1 .':/;*8' %6'4(5*12 /.':4)*/1,
1. E00'() /0 .H
The stability of hydrogen peroxide depends on pE.
,t pE 1 to 3 it is stable @
,t highly al-aline pE 11.8 to 13 it has least stability.
The bleaching ta-es place around 15.8 due to accumulation of perhydroxyl ions in the bleaching
bath. ,t neutral or wea- al-aline media, hydrogen peroxide does not produce any whitening
effect and may cause degradation of cellulose.
2. E00'() /0 T'3.':4)9:'
"n practice cotton bleaching with hydrogen peroxide is carried out at C5)155MC but the
temperature may be increased to 125MC in the case of pressurised e!uipment with a
corresponding reduction in process time.
The rate of bleaching increases with the increase in temperature, but at the same time
solution becomes unstable and degradation of cotton increases.
'elow 15MC the evolution of perhydroxyl ion is very slow so also the rate of bleaching.
3. E00'() /0 (/1('1):4)*/1 /0 6*D9/:
The optimum concentration of hydrogen peroxide depends on number of factors namely
1/ ?i!uor *atio,
2/ Temperature and
3/ Class of ibre.
"n the batch process using -iers about 2)D3 .o.w.f./ hydrogen peroxide is sufficient for
cotton fabrics with a li!uor ratio of 15#1 to 25#1.
"n the continuous process, the cotton fabrics are saturated with bleach bath containing 1)23
.o.w.f./ hydrogen peroxide.
Nery high concentration may damage the fibre.
4. E00'() /0 )*3'
The time re!uired to bleach with hydrogen peroxide depends on temperature, class of
fibre and e!uipment used for bleaching.
"n general, the time of bleaching is inversely proportional to the temperature of the
bleaching bath. Cotton may be bleached in open -iers by circulating heated hydrogen
peroxide solution .11)C8 MC / for 2 to 15 hours.
C/1)*19/9, %6'4(5*12 /0 5-8:/2'1 .':/;*8' %6'4(5*12
The process is combination of both scouring and bleaching process. The following step are involved
1. $couring
P,%%";A
P*9E9,T
K'4L
+,$E";A
2. 'leaching
P,%%";A
P*9E9,T
K'4L
+,$E";A
S(/9:*12
P488*12 <(49,)*( ,4)9:4)/:=
abric Padded +ith D )8 3 concentrated solution of caustic soda at 68MC run at 2 to 1 times
The cloth is s!uee&ed at 15 > C53 expression through the pair of rolls.
R'(*.':
;a4E > D)83
;a
2
$io
3
> 13
+etting agent > 13
$oap > 5.83
P:'5'4)
Eeating chemically padded fabric to C3 to 155MC by applying steam.
J - B/;
$toring heated cloth for sufficient period of time to allow the bleaching reaction to ta-e place
Temperature# 155MC
Time# 25 > C5 mins
>4,5*12
+ash the scoured fabric to remove the chemicals and products of decomposition
B6'4(5*12 <P':/;*8' ,4)9:4)/:=
P488*12
abric Padded +ith 2 )1 3 concentrated solution of Eydrogen Peroxide run at 2 to 1 times
The cloth is s!uee&ed at 15 > C53 expression through the pair of rolls.
R'(*.':
E
2
4
2
> 2 )1 3
;a4E > 5.D)5.23
;a
2
$io
3
> 33
;a
2
Co
3
> 5.1 ) 23
P:'5'4)
Eeating chemically padded fabric to C5 to 155MC by applying steam
J - B/;
$toring heated cloth for sufficient period of time to allow the bleaching reaction to ta-e place
Temperature# 155MC
Time# 25 > C5 mins
>4,5*12
+ash the scoured fabric to remove the chemicals and products of decomposition
P':/;*8' E*66':
To remove the traces of the peroxide content in bleached fabric using vigorous rinsing or using
inorganic reducing agents.
>4,5*12
+ash the bleached fabric to remove the chemicals and products of decomposition
A8+41)42', 418 D*,48+41)42', /0 P':/;*8' /+': H-./(56/:*)' B6'4(5*12
A8+41)42',:
i. Peroxide is a universal bleaching agent and can be employed for wool, sil- as well as cotton.
Eydrogen peroxide is a milder reagent than hypochlorite and the degrading effect of peroxide
bleaching on cellulose is less influenced than is the case with hypochlorite.
ii. Peroxide is capable of continuing the scouring action simultaneously with the bleaching action,
thus a single stage combined scour and bleach or a continuous method is possible using
hydrogen peroxide.
iii. Peroxide bleaching is in general less liable to have adverse effect on dyed threads. The white
effect is good and permanent and there is less ris- of yellowing at a later stage.
iv. Thorough rinsing followed by scouring or antichlor treatment is re!uired with hypochlorite
bleaching, whereas with peroxide a comparatively short rinsing suffices.
v. +ith hydrogen peroxide, there is no danger of e!uipment corrosion, no unpleasent odours and no
limitations as to processing techni!ues.
vi. "ncreasing strict control over the discharge of ,4L from chlorine bleaching li!uors has led to a
greater advantage of peroxide processes for bleaching cellulosic fibres
D*,48+41)42',
i. 'leaching with peroxide is costlier than that of hypochlorite or bleaching powder.
ii. Eydrogen peroxide bleaching re!uires stabilisation usually with silicates which brings the ris- of
forming resist stains in subse!uent dyeing, and causes a build)up of hard crystalline deposits on
plant and machinery causing abrasion damage to the fabric during passage.
iii. Catalytic damageO occurs during hydrogen peroxide bleaching of cotton fabrics and results in
small spots of unevenly dyed fabric or even, in severe cases, the formation of small holes.
iv. There is limitation in white obtained on acrylic fibres. "t also causes deleterious effect on s-in
when used in a concentrated form.
B6'4(5*12 /0 (/))/1 B*)5 ,/8*93 (56/:*)'
Cotton can be effectively bleached with sodium chlorite .1)23/ at a pE D.5 :
$odium %ihydrogen phosphate .5.2)5.83/, $table oaming and +etting agent .5.1)5.283/,
;itrogenous chlorine absorber and formic acid to maintain the pE.
The temperature of the bleach bath is raised to 12)C5MC and maintained at this temperature for 1)
3 h depending upon the machines .batch wise/ employed for bleaching.
Chemicals should be added in the following order#
+ater, previously dissolved sodium nitrate, buffer salts or other chlorite stabiliser, surfactants,
sodium chlorite .pre)dissolved, if solid product/ and lastly the diluted acid.
The addition of acidic materials to concentrated sodium chlorite solutions must be avoided.
$odium nitrate is used as a corrosion inhibitor.
"t is not essential to use acid chlorite solutions in the semi)continuous processes .pad)roll or pad)
stac-/ where effective li!uor ratio is low and neutral chlorite solutions .15 g0l/ are recommended.
+hen long batching time are used, soda)ash .1 g0l/ is added to maintain stability of the bath.
>INCH DYEING MC
$uitable for Pnitted abric %yeing
(aterial to ?i!uor *atio is 1#25 > 1#D5
abric dyeing with free from of tension
Capacity of winch m0c 15-g to 1555-g
CALENDERING
D'0*1*)*/1
Calendering is a process where fabric is compressed by passing it between two or more rolls
under controlled conditions of time, temperature and pressure.
Calender is a machine consisting of two or more massive rollers which are compressed by means
of hydraulic cylinders applying pressure at the <ournals
The reason fabrics are calendared is to improve aesthetics.
F91()*/1 /0 :/66'::
4ne roll is considered the pattern roll and is responsible for the finished appearance of the fabric
The other roll is called a bowl and serves as the pressure bac-)up for the pattern roll and also
serves to transports the fabric through the machine.
T'3.':4)9:'
The temperature ranges from cold to 855G
P:',,9:'
Pressure may range from 255 psi to 2855 psi.
(oisture in the form of water or steam may be used to achieve a desired luster.
E00'(),:
The composition of the rollers, number of passes, temperature controls, moisture control , fabric speed,
number of bowls, arrangement of bowls, and pressure can vary to fit the desired effect
The ma<or fabric changes are#
1. To compress the fabric and *educed fabric thic-ness.
2. "ncreased fabric luster
3. "ncreased fabric cover
D. To up grade the fabric and impart smooth sil-y surface feel
8. *educed air porosity and
2. *educed yarn slippage.
T-.', /0 C46'18':,
The type of calendar used depends on the type of cloth to be run and what the desired effect is to be.
There are
9mbossing calenders
riction calenders
$wi&&ing calenders
Chase calenders
Compaction calenders and
$chreiner Calender
The difference between them is the number of rolls and the drive system.
T5' 9,' /0 8*00':'1) )-.', /0 (46'18':, 2*+', 8*00':'1) '00'(), ,9(5 4,:
S5''1 4..'4:41(':
"t can be obtained by smoothing the cloth surface, which ensures a better reflection of light.
B'))': (/+':42':
"t is due to the compression of the cloth, which generates a flattening of each single yarn.
S/0)': 5418:
"t is obtained than-s to a slight ironing effect, which produces a smoother, and softer cloth
surface
S9:04(' .4))':1,:
They can be obtained by means of special effects .QembossingQ for example/ for decorative
purposes or to modify the surface smoothness.
Y4:1 ,B'66*12 418 :/918*12 '00'():
They give a modest gla&e finishing to the fabric, a surface smoothness and above all a full and
soft hand.
UNIVERSAL CALENDERS:
These calenders, e!uipped with 3)8)6 or even more rollers, are referred to as universal calenders. They
can give the fabric different effects@ some of them are detailed below#
i. R/66 E00'()# lattened fabric, high coverage ratio, soft hand and moderate gla&e@
ii. M4)) E00'()# Eigh coverage ratio, soft hand and matt effect@
iii. L9,):/9, '00'()# This effect originates from friction created during the passage between a
smooth and a steel roller.
S>I""ING CALENDERS
$wi&&ing is a 'ritish term used to denote that the fabric runs through all of the nips at the same surface
speed as the rolls.
, $wi&&ing calender usually consists of seven to ten bowls and is run at ambient temperatures.
T5' 04%:*( '00'() *, (6/,'8 *1)':,)*(',F 4 ,3//)5 4..'4:41(' 418 26/,, B*)5/9) )5' 5*25 2647'
(54:4()':*,)*( /0 4 0:*()*/1 (46'18':.
Eot roller) (ore lusture and smoothness
6 ) Closed)grained iron bowl
2 ) Compressed cotton bowl
8 ) Eighly polished, chilled iron, steam > heated bowl
D ) Compressed cotton bowl
3 ) Compressed cotton bowl
2 ) Eighly polished, chilled iron, steam > heated bowl
1 ) Compressed cotton bowl
F:*()*/1 (46'184:*12
: Fsually a three roll process
> , central cotton fabric or paper roll is sandwiched between two metal rolls which are turned
at very fast speeds as compared to the cotton roll.
> The fabric to be calendered is laced between the metal rolls and the cotton roll, and the
surface of this cloth is brought to a very highly polished state.
: $tarches and waxes give a temporary gla&e, while durable gla&es are generated from fabrics treated
with resins
: "t7s produces high degree of lusture on one side of the fabric and also closing up the interlacing
threads
: Third roll > Polished chilled iron bowl with steam and surface speed is double that of the fabric and
those lower two bowl. $peed variation b0w first and third rolls is one and half time higher than
lowest bowl.
: riction effect is exerted on the fabric due to different speed level of bowl
$peed > 35m0mins for friction , 25m0mins for with out fiction. 6bowl roller run at 15m0mins, light finish
> 135)235m0mins

CHASING CALENDER
The cotton fabric passes normally through the nips of a 6)bowl calender, then chasing rollers. The cloth
is then fed again into the cotton nip of the calender.
Chasing gives the cloth a thready >linen appearance and a special handle
>ITH >ATER MANGLE
Fnder high pressure, threads are well flattened and the spaces b0w them are closed
%ifferent effects comes from different bowl
Eollow, steam)heated chilled iron rolls provide hard surface ))) lusture produced
Two cotton rolls in contact with each other . nip / > flat, soft effect
S)'43 (46'18':*12
The chilled iron roll, which is a hollow cylinder, is usually heated by using high)pressure steam.
This calender roller called steam calendering

SCHREINER CALENDER
The schreiner finish can be imparted to textile fabric by means of schreiner calender
P9:./,'
"t7s gives sil-)li-e brilliance to cotton fabric.
"t7s gives the nearest possible resemblance to sil- when produced on merceri&ed fabric
U,',
Cotton linings, sateen and printed fabric
M'(541*,3
The sil- li-e finish due to the fine lines engraved on the steel roller of the schreiner calender
?ines > 8 to 25 lines0mm
?ines are at small angle with respect to the direction of the warp and weft threads in the fabric.
+eft sateen > angle of about 25G to the weft and in directions of the twist.
Plain weave > course line . 2)60mm/
B/B6
%ia > 6.8 cm for both bowl
Top bowl > $pecial, ine grained steel and gas heated from the inside
+ide > 328 cm
Pressure > up to 1D5 tonnes
EMBOSSING CALENDER
Fsually a two roll special calender.
Fses a heated metal roll with an engraved pattern surface and a paper roll with the QnegativeQ of the
pattern on the metal or without a pattern.
abric is passed between these two rolls and the pattern is set into the fabric by heat and pressure.
Thermoplastic fibers can be set by heat.
Cotton fabrics must have a resin finish to give a durable effect.
To produce a damas- effect on cotton fabric but the effect is temporary

INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENT DYEING MACHINES
There are several dyeing machines used for dyeing of fibre, yarn, fabric and garments.
$ome of the important of them are
.1/ Kigger %yeing (achine
.2/ +inch %yeing (achine
.3/ Ket %yeing (achine
.D/ Padding (angle
.8/ Pac-age %yeing (achine
.2/ Eigh Pressure Eigh Temperature %yeing (achine. .'eam %yeing (achine/
J*22': D-'*12 M4(5*1'
Kigger dyeing machine is the most commonly used for dyeing all -inds of cotton fabric. There are
mainly two types of <igger dyeing machine. 4ne is open <igger dyeing machine and other is closed <igger
dyeing machine. The open <igger dyeing machine is shown in the figure. This machine consists of N
shaped stainless steel vessel. Two rollers are fitted above the vessel called as cloth rollers. These rollers
are rotated by power. 4ut of these two rollers one roller is driven by a motor which is called ta-e up
roller and the other roller from which the cloth is delivered is called let off roller. +hen all the cloth is
passed from the let off roller to the ta-e up roller, it is called as one end or one turn. The number of ends
or turns depends upon the type of the fabric and also the percentage of the shade. "nitially, a large length
of .85 -g/ cloth is wound on the let off roller and ta-e up roller is then driven by the power. ,fter one
end is ta-en, the ta-e up becomes let off roller. These bac-ward and forward movements of cloth
through the dye li!uor absorb more and more dye. The capacity of the <igger is 155 to 185 gallons. "n the
modern <igger, automatic devices are fitted along with the timing switch by using reversing will ta-e
place automatically. +hen dyeing all the dye li!uor should not be added at one time. The dye li!uor
should be added in batch wise, in order to get even shade on the cloth. "n the present scenario, closed
types of <iggers are used. The main advantage is to prevent heat loss and chemical loses by evaporation.
This type of <igger is very important for dyeing vat, $ulphur etc.
A8+41)42', /0 J*22': D-'*12 M4(5*1'
1. The cloth can be dyed in open width form of full width form.
2. Chemical and heat loses are less when compared to winch dyeing machine
3. The material to li!uor ratio is 1#3 .or/ 1#D which saves considerable amount of
chemical cost and steam cost.
D*,48+41)42', /0 J*22': D-'*12 M4(5*1'
"t exerts lot of tension in the warp direction and because of this normally woolen, -nitted
fabrics, sil- etc are not dyed in <igger dyeing machine.
>*1(5 D-'*12 M4(5*1'
+inch dyeing machine is normally used for dyeing light weight fabrics li-e -nitted fabrics as well as
woven, sil- etc. The winch dyeing machine is different in construction from the <igger. The machine
consists of elliptical winch .or/ circular winch which is driven by hand or motor. 9lliptical winches are
most widely used. "t has a perforated portion dividing the machine in to two compartments. 4ne is small
and the other one is bigger in si&e. %ye) li!uor pipe, steam pipe, water inlet are provided in small
compartment. %yeing is carried out in the larger compartment. %uring wor-ing, one end of the fabric is
passed over the guide rollers and winch and under the dye li!uor and passed in between the pegs. ,fter
the sufficient amount of cloth is fed the ends are stitched and ma-ing a long continuous loop formation.
(any such loops run together separately by a series of pegs, to avoid entanglements. The loops are
drawn in and out of the bath by rotating the winch. ,fter dyeing is over the pieces are separated. The
winch is made up of stainless steel. ;ow)a)days closed type of winch is also used to prevent the
temperature loss and pressure loss.
A8+41)42',
Thin and light weight fabrics li-e -nitted fabrics, voile cloth etc, can be dyed successfully in winch
dyeing machine without exerting any tension. 9mbroidery fabrics may be dyed in winch dyeing machine
without affecting the embroidery designs.
D*,48+41)42',
abrics are dyed in rope form, so there are more chances for uneven dyeing. Therefore, we will get even
dyeing only when retarding 0 leveling agent is added to the dye li!uor. The material to li!uor ratio is
very high i.e. 1#35 or 1#D5. Therefore the heat and the additional chemicals are provided more when
compared to <igger. Eeat and chemical losses are more because of the wider open tan-.
P488*12 M4126'
Continuous dyeing methods depend upon the impregnation with the padding mangles. The padding
mangles are e!uipped with two, three or even four mangles. The rollers are arranged one above the
other. Three bowl padding mangle are usually prepared for dyeing of cloth. The padding mangle
consists of two ebonite rollers and one rubber covered roller. To reduce the material to li!uor ratio, low
capacity troughs are generally used with the different shapes. $ome of the machines are provided with
<ac-et troughs for maintaining the temperature of pad li!uor. ,n over head tan- is connected to the
mangle for feeding the stoc- solution through the perforated pipe. The supply of the dye)li!uor is
controlled automatically to maintain a constant level. The pressure on the padding mangle is applied by
hydraulic or pneumatic system which enables heavier and uniform pressure. The trough is fitted with
dye)li!uor and the cloth passes through the dye solution, which is heated by steam. ,fter that the cloth is
passed between the ebonite and rubber covered roller to give uniform pressure throughout the fabric.
The pressure can be altered depends upon the type of the fabric. The speed is 255 yards0minute. "t is
used for dyeing vat, $ulphur, ;aphthol etc. The solution used in the trough is divided in two e!ual
portions to avoid uneven dyeing. The padding mangles may also be used for desi&ing purposes.
J') D-'*12 M4(5*1'
This is the most modern machine used for the dyeing of polyester using disperse dyes. "n this machine
the cloth is dyed in rope form which is the main disadvantage of the machine. "n this machine, the dye
tan- contains disperse dye, dispersing agent, leveling agent and acetic acid. The solution is filled up in
the dye tan- and it reaches the heat exchanger where the solution will be heated which then passed on to
the centrifugal pump and then to the filter chamber. The solution will be filtered and reaches the tubular
chamber. Eere the material to be dyed will be loaded and the winch is rotated, so that the material is also
rotated. ,gain the dye li!uor reaches the heat exchanger and the operation is repeated for 25 to 35
minutes at 138o C. Then the dye bath is cooled down, after the material is ta-en out. (etering wheel is
also fixed on winch by external electronic unit. "ts purpose is to record the speed of the fabric. The
thermometer, pressure gauge is also fixed in the side of the machine to note the temperature and pressure
under wor-ing. , simple device is also fixed to note the shade under wor-ing.
A8+41)42',
%yeing time is short compared to beam dyeing.
(aterial to li!uor ratio is 1#8 .or/ 1#2
Production is high compared to beam dyeing machine.
D*,48+41)42',
Cloth is dyed in rope form
*is- of entanglement
Chance for crease formation.