El ec t r i c al Mac hi nes 302-2006

Chapt er 7 (Lec t ur es 8-10)

SYNCHRONOUS MACHI NE
DYNAMI CS
Dr . Mohammad A.S. Masoum
Electrical & Computer Engineering Department
Curtin University of Technology
Perth, West Australia
Email: m.masoum@curtin.edu.au
SYNCHRONOUS MACHI NE DYNAMI CS
7.1. Classification of Stability Problems
7.2. Angle Stability
7.3. Synchronous Machine Dynamics
7.3.1. The Swing Equation [3]
7.3.2. Normalized Swing Equation [1-2]
7.3.3. The Power-Angle Equation [1-2]
7.3.4. Synchronous Machine Power Coefficients [1-2]
7.3.5. Response to a Step Change in Pm [1-2]
7.4. Linear Analysis of Swing Equation [3]
7.5 Equal-Area Criterion of Stability (Nonlinear Analysis of
Swing Equation) [1-3]
7.6. Numerical Integration Methods to Solve Power
System Stability problems [1-2]
[1]. P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control, McGraw-Hill, 1994.
[2]. W.D. Stevenson, Elements of Power System Analysis, 1995.
[3]. A.E. Fitzgerald &, Electric Machinery, Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1990.
Power System Stability- property of the power system
that enables it to remain in a state of operating
equilibrium under normal operating conditions and to
regain an acceptable state of equilibrium after being
subjected to a disturbance. Since power systems rely
on synchronous machines (SM) for electrical power
generation
a necessary condition for stability is that: all
synchronous machines remain in synchronism
PS stability can also be defined as: property
enabling synchronous machines to respond to a
disturbance and return to their normal operation
Instability- loss of synchronism
7.1. Cl assi f i c at i on of St abi l i t y Pr obl ems
Hunting- periodic variations in applied torque (e.g.,
to steam generators) periodic speed variations
periodic variations in system voltage (V) & frequency
(F) periodic variations in V & F of motors
(connected to the system) loss of synchronism
Cl assi f i c at i on of St abi l i t y pr obl ems:
PSS problems may be classified as [1]:
Angle Stability
Voltage Stability
Frequency (Mid- and Long-Term) Stability
Each category can be divided to [1-2]:
Small-Signal (Dynamic) Stability
Transient Stability
Tr ansi ent St abi l i t y:
Determines if system remains in synchronism
following a major disturbance (e.g., transmission fault,
sudden load change, loss of generation, line switching)
Need to model: Generators + their excitation systems
+ turbine governing control systems
Must solve nonlinear differential equations (by
direct or iterative procedures)
Two types:
-- First-Swing Stability: for 1
st
second after a system
fault (simple generator model & no control model)
-- Multi-Swing Stability: system analysis over long
period of time (more sophisticated machine model)
Smal l -Si gnal (Dynami c ) St abi l i t y:
Determines if system remains in synchronism
following a small disturbance (e.g., small load and/or
generation variations)
Excitation + turbine governing systems are replaced
by synchronous machine model analysis of flux
linkage variation
Nonlinear differential equations are replaced by a
set of linear equations
Usual Assumpt i ons (t o f ac i l i t at e c omput at i on):
Only synchronous F (no dc-off set, no harmonics)
Use of symmetrical components
Constant generator voltage
Use phasor + load-flow + positive sequence network
Pow er Syst em St abi l i t y
Angl e St abi l i t y Vol t age St abi l i t y Fr equenc y St abi l i t y
Ability to maintain synchronism
Torque balance of Synchronous machines
Tr ansi ent
St abi l i t y
Smal l -Si gnal
St abi l i t y
Large-disturbances
First-swing aperiodic drift
Study period: up to 10 s
Non-osc i l l at or y Osc i l l at or y
Mi d-t er m St abi l i t y Long-t er m St abi l i t y
Severe upsets, large voltage & frequency
Fast & slow dynamics
Study period: to several minutes
Uniform system frequency
Slow dynamics
Study period: to tens of minutes
Ability to maintain steady
acceptable voltage
Reactive power balance
Lar ge-Di st ur banc e
Vol t age St abi l i t y
Smal l -Di st ur banc e
Vol t age St abi l i t y
Large disturbance
switching events
Dynamics of ULTC
and Loads
Coordination of
protections & controls
Steady-state P/Q-V
relations
Stability margins,
Q reserve
Ability to remain in operating equilibrium
Equilibrium btw opposing forces
Insufficient
synchronous
torque
Insufficient damping torque
Unstable control action
Rotor angle stability is the ability of interconnected synchronous
machines of a power system to remain in synchronism & involves
the study of the inherent electromechanical oscillation need to
know, how the output of synchronous machines vary as their
rotors oscillate.
Sync hr onous Mac hi ne Char ac t er i st i c s:
When rotor (containing field windings, excited by dc current) is
driven by a prime mover (turbine), the rotating magnetic field (of
rotor) induces ac voltages in the stator armature windings.
Frequency (F) of resulting V & I is synchronized with rotor
mechanical speed.
Resulting stator currents also produce a rotating mmf that,
under steady-state operation, rotates at the same speed as rotor
with an angular separation G (depending on electrical output
torque Te (or power P).
7.2. Angl e St abi l i t y
Pow er -Angl e Rel at i onshi p:
The highly nonlinear (approximately sinusoidal) relation btw
interchange power and rotor angular positions of synchronous
machines, has a bearing on PSS:
) X X X X ( , sin
X
E E
P
M L G T
T
M G
G
(Generator)
(Motor)
The St abi l i t y Phenomena:
Stability is a condition of equilibrium btw opposing forces.
Interconnected synchronous machines maintain synchronism
with one another through restoring forces, which acts
whenever there are forces tending to accelerate or decelerate
one or more machine wrt other machines.
Under steady-state, there is equilibrium btw input mechanical
torque & output electrical torque (or power) of each machine
speed remains constant.
If one generator temporary runs faster than another the
resulting angular difference transfers part of the load from the
slow machine to the fast machine reduces speed difference &
angular position.
However, the power-angle relation is highly nonlinear
beyond a certain limit, an increase in angle is accompanied by
a decrease in P further increase in angle instability
SMTorque (or Power) , following a perturbation:
-Synchronous Torque ( ): in phase with rotor angle perturbation
-Damping Torque ( ): in phase with speed deviation
PSS depends on the existence of both torque components
for each machine:
--lack of sufficient Tsyn instability through a periodic drift
in rotor angle
--lack of sufficient Tdamp oscillatory instability
Angle stability phenomena is characterized in:
(a) small-signal (or small-disturbance) stability
(b) transient stability
Z ' G ' '
D s e
T T T
G '
s
T
Z '
D
T
Smal l -Si gnal (Dynami c ) Angl e St abi l i t y:
The ability of the power system to maintain synchronism
under small disturbances (e.g., small variations in loads &
generation)
Disturbances are considered sufficiently small, for
linearization of system equations
Two types of instability
- (i) steady increase in angle (lack of Tsyn),
-(ii) rotor oscillation of increasing amplitude (lack of Tdamp).
System response to small-signal disturbances depend on a
number factors (initial operating state, transmission system
strength, type of generator excitation control)
For example, for a generator connected radially to a large
power system,instability may be due lack of Ts (with constant
field voltage) or Td (with a voltage regulator).
Generator with
constant field voltage
Generator with automatic
voltage regulator
(excitation control)
Nat ur e of smal l -
di st ur banc e r esponse
f or a si ngl e mac hi ne-
i nf i ni t e bus syst em
Z ' G ' '
D s e
T T T
Tr ansi ent Angl e St abi l i t y (THI S CHAPTER):
The ability of the power system to maintain
synchronism when subjected to a severe transient
disturbance (e.g., different types of transmission line
short circuits, bus or transformer faults, loss of
generation, loss of a large load) .
The resulting system response involves large excursion
rotor angles, power flows, bus voltages and other system
variables & is influenced by the nonlinear power-angle
relationship
If resulting angular separation btw machines remains
within certain bounds, system maintains synchronism
Loss of Synchronism (due transient stability) will
usually be evident within 2 to 3 sec of initial disturbance
Tr ansi ent Angl e St abi l i t y (Cont i nue):
The fault is usually assumed to be cleared by opening
of appropriate breakers.
The term dynamic stability has been widely used as a
class of rotor angle stability, denoting different aspects
by different authors therefore, we will not use it here
Stability study-period is usually limited to 3-5 seconds
An example of a synchronous machine behavior to
transient disturbance in shown below:
Stable: angle increases to a max, then
deceases & oscillates with decreasing
magnitude until reaches a steady-state
First-swing instability: rotor angle steadily increases
until lost of synchronism, caused by insufficient Ts
Stable on first swing, but becomes
unstable as a result of growing
oscillation as end state is approached
7.3. Sync hr onous Mac hi ne Dynami c s
Of central importance for PSS analysis are rotational
inertia equation (describing effects of unbalance btw
Telectromagnetic &Tmechanical of individual SM).
Steady-state condition: Tm=Te Ta=0 no acceleration (or
deceleration) constant speed = Zsynchronous = Zo
generator
motor
combined (generator +
prime mover) moment
of inertia (kg.m2)
angular velocity of
rotor (mech. rad/s)
Based on elementary principle in dynamics:
Taccelerating=Ta =(moment of inertia)(angular acceleration)
7.3.1. The Sw i ng Equat i on [ 3]
7.3.2. Nor mal i zed Sw i ng Equat i on [ 1-2]
can be normalized in terms of
rearranging
since:
per unit inertia constant (H), defined as kinetic energy
in watt-seconds at rated speed divided by based VA:
angular velocity of
rotor (mech. rad/s)
rated angular velocity
of rotor (mech. rad/s)
angular velocity of
rotor (ele. rad/s)
rated angular velocity
of rotor (ele. rad/s)
angular velocity of
rotor (mech. rad/s)
rated angular velocity
of rotor (mech. rad/s)
number of
field poles
If G=rotor angular position (ele. rad) wrt a synchronously
rotating reference & Go=its value at t=0:
Substituting in gives:
It is often desirable to include a component for damping
torque, not included in Te by adding a term proportional to
speed deviation:
Sw i ng Equat i on: represents swings of rotor angle G
during disturbances. Graph of solution: Sw i ng Cur ve
angular velocity of
rotor (ele. rad/s)
damping factor (pu
torque/pu speed)
rated angular velocity
of rotor (ele. rad/s)
rotor angular
position (ele. rad)
unit inertia constant (watt-
sec/VA at rated speed)
Fur t her Consi der at i on of The Sw i ng Equat i on:
The swing equation may be written in terms of pu power:
and s = o (rated
angular velocity of rotor)
should have consistent
units (mech. or ele. rad/s)
in ele. rad in ele. deg.
For large systems (with many machines), minimize
number of swing equations by assuming disturbances affect
machines so that their rotors swings together combine
machines into one single equivalent machine. Consider a
power plant with two generators connected on the same bus:
since rotors
swing together
G1= G2= G
[2]
Machines which swing together are called coherent. When
G and Zs =Zo are expressed in electrical degrees or radians,
the swing equations of coherent machines can be combined
together (even when they have different rated speed)
For any pair of non-coherent machines :
An application of these equations is a two-system machine
system: a generator (machine 1) and a Synchronous motor
(machine 2) connected by a pure reactance line:
where:
&
7.3.3. The Pow er Angl e Equat i on [ 1-2]
In for generator, Pm will be considered
constant (e.g., electrical conditions are expected to change
before turbine reacts) Pe determines whether rotor
accelerates, decelerates, or remains at syn. speed (Pe=Pm)
For transient stability each syn. machine is represented by:
transient internal voltage
transient reactance
each machine must be considered relative to the
system of which it is a part phasor angles are
measured wrt the common system reference
Consider a generator (bus#1) supplying power through a
transmission line to a receiving-end system (bus#2):
synchronous
generator
receiving-end
system
infinite-bus or
synchronous
motor
Tr ansmi ssi on
net w or k
includes transient
reactance of generators
transient internal
generator voltage
Using with :
Similar equations apply to bus#2.
Let and then:
where
For a zero-resistance network ( and are zero):
where
The Power-Angle Equation
(its graph is called: the power-angle curve)
The operating point= intersection of P-G curve & Pm curve
(e.g., G=28.44 & G=151.6)
However, G=151.6 is not valid since: at an acceptable
operating point, generator should not lose synchronism due
to temporary changes in electrical output power:
Let us examine this:
7.3.4. Sync hr oni zi ng Pow er Coef f i c i ent s
also
Note that is the slop of the P-G curve at Go
and is called:
Synchronizing Power Coefficient =
Therefore:
swing equation for incremental rotor-angle variations
A linear, second-order differential equation (its solution
depends on algebraic sign of Sp)
Solution of depends on sign of Sp:
--- If >0: = simple harmonic motion (represented
by oscillation of undamped swing pendulum)
is solution to
which is
STABLE (e.g., at G= 28.44) sinusoidal
oscillations, undamped angular frequency:
--- If <0: = increases exponentially without limit
UNSTABLE (e.g., at G= 151.56)
G= 28.44 is of stable equilibrium in the sense that rotor
angle swing is bounded following a small perturbation. In
physical situation, damping will restore angle to G= 28.44
7.3.5. Response t o a St ep Change i n Pm [ 1-2]
power-angle variations
rotor angle time response
(1) step change
in mechanical
input power
(2) rotor angle cannot
change instantly from
Go to G1 (rotor inertia).
Pm>Pe rotor
accelerates a ob
(3) Paccelerating
is zero (Pm=Pe)
but Zr > Zsyn
G continues to
increase
(4) for G>G1 we
have Pe>Pm
rotor decelerates
(6) rotor angle oscillates indefinitely about the new
equilibrium angle G1 with a constant amplitude (R=0)
(5) at some peak value
Gmax speed recovers to
Zsyn (but Pe>Pm1) rotor
continues to decelerate
(speed dropping below
Zsyn cob
(7) if A2>A1 (that is G>GL ) lost of stability
(since Pm1>Pe and the net torque is
accelerating rather than decelerating
7.4. Li near Anal ysi s of Sw i ng Equat i on [ 3]
[3]
[3]
7.5. Equal -Ar ea Cr i t er i on of St abi l i t y
Swing eq: nonlinear solutions can not be explicitly found
(even for single-machine infinite-bus) require computer
techniques. A direct solution approach (without solving eqs)
for stability of two-machine system: equal-area criterion
fault
operating point
before fault
Consider the system shown:
--- before fault: A (closed) & B (open) Example 14.3
(generator operating with Go=Pm=Pe)
--- during fault: three-phase fault at P
--- after fault: A (open) to clear fault
Fault at to (Go): Pe=0 (a b) & Pm0 due to Pm - Pe>0
Ekinetic rotor speed G until fault clears at tc (Gc) (b c)
During fault (to< t <tc ):
--acceleration is constant: = constant
--while velocity increases above Zs :
(e.g., increases linearly with time)
--further integration: angular position =
(e.g.,G:Go Gc)
b c
fault clears
fault occurs
At the instant of fault clearing (tc ):
--increase in
rotor speed:
--separation
angle:
At tc (fault is cleared): Pe Ppoint-d >Pm Paccelerating<0
rotor slows down d e
At e: again Zm=Zsyn although its angle has advanced to Gx
(Gx determined such that A1=A2). Still Paccelerating<0 rotor
cannot remain at synchronous speed rotor slows down
Gx Go e a (at which Zm<Zs)
from a to f: Pm>Pe Zm increases again until reaches
synchronism at f. Point f is such that A3=A4
In absence of damping: rotor continues to oscillate in the
sequence f-a-e, e-a-f, etc with Zsyn at e and f
7.5.1. Der i vat i on of Equal -Ar ea Cr i t er i on (EAC):
Define relative angular velocity of rotor Zr= dG/dt= Z - Zs
differentiate it & substitute it into swing equation to get:
multiply by
Zr=dG/dt
multiply by dt
& integrate
Zr1=0 when G=G1
Zr2=0 when G=G2
Zr1=Zr2=0
Apply last equation to points a & e (G1=Go & G2=Gx):
Since rotor speed is synchronous at Gx and Gy A3=A4
Equation applies to any two points G1
and G2 at which rotor speed is synchronous
directly proportional to
increase in kinetic energy of
rotor while it is accelerating
directly proportional to
decrease in kinetic energy of
rotor while it is decelerating
Equal-Area Criterion states: whatever kinetic energy is
added to rotor following a fault must be removed after the
fault to restore rotor to synchronous speed
7.5.2. Cr i t i c al Cl ear i ng Ti me:
A1 depends on time taken to clear the fault
If long delay in clearing fault A1 A2 G x
For long delay in clearing fault such that G swing beyond
Gmax (e.g., Gx>Gmax) INSTABILITY (due to Paccelerating >0)
There is a Critical Clearing Angle (Gcr) for clearing the
fault in order to satisfy Equal-Area Criterion for stability
The required time is called: Critical Clearing Time (tcr)
critical clearing
angle
Comput i ng Gc r and t c r :
Set A1 =A2 and transpose terms:
critical clearing
angle
(since Pe=0)

Substituting and gives:

Substituting G cr into gives:
critical clearing
angle
critical
clearing
time
7.5.3.Fur t her Appl i c at i on Equal -Ar ea Cr i t er i on:
So far, we have assumed Pe=0 during the fault.
When power is transmitted during a fault (e.g., when the
fault effects only one line of a parallel transmission system):
By evaluating areas A1 and A2, we would find:
A literal form solution for tcr is not possible in this case.
When: r1=0 & r2=1
(before fault)
(after fault)
(during fault)
7.5.4. Response t o a Shor t -Ci r c ui t Faul t :
Three-phase fault at F(cleared by opening circuit breakers)
equivalent
circuit
response to a fault cleared
at tc1 sec Stable
response to a fault cleared
at tc2 sec Unstable
[3]
[3]
7.5.5. Fac t or s I nf l uenc i ng Tr ansi ent St abi l i t y:
Transient stability of generator depends on:
How heavily the generator is loaded.
Generator output during fault (which depends on fault
location & type).
The fault clearing time.
The post-fault transmission system reactance.
Generator reactance (lower X higher Pmax lower Ginitial )
Generator inertia (higher inertia lower dG/dt reduces
kinetic energy gain during fault (e.g., A1 is reduced)
Generator internal voltage magnitude (E) which depends
on field excitation.
The infinite bus voltage magnitude.
7.6. Numer i c al I nt egr at i on Met hods t o Sol ve
Pow er Syst em St abi l i t y pr obl ems
For stability analysis, nonlinear ordinary differential
equations (with known initial values) are to be solved:
There are many numerical integration techniques
applicable to the solution of this equation including [1]:
-- Euler Method
-- Modified Euler Method
-- Runge-Kutta (R-K) Methods
For further information see reference [1]
e.g.,
is of
form:
where X = state vector
t = independent variable
7.7. Mul t i -Mac hi ne Cl assi c al St abi l i t y St udi es
When a multi-machine system operates under electro-
mechanical transient conditions, inter-machine oscillations
occur btw machines through transmission system. Each
machine acts as a single oscillating source (foscillation=1-2Hz)
superimposed upon nominal frequency swing equation
will reflect the combined presence of many such oscillations
System frequency: not unduly perturbed from its nominal
value The 60-Hz network parameters are still applicable.
Additional assumptions for Classical stability Models):
--Pm= constant (for each machine)
--negligible damping power
--each machine presented by constant transient reactance
in series with a constant transient internal voltage
--mechanical rotor angle coincides with G (ele. rotor angle)
--loads are presented as shunt impedances; determined by
conditions immediately prior to transient conditions
For transient stability study; system conditions before fault
& network configuration during and after its occurrence
must be known Steps for multi-machine stability studies:
--St ep1: steady-state pre-fault conditions (load-flow)
bus-admittance matrix
includes transient
reactance of generators
&shunt load admittances
--St ep2: pre-fault network representation is determined
and modified to account for fault & post-fault
conditions. Only generator internal buses have
injections other buses can be eliminated
voltage bus V
load the ) jQ P (
where
V
Q j P
Y
L
L L
2
L
L L
L

I X j V E
known are V & Q , P
d t
t
c

c

During&after the fault, power flow into network from each

generator is calculated by the corresponding P-G equations
For example, for the network shown:
Similar equations for Pe2 & Pe3 with Yij values from the 3u3
bus-admittance matrices (fault or post-fault conditions)
The P-G equations form part of the swing equations:
Solution depends on
location& duration of fault,
& YBUS which results when
the faulted line is removed
The basic procedures
used in digital computers
are revealed by following
examples
[2]
[2]
Each of the P-G equations obtained in the previous two
examples are of the form:
where the bracketed right-hand side term represents the
accelerating power on the rotor.
Accordingly, we may write them in the form:
where