1274 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 50, NO.

2, MARCH/APRIL 2014
Technical and Economical Considerations on Super
High-Efciency Three-Phase Motors
Anbal T. De Almeida, Senior Member, IEEE, Fernando J. T. E. Ferreira, Senior Member, IEEE, and
Andr Quintino Duarte
AbstractPremium efciency motors are now mandatory in
North America, but new higher efciency classes are being intro-
duced. Motors of IE4 Super-Premium Efciency Class are already
available in the market, and a new IE5 Ultra-Premium Efciency
Class is being considered. Within the IE4 Super-Premium Class,
line-start permanent-magnet motors (LSPMs) are a recent en-
trance in the industrial motor market. Its steady-state perfor-
mance is outstanding, but as in all technologies, there are some
associated issues, both for retrotting or new applications. The
LSPM efciency can be measured according to the inputoutput
(or direct) method specied in the IEEE 112 or IEC 60034-2-1
standards, but if the losses are to be segregated, for example, to
allow proper temperature correction, it is important to evaluate if
the specied test methods can be applied to this sort of machine.
Due to the signicant promotion and penetration of variable-speed
drives (VSDs) in industrial motor driven systems, the motor
tolerance and operation limits to such devices are addressed in
this paper. The proposed IEC 60034-2-3 Standard species test
methods for determining harmonic losses of VSD-fed motors,
supplementing the methods intended for operation on sinusoidal
supply. In this paper, the referred issues will be addressed in
detail, and experimental results on the application of the IEC
60034-2-1 and IEC 60034-2-3 standards to IE2, IE3, and IE4
class motors are presented and discussed, with the focus on the
LSPM Super-Premium technology. A comparative technical and
economical analysis of commercial IE2, IE3, and IE4 class motors
is presented, including an in-eld example of replacement of a
squirrel-cage induction motor by an LSPM.
Index TermsEfciency, electric motor standards, IEC
60034-30/-2-1/-2-3 standards, line-start permanent magnet (PM)
synchronous motors, losses, Super-Premium Class.
I. INTRODUCTION
E
LECTRIC motors in industrial applications consume
about 40% of all the generated electrical energy world-
wide. In the European Union (EU), electric motor systems are,
by far, the most important type of load in industry, using about
70% of the consumed electricity. In the tertiary sector (non-
Manuscript received January 31, 2012; accepted April 15, 2013. Date of
publication July 10, 2013; date of current version March 17, 2014. Paper 2012-
CSC-022, presented at the 2012 IEEE/IAS Industrial and Commercial Power
Systems Technical Conference, Louisville, KY, May 2024, and approved for
publication in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS by the
Codes and Standards Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society.
A. T. De Almeida and A. Q. Duarte are with the Institute of Systems
and Robotics, University of Coimbra (ISR-UC), 3004-531 Coimbra, Portugal
(e-mail: adealmeida@isr.uc.pt; quintino@isr.uc.pt).
F. J. T. E. Ferreira is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Poly-
technic Institute of Coimbra (ISEC-IPC), 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal, and also
with the Institute of Systems and Robotics, University of Coimbra (ISR-UC),
3004-531 Coimbra, Portugal (e-mail: fernandoferreira@ieee.org).
Color versions of one or more of the gures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TIA.2013.2272548
residential buildings), although not so relevant, electric motor
systems use about one-third of the consumed electricity. It is
their wide use that makes electric motors particularly attractive
for the application of efciency improvements. In spite of the
wide variety of electric motors available in the market, three-
phase squirrel-cage induction motors (SCIMs) are dominant,
representing, by far, the largest market share [1][4].
Higher efciency electric motors can lead to signicant
reductions in the energy consumption and also reduce the
environmental impact [1][4]. An important reason for their
wider market acceptance is the harmonized standards, dealing
with motor performance testing, efciency classication, and
display of ratings [5]. Nowadays, as a result of a signicant
effort in the last decade to advance the global harmonization
of motor standards, there is a set of active IEC
1
International
Standards for addressing the performance of industrial electri-
cal motors, as it can be seen in Table I [6].
Currently, both IEC 60034-2-1 and IEC 60034-30 standards
[7], [8], major milestones in harmonizing motor efciency
testing, are being updated to address technology developments
and new motor types. The IEC 60034-2-3 standard [9] is an ad-
vanced technical specication undergoing some improvements.
A. IEC 60034-30 Standard
The IEC 60034-30 International Standard has been intro-
duced in November 2008 in order to promote a competitive
electric motor market transformation, by means of globally har-
monizing motor energy-efciency classes. It deals with electric
motors that are rated for sinusoidal power supply. In the rst
edition of this standard [8], three normative efciency classes
were dened, namely, Standard Efciency (IE1),
2
High Ef-
ciency (IE2) equivalent to EPAct, and PremiumEfciency (IE3)
equivalent to NEMA Premium. In the rst edition of the IEC
60034-31 Standard [12], published in 2010, a Super-Premium
Efciency (IE4) Class was dened, intended to be informative,
since no sufcient market and technological information were
available to allow IE4 standardization and more experience
with such products was required [4], [8].
The second edition of the IEC 60034-30 Standard is now
being prepared, and the IE4 classication will be included in
it [5], [11]. In Fig. 1, the nominal efciency limits proposed in
1
IECInternational Electrotechnical Committee is a global institution
which denes electrical standards for all countries.
2
The designation of the energy-efciency class consists of the letters IE
(short for International Energy Efciency Class), directly followed by a
numeral representing the classication.
0093-9994 2013 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
DE ALMEIDA et al.: TECHNICAL AND ECONOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON SUPER HIGH-EFFICIENCY MOTORS 1275
TABLE I
MAIN IEC MOTOR STEADY-STATE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS [6]
Fig. 1. Nominal efciency class limits proposed in the second edition of IEC
60034-30, for four-pole motors (0.12800-kW power range).
the second edition of the IEC 60034-30 for four-pole motors are
shown, for 50 and 60 Hz.
Moreover, a new Ultra-Premium Efciency (IE5) Class has
been introduced, which, although not yet dened in detail, is en-
visaged for potential products. The levels of the IE5 Efciency
Class are envisaged to be incorporated into the next edition of
the IEC 60034-30 standard. The goal is to reduce the losses
of IE5 by some 20% relative to IE4. In Fig. 1, the IE5 limits
assuming 20% loss reduction in the IE4 limits are also drawn.
Motor technologies for IE5 are currently not yet well developed
and not commercially available.
The second edition of the IEC 60034-30 Standard expands
the covered product range signicantly. The output-power
range has been expanded, starting at 0.12 kW and ending at
800 kW (in the rst edition, only the 0.75375-kW power range
was covered), and two-, four-, six-, and eight-pole induction and
permanent magnet (PM) motors are covered. In fact, as long as
they are designed for sinusoidal voltage, all technical construc-
tions of electric motors are covered, and not just three-phase
SCIMs, as in the rst edition. The standard is now applicable
to both xed-speed and variable-speed (frequency converter
supplied) motors, but the energy-efciency classication for
both, as given in it, is related to the losses at the sinusoidal
power supply. Fixed-speed motors covered by this standard may
be used in variable-speed applications (see IEC/TS 60034-25),
but in these cases, the actual efciency of the motor is lower
than the rated/marked efciency due to increased losses associ-
ated with the harmonic content of the voltages produced by the
variable-speed drive (VSD) (see IEC 60034-2-3 [9]).
The new edition of this standard also includes the following.
1) Motors with cooling methods other than IC0Ax, IC1Ax,
IC2Ax, IC3Ax, or IC4Ax (see IEC 60034-6). However,
they may not be able to achieve the higher efciency
classes.
2) Motors built for a restricted space (high-output design,
i.e., frame sizes smaller than usual in national standards)
are covered by this standard, but as a result of the small
frame size, they may not be able to achieve the higher
efciency classes.
3) Motors specically built for operation in explosive en-
vironments according to IEC 60079-0 and IEC 61241-1.
However, as a result of safety requirements and possible
design constraints of explosion-proof motors (such as
increased air gap, reduced starting current, and enhanced
sealing), which have a negative impact on efciency,
some may not be able to achieve higher efciency classes.
4) Geared and brake motors, which can incorporate special
shafts and anges.
Some xed-speed motors have rated efciencies below the
IE1 limits, and no marking of these motors shall be required
(they are commonly designated as IE0 Class).
The rated efciency and the IE-code shall be durably marked
on the motor rating plate (for example, IE2-84.0%).
B. MEPS
The best means to move performance levels of mass-
produced pieces of equipment has proven to be minimum
energy-efciency performance standards (MEPS) [3]. With the
now globally harmonized efciency classication and testing
standards, it has become easier for legislators to introduce
mandatory requirements into national law. Currently, over 70%
of global electricity use is in countries with electric motor
MEPS. From the 13 countries with MEPS, there are three key
regionsboth in terms of motor manufacturing and motor use
in industryto inuence global market transformation, namely,
USA, European Union (EU-27), and China. Their motors use
56% of the global motor electricity. In Fig. 2, MEPS evolution
1276 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 50, NO. 2, MARCH/APRIL 2014
Fig. 2. MEPS evolution in USA, EU-27, and China.
TABLE II
MOTOR TECHNOLOGIES AND THEIR ENERGY-EFFICIENCY POTENTIAL
in these countries is shown, evidencing the late change of policy
in Europe, from voluntary to mandatory.
Presently, the leading group of countries with MEPS at
IE3/NEMA Premium level (USA, Canada, and Mexico) rep-
resents 25% of the global electricity consumption [5].
Table II gives information on the energy-efciency potential
of various commonly used motor technologies (both line-start
and electronic controls).
Not all motor technologies are able to reach all efciency
classes, nor can motors for all efciency classes or rated
powers be produced or operated in an economically feasible
way. Therefore, when assigning MEPS, regulators are asked to
consider the constraints summarized in Table II.
Motors designed to meet the special requirements of the
driven machine and/or special characteristics of the power net-
work supply, beyond the requirements of the IEC 60034 series
of standards, such as motors for heavy starting duty, special
Fig. 3. Rated efciency levels for commercial 50-Hz four-pole LSPMs from
0.55 to 7.5 kW and IE3-, IE4-, and IE5-Class limits dened in the draft of the
second edition of IEC 60034-30 Standard [11], [13].
torque stiffness and/or breakdown torque characteristics, large
number of start/stop cycles, very low rotor inertia, limited
starting current, and increased tolerances of voltage and/or
frequency, may not be able to achieve higher efciency classes.
Regarding line-start PM motors (LSPMs), although in [11]
they are identied with Difcult for IE4 the Class and No
for the IE5 Class, if the actual commercially available LSPMs
are taken into account, it can be said that they reach IE4 levels
(see Fig. 3).
C. IEC 60034-2-3 Standard
The proposed IEC 60034-2-3 Standard [9] species test
methods for determining the losses and efciency of VSD-
fed motors, supplementing the methods intended for operation
on sinusoidal supply. These losses can be used to compare
and rank motors of different designs regarding their efciency
when controlled/fed by VSDs integrating two-level voltage-
source inverters (VSIs) with pulsewidth modulation (PWM).
Such VSDs have, by far, the largest market share (>90%) in the
low-voltage industrial drive market. In general, when fed from
a VSD, the motor losses are higher than during operation on a
sinusoidal system. The additional losses depend, in part, on the
harmonic spectrum of the PWM voltage waveform produced
by the VSD. The voltage harmonic magnitude is inuenced by
circuitry and control method of the VSD. This standard is aimed
to evaluate the additional harmonic motor losses resulting from
nonsinusoidal power supply and, consequently, the efciency
of the VSD-fed motor.
The fundamental losses in electric motors can be segregated
into ve different components: 1) iron/core; 2) friction and
windage losses (both varying with motor speed); 3) rotor
winding/cage (I
2
R) losses; 4) stator winding (I
2
R) losses; and
5) additional/stray load losses. The rst two loss components
are approximately load independent. The last three loss com-
ponents are load dependent. Harmonic losses are produced in
the motor by the nonsinusoidal voltage and current waveforms
generated by the VSD and are in addition to the previously
referred fundamental losses.
DE ALMEIDA et al.: TECHNICAL AND ECONOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON SUPER HIGH-EFFICIENCY MOTORS 1277
It is not the purpose of this standard to dene test procedures
for power drive systems or for VSDs alone. The methods
presented in the standard are intended for VSD-fed SCIMs.
However, the application to other ac or dc motors supplied by
VSDs is not excluded.
In VSDs, there are several settings/parameters that can be
changed by the user and inuence the motor losses, such as
switching frequency, amplitude modulation index, U/f relation
(in the case of scalar control), magnetizing current, energy
saving options, etc.
In the IEC 60034-2-3 Standard, for all test methods, the
reference VSD should be parameterized according to the speci-
cation of the standard, or if an individual combination of VSD
and motor is to be tested, the VSD should be parameterized for
the specic application. The reference VSD should be seen as a
voltage source independent of the load current, set at the rated
voltage and fundamental frequency of the motor under test.
The reference conditions are as follows [9]: 1) VSD with
a two-level VSI; 2) no motor current feedback control acti-
vated; 3) no additional components other than sensors shall
be installed between the reference VSD and the motor;
4) fundamental VSD output voltage equal to motor rated volt-
age (however, the input voltage of the reference VSD shall be
set to a value that allows rated motor voltage to be applied
and to avoid overmodulation); 5) fundamental motor frequency
equal to rated motor frequency; 6) switching frequency of 4 kHz
for rated output powers up to 90 kW and 2 kHz for output
powers above 90 kW (in this scope, the switching frequency
is the real number of pulses per second as can be determined
by a frequency counter at the output PWM); 7) the PWM pat-
tern shall be symmetric three-phase modulation with linearity
extension or its equivalent in space vector PWM (SVPWM)
technique.
The standard xes most of such variables, but even so, there
are some particular aspects that are difcult to fulll, such as
the avoidance of overmodulation operation. For example, if a
typical VSD, integrating a three-phase diode rectier at the
input and a two-level VSI with PWM at the output, is fed at
400 V and is set to produce 400-V fundamental line-to-line
voltage at the output (fundamental voltage amplitude at the
VSD output equal to the motor rated voltage), it will operate
slightly in the nonlinear or overmodulated region, even if the
third harmonic injection or SVPWM techniques are used to
extend the linear region. Therefore, in order to guarantee the
operation in the linear region, in most VSDs, it is necessary to
increase the voltage at the input to a value slightly higher than
that to be produced at the output (e.g., if a VSD with an input
diode rectier is used, an autotransformer can be used to adjust
the input voltage), yet if the VSD input voltage is increased, the
PWM pulse peak values also increase, leading to higher high-
order harmonics. This fact should be taken into account.
The PWM pattern and, consequently, the additional har-
monic motor losses also change considerably with the output
fundamental frequency (or speed of the motor). Therefore, this
standard denes procedures for rated fundamental frequency
and rated motor speed. It should be possible to use a similar
procedure at different speeds in order to obtain the respective
additional harmonic motor losses.
The nonlinear modulation region avoidance is to exclude/
attenuate the low-order harmonic inuence, such as the 5th-,
7th-, 11th-, and 13th-order harmonics. However, since VSDs
can operate large periods of the operating cycle with a funda-
mental output voltage and frequency equal or near to that of the
grid (with the possibility of slightly overlapping the overmod-
ulation mode), the specication of two operating modes should
be includedat rated voltage and frequency with and without
VSD input voltage adjustment.
Considering the harmonics involved in VSDs feeding ac
motors and their contribution to the motor losses, the measuring
equipment has to be selected according to the range of relevant
frequencies with sufcient accuracy. The instrumentation for
measuring electrical quantities shall meet the requirements of
IEC 60034-2-1 at 50- or 60-Hz fundamental frequency and
should have a bandwidth from5 Hz to a frequency of at least ten
times the PWM carrier frequency (triangular wave frequency).
For a 4-kHz switching frequency, the bandwidth of the power
analyzer should be from 5 to 40 000 Hz. The instrumentation
for measuring torque and speed at the motor output should also
meet the requirements of IEC 60034-2-1.
The sequence of tests is as follows: 1) determination of no-
load losses with sinusoidal power supply of rated frequency
and rated voltage according to IEC 60034-2-1; 2) determination
of no-load losses, but with VSD power supply, similar to IEC
60034-2-1. The difference between the no-load losses with a si-
nusoidal power supply and operation with VSDis the additional
harmonic motor losses. The additional harmonic motor losses
shall be added to the fundamental motor losses as determined
with a sinusoidal power supply according to IEC 60034-2-1
in order to obtain the motor efciency under frequency VSD
operation. For larger motors, the determination of the additional
harmonic losses caused by VSD operation based on calcula-
tions is an alternative procedure. This calculation has to be
based on the real pulse patterns of the VSD and the frequency-
dependent equivalent circuit parameters of the electric motor.
It should be referred that only the no-load losses are evalu-
ated because it is commonly assumed that, as long as the PWM
pattern is constant, the additional harmonic losses are practi-
cally independent of motor load. However, the experimental
results show that these losses can actually depend on load (see
Section II-C). Thus, at least, a test at no load and a test at full
load should be performed.
Moreover, to avoid errors associated with the operating con-
ditions (fundamental voltage and ambient temperature for the
no-load test and, additionally, motor load if the load test is
performed), the authors suggest that the harmonic losses can
be estimated during the VSD supply test by subtracting the
fundamental no-load losses from the total no-load losses. This
method has been applied in the experimental tests (the modern
power analyzers allow to segregate the fundamental component
of the measured total active power; see Section II-C), and at
no load, the difference between the additional harmonic losses
calculated according to the IEC 60034-2-3 (ensuring very simi-
lar fundamental voltage supply and ambient temperature for the
sinusoidal and PWM supply tests) and to the proposed method
is very reduced at no load. However, at full load, signicant
differences were obtained, which, in part, can be explained
1278 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 50, NO. 2, MARCH/APRIL 2014
by the differences in the motor load for both sinusoidal and
PWM supply tests. Therefore, the proposed method seems to be
valid, and it has the advantage of avoiding the error associated
to the possible fundamental voltage and ambient temperature
differences that can exist when performing different tests.
This standard denes the reference VSD and test methods to
check its conformity. However, the specications are confusing
or complex to apply using commercial VSDs. For example,
to check if the linearity extension is correctly applied, the
reference signal shall be measured through a low-pass lter
applied to the output voltage of the VSD in the minus dc link to
the output phase terminal, which is not a simple task to perform.
Maybe a more simple procedure should be used, suitable
to be applied in commercial VSDs, based exclusively on the
output PWM voltage waveform since it is possible to iden-
tify overmodulation operation by analyzing the output PWM
pulses/waveform, and for a specied output fundamental volt-
age level and switching frequency in scalar mode, the input
voltage of the VSD should be properly adjusted in order to
avoid merged PWM pulses in the center of each semicycle.
The authors applied this strategy to three 7.5-kW four-pole
motors of different efciency classes, using an autotransformer
to increase the VSD (with scalar control) input voltage up to
a value leading to a nonovermodulated PWM. The results are
presented in Section II-B.
Moreover, the standard also species that the ac mains source
earthing system shall be a star-grounded TN-earthing system.
A protective bonding shall be connected to the VSD and to the
motor under test. A shielded cable shall connect the reference
VSD to the motor. The cable length shall be less than 10 m.
For VSDs with voltage ratings above 1 kV, the standard states
that a reference VSD cannot be specied. Such motors and
VSDs can only be tested as a complete power drive system
because the pulse pattern of frequency VSDs for higher output
powers is too different between manufactures and very different
between no load and rated load.
D. IEC 60034-2-1 Standard
The revision of the testing method IEC 60034-2-1 is under-
way (publication planned for 2013/2014) [10] in order to make
the efciency results more accurate and repeatable [14]. In the
revision of the testing standard, the results of the IEC Round
Robin test campaign that was conducted with a total of 194
tests on 75 motors in 17 test laboratories situated in 11 countries
are being taken into account [5], [15]. The testing methods will
change from the older concept of low uncertainty that was
never to be quantied to the more MEPS-oriented philosophy
of the preferred method that every laboratory has to use in a
predetermined sequence of procedures.
Regarding LSPMs, due to their performance superiority, it
is expectable that the respective market share increases in the
future [17]. Thus, the applicability of the IEC 60034-2-1 to this
sort of motors has to be properly analyzed. As far as the authors
know, it is only possible to apply the inputoutput (or direct)
method, without loss segregation [17]. Therefore, the ambient
temperature correction can only be made for the stator winding
(I
2
R) losses [17]. The other losses are not easy to segregate.
Fig. 4. (a) Efciency and power factor for a commercial 3-kW four-pole
LSPM. (b) Loss segregation for a commercial 3-kW four-pole LSPM [17].
For that purpose, tests used to conventional synchronous and
induction motors should be complementarily used. However,
some of the tests used in conventional synchronous motors can-
not be applied to LSPMs due to the impossibility of regulating
the excitation (which is xed by the PMs). An alternative to
control the induced electromotive force in LSPMs is varying
speed, but proper compensation of the frequency has to be done
in the calculations. In [17], an attempt to segregate the losses
of a 3-kW four-pole LSPM was made, using the inputoutput
method. In Fig. 4(a) and (b), the resulting efciency and loss
segregation, as a function of motor load, are presented.
The constant losses are easy to identify/quantify, being equal
to the minimum power obtained when varying the applied
voltage at no load, as shown in Fig. 5(a). The mechanical plus
iron losses can then be obtained by subtracting the no-load
stator winding I
2
R losses. However, the mechanical losses are
not easy to segregate since the method used in SCIMs cannot be
directly applied, as it can be seen in Fig. 3(b). An attempt has
been made to identify the atter zone of the curve to draw a
tangent line to intersect the power axis to obtain the mechanical
losses. However, it is obvious that it is not possible to clearly
identify that atter zone.
An alternative to quantify the mechanical losses in a SCIM is
to disconnect it from supply and mechanically drive it at rated
speed and measure the shaft torque with a high-precision torque
sensorin these conditions, the measured mechanical power
corresponds to the mechanical losses. However, in the case of
DE ALMEIDA et al.: TECHNICAL AND ECONOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON SUPER HIGH-EFFICIENCY MOTORS 1279
Fig. 5. (a) Experimental no-load active power as a function of voltage [17].
(b) Experimental no-load active power as a function of voltage squared.
LSPMs, this is not possible because there is a braking torque
due to the PMs.
The additional load losses can be calculated using different
approaches. In the approach used, it was assumed that they
include the reaction iron losses, the rotor losses (at rated speed,
mainly due to magnetomotive-force spatial harmonic effect in
the auxiliary cage), and other stray losses. Alternatively, the
reaction iron losses can be considered equal to the difference
between the remaining losses (total losses minus stator I
2
R and
constant losses) and the additional losses obtained by propor-
tionality to the square of the current, taking the nominal point as
reference. In Fig. 6, the additional load losses obtained by loss
subtraction [as presented in Fig. 4(b)] and by proportionality to
the square of the armature current, taking the nominal point as
reference, are presented [17].
On the basis of the arguments and experimental results
presented in [17], it can be concluded that the simplest and most
accurate method to determine the full-load efciency of LSPMs
is the direct method at thermal equilibrium with temperature
correction of the stator/armature winding losses. These losses
can be obtained by simply correcting the measured winding re-
sistance immediately after a load test at a given ambient temper-
ature to the 25

C reference ambient temperature. Nevertheless,
the impact is expected to be relatively low in the nal efciency
value (variation less than 0.15 p.p.) if the ambient temperature
is in the 1535

C range. Therefore, for that temperature range,
Fig. 6. Additional load losses obtained by loss subtraction and by propor-
tionality to the square of the armature current, taking the nominal point as
reference [17].
it is reasonable to neglect the temperature correction process in
the stator winding losses.
II. TECHNICAL AND ECONOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON
COMMERCIAL SUPER-PREMIUM LSPMs
The informative limits in the IEC 60034-31 Standard for the
IE4-Class (Super Premium) three-phase motors are a result of
a rst approach, taking into account the motor manufacturer
limitations. However, as previously referred, the LSPMs are
being introduced in the market and can exceed those proposed
IE4 Super-Premium limits, respecting the standard frame sizes.
The same applies to PM motors controlled by VSDs.
Since only the line-start IE4-Class technology does not re-
quire a VSD in the low-power-range market,
3
a signicant
increase in the LSPM market share in the next decade is
expected.
As demonstrated in [4], with SCIM technology and respect-
ing the standard frame sizes, it seems unlikely to achieve IE4
Super-Premium limits in the power range under 7.5 kW, as
dened in the rst edition of IEC 60034-31. In Fig. 3, the
efciency of 0.557.5-kW commercial LSPMs is shown. It can
be concluded that, for the 0.55-, 1.5-, and 3-kW rated powers,
the IE4 limits dened in the second edition of IEC 60034-30 are
not achieved. However, according to the limits dened in the
rst edition of that standard (which is still active), the LSPMs
under consideration are formally of IE4 class, with exception
for the 0.55-kW motor, since this rated power is not covered by
this edition.
In the early stages of LSPM development, one of the main
initial drawbacks was the starting torque, particularly in loads
combining high starting torque and high inertia. Presently,
commercial LSPMs can have a maximum allowable load inertia
limited to 30 times the motor inertia, which is enough for
most industrial loads. The commercial four-pole LSPMs in the
0.557.5-kWpower range have a starting torque 2.2 to 3.8 times
higher than the nominal torque.
3
In the end of 2012, a large motor manufacturer introduced in the market
IE4-Class SCIM models in the 5.5355-kW range for two and four poles and
in the 3315 kW for six poles.
1280 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 50, NO. 2, MARCH/APRIL 2014
TABLE III
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMERCIAL IE2-, IE3-, AND IE4-CLASS
7.5-kW FOUR-POLE MOTORS [17]
It is worth noting that the starting kick of LSPMs is quite
violent, which can accelerate the mechanical wear of the motor
and load bearings and/or gears (if any). This can be particularly
critical in application with frequent start/stop cycles. The use
of belts can help in reducing this impact. This is not an issue in
VSD-fed LSPMs.
Considering the price of IE2-Class SCIMs as reference, the
IE3-Class SCIMs and IE4-Class LSPMs have a price 1.11.3
and 2.23.8 times higher, respectively.
A. Comparative Economical Analysis
As an example, for comparison purposes, three 7.5-kW four-
pole commercial motors with different efciency classes from
one of the largest motor manufacturers are now considered,
whose main characteristics are presented in Table III. The
prices with a typical 40% discount for the IE2 SCIM, IE3
SCIM, and IE4 LSPM models are 328 C, 378 C, and 764 C,
respectively. The efciency gain of the IE4 LSPM with respect
to the IE2 and IE3 SCIMs is 4.1 and 1.4 p.p., respectively [18].
Since the speed of LSPMs is higher than that of SCIMs, it
is important to take that fact into account in the economical
evaluation of such options. For example, considering a typical
industrial centrifugal fan, in which the shaft power input is
proportional to the cube of the angular speed, the expected
difference in the speed and in the shaft power input for the three
different class motors is presented in Table IV. Since June 16,
2011, the IE1-Class motors in 0.75375 kW are out of the EU
market, but the stock of such motors will be operating for at
least a decade more. Therefore, it makes sense to consider them
in the following analysis.
Due to the expected slip decrease, in order to avoid over-
loading IE3 or IE4 motors when replacing an IE2 motor, the
latter has to be slightly oversized. In the case of fans and pumps
(without static pressure), for a proper IE2 motor replacement
by an IE3 motor, the rst should have 98% load, and for a
proper IE2 replacement by an IE4 motor, the rst should have
91% load.
Moreover, in pumps and fans, if the installed IE2-Class motor
is operating very close to full load, the energy savings can be
negative (i.e., instead of a decrease in the consumed energy,
there is an increase). In the example given (see Table IV), there
is a 4.9% energy consumption increase when replacing the
IE2-Class SCIM by an IE4-Class LSPM, which demonstrates
how the direct replacing can be a wrong option in some cases,
particularly if the additional ow (proportional to the speed) is
not actually required by the process.
Considering now that the motors are fed by a VSD, the speed
can be set to exactly the same value. If the VSD efciency is the
same (for example, 97%), the energy savings will be much more
signicant, and the estimated payback time is 0.5 and 2.8 years
for the IE3- and IE4-Class motors under consideration (7.5 kW
and four poles), respectively, assuming 5840 h/year of operation
and 0.07 C/kWh, as can be seen in Table V. This payback
time is very attractive (lower than three years). Although the
LSPMs have a much longer payback than that for the IE3-
Class SCIM when replacing an IE2-Class SCIM, the life-cycle
cost will be lower. For example, neglecting the possible stator
rewinding and bearing replacement costs, during a 15-year pe-
riod, the estimated energy savings value is 1458 C and 2295 C
for the IE3-Class SCIM and IE4-Class LSPM, which, during
that period, is equivalent to approximately 29 and 5 times their
extra initial cost (or price difference, with respect to IE2-Class
SCIM), respectively. In that 15-year period, these motors will
consume an amount of energy with a value equivalent to nearly
137 and 67 times their price (with 40% discount), respectively.
Considering that the IE2 SCIM needs to be rewound/repaired,
the rewinding plus bearing replacement price is 175 C (46%
of the price of a new IE3), the original motor efciency is
maintained after repair, and the payback time for the additional
cost associated with the decision of replacing the damaged IE2
motor by a new IE3 or IE4 motor, instead of rewinding it, would
be 2.1 and 3.8 years, respectively, which is still very attractive,
particularly for the IE3 motor. Considering a damaged IE1
motor, if the user decides to replace it, instead of repairing it,
the payback time for the additional investment in a new IE3 or
IE4 motor, would be 1.1 and 2.5 years, respectively, being an
attractive option for both cases.
It is important noting that, although LSPMs are design for
line-start VSD-less operation, they have the possibility of di-
rectly replacing SCIMs fed by low-cost VSDs, which, in some
cases, is not possible for conventional permanent magnet syn-
chronous motors, since they require special closed-loop control
strategies in VSD, with rotor position sensing or estimation.
This is another potential advantage of LSPMs, even for new
applications, since cheaper VSDs can be used.
B. In-Field Experience With IE4-Class LSPMs
As an example of retrotting, an IE0-Class Equivalent
5.5-kW four-pole SCIM driving a fan in an industrial facility,
DE ALMEIDA et al.: TECHNICAL AND ECONOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON SUPER HIGH-EFFICIENCY MOTORS 1281
TABLE IV
ESTIMATED SHAFT POWER FOR DIFFERENT LOADS DRIVEN BY 7.5-kW FOUR-POLE MOTORS OF IE1, IE2, IE3, AND IE4 CLASSES WITHOUT VSD [17]
TABLE V
ESTIMATED ENERGY SAVINGS AND PAYBACK TIME FOR IE3- AND
IE4-CLASS 7.5-kW FOUR-POLE MOTORS, ASSUMING CONSTANT
OUTPUT POWER [17]
was replaced by an IE4-Class LSPM (see Fig. 7). The results
are presented in Table VI.
Note that the original motor was oversized (load lower than
57%), and therefore, a 4-kW LSPM would be enough for this
application, but the user decided to maintain the rated power.
Moreover, since the new 5.5-kW LSPM has a load lower than
60%, it can benet in terms of efciency and power factor from
voltage regulation.
Considering 5840 h/year of operation and 0.07 C/kWh, a
250-W power reduction leads to 102.2 C of annual savings. It
Fig. 7. Photos of the replaced and replacing motors: (a) Brand A, 132S, IP55,
Cl. F, 5.5 kW, 380420 V, 11.5 A, 1450 r/min, PF = 0.83, Eff. = 83.2%
(IE0/EFF3 Class). (b) Brand B, 132S, IP55, Cl. F, 5.5 kW, 380420 V, 9.34 A,
1500 r/min, PF = 0.93, Eff. = 92.5% (IE4 Class). (a) IE0-Class SCIM.
(b) IE4-Class LSPM.
TABLE VI
SUMMARY OF THE MOTOR PERFORMANCE FOR THE SCIM AND LSPM
should be noted that, although the rated efciency of the new
LSPM is quite higher than that of the replaced SCIM, the sav-
ings are moderate due to the speed increase and, as a result, the
power required by the centrifugal fan increased signicantly,
leading to the increase of the input active/real power, reducing
the consumption reduction potential associated with the motor
1282 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 50, NO. 2, MARCH/APRIL 2014
Fig. 8. Motor losses. (Top) No-load total losses. (Center) No-load harmonic
losses calculated according to two different methods (Method 1: Harmonic
Losses = Total Losses Fundamental Losses; Method 2: Harmonic Losses =
Grid-fed Motor Losses VSD-fed Motor Losses). (Bottom) Harmonic losses
at full load calculated according to Method 1. VSD supply tests, according
to the IEC 60034-2-3 Standard test conditions (two-level VSI with 4-kHz
switching frequency).
efciency gain. If the additional air ux, which is proportional
to the fan angular speed, was useful to the process, this should
be considered as a benet from the perspective of useful power.
If a VSD is installed, the speed increase issue can be overcome
because the speed can be adjusted to the original value. From
another perspective, without a VSD, if an ON/OFF control is
used as a function of a reference temperature dependent on the
fan air ux, the extra ux can lead to the reduction of the motor
operating time, reducing the energy consumption.
Fig. 9. Experimental efciency, power factor, and winding head temperature
for IE2, IE3, and IE4 motors, as a function of load, at 400 V and 50 Hz.
In short, the installation of the IE4-Class LSPM, even with
the 6% increase of the power required by the fan due to the
2% increase in the speed (14721500 r/min), led to a 6.6%
decrease in the motor input active power, to a 22% reduction in
the apparent power, and to a 20% increase in the power factor.
Those results led to a fair energy saving and, additionally, to a
reduction in the power cables and transformer load and losses.
In applications already equipped with a VSD, the savings can
be much higher since the speed and voltage can be adjusted to
any specic value.
C. Laboratory Experimental Results
In this scope, tests were made using three 7.5-kW motors
from the same manufacturerone High-Efciency IE2, one
Premium Efciency IE3, and one Super-Premium Efciency
IE4. In Fig. 8, the motor total and harmonic losses at no load,
with grid and VSD supply, measured according the conditions
specied in the IEC 60034-2-3 Standard, are shown. The no-
load and full-load harmonic losses for VSD supply, calculated
by subtracting the fundamental component value to the total
value of the input active power, are also presented.
On the basis of the experimental results, it seems that, on the
one hand, the LSPM has less immunity to PWM supply at no
load but, on the other hand, it has higher immunity to the PWM
supply at full load. In fact, the harmonic losses at full load are
different from that at no loadfor the IE2 and IE3 motors, they
increase with the load, but for the IE4 motor, they decrease.
Regarding the performance as a function of load, for xed
frequency, the IE4 Super-Premium LSPM has a quite higher
power factor in whole load range, and the efciency is higher
than that of the IE3 SCIM motor, from full load down to
60% load. Below that value, the LSPM becomes lower. The
stator winding heads of the drive end (hottest points in the
winding) has a much lower temperature rise and lower variation
with the load, as it can be seen in Figs. 9 and 10. The coil
head temperature was measured by contact with a precision
temperature sensor. The input current is much lower for the
LSPM (see Fig. 11).
In variable-speed applications, the torque derating to main-
tain the steady-state full-load temperature is, in practice, similar
DE ALMEIDA et al.: TECHNICAL AND ECONOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON SUPER HIGH-EFFICIENCY MOTORS 1283
Fig. 10. Drive-end winding head temperature rise evolution for IE2, IE3, and
IE4 motors after starting at full load, at 400 V and 50 Hz.
Fig. 11. Experimental input current as a function of load, for IE2, IE3, and
IE4 motors, at 400 V and 50 Hz.
Fig. 12. Experimental load, torque, and efciency for IE2, IE3, and IE4
motors, maintaining constant drive-side winding head temperature equal to the
nominal value (at 400 V, 50 Hz, and full load). Scalar control with U
1
/f
1
= 8.
Ambient temperature between 25 and 30

C.
for the three tested motors, and the efciency decrease with
the speed decrease is lower for LSPM, as it can be seen
in Fig. 12. In fact, the LSPM efciency is higher in all
speed ranges below the rated speed, which is an important
advantage.
Fig. 13. Experimental torque, efciency, winding head temperature rise, and
voltage fundamental component for IE3 and IE4 SCIMs, maximizing efciency
in each load point for 50-Hz frequency. Ambient temperature between 21 and
25

C. Motor fed by a two-level VSI with a 4-kHz switching frequency PWM.
Fig. 14. (a) Efciency as a function of load for different voltage levels, for a
commercial 3-kW four-pole LSPM [17]. (b) Power factor as a function of load
for different voltage levels, for a commercial 3-kW four-pole LSPM [17].
In Fig. 13, the experimental results for the IE3 and IE4 mo-
tors fed by the same VSD (two-level VSI with 4-kHz switching
frequency), at 50 Hz, with the fundamental component of the
voltage regulated in order to maximize the motor efciency, can
be seen. This gure shows that, with proper voltage regulation,
as a function of the motor load, the efciencies of both IE3 and
1284 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 50, NO. 2, MARCH/APRIL 2014
IE4 motors become very close. This is still valid for different
fundamental frequencies. In VSD-fed motors, this conclusion
is in favor of IE3 SCIMs since they are cheaper than IE4
LSPMs. However, to guarantee the efciency maximization, the
VSDshould incorporate optimummagnetizing ux searching
methods or pretested U
1
/f
1
relations with more than two points
properly adapted to the load mechanical characteristic. The
voltage reduction to maximize the efciency for lower loads
in the SCIM is higher than that for the LSPM, demonstrating
that the commonly used U
1
/f
1
relations are not valid for the
latter.
In Fig. 14, the LSPM steady-state performance dependence
on load and voltage can be seen, demonstrating that such
motors can benet signicantly in terms of efciency and power
factor from the voltage regulation or, alternatively, winding
connection change (e.g., delta to star for light loads) when
directly fed fromthe grid and having variable load or permanent
light load. For example, in a motor operating at 50% load, the
simple change from delta to star connection (equivalent to a
voltage reduction from 400 to 231 V), 2- and 36-p.p. gains
can be obtained in the efciency and power factor, respectively.
Better results can be obtained if continuous voltage regulation
is provided as a function of the motor actual load.
As demonstrated before, this aspect is also important for
motors fed by VSDs, in which, if low-cost scalar control
is used, it is necessary to dene a proper voltagefrequency
relation/curve that maximizes the motor efciency.
III. CONCLUSION
Growing environmental concerns and high energy costs
make more and more important to look at life-cycle costs of
nonstandard technologies. PM motors prove to be signicantly
more efcient than SCIMs, in the low-power range (15 kW).
Therefore, even in applications that were exclusively limited to
SCIMs, they can now prot from the advantages of PM motors.
Regarding single-speed applications, with direct mains oper-
ation, the SCIM still has some cost advantage, although new
developments in LSPMs make them a cost-effective alternative
on a life-cycle basis.
Since the energy-savings potential associated with Super-
Premium IE4-Class motors is large and the technology to
achieve such efciency levels is already available to be pro-
duced in large scale, it makes sense to promote such motors, by
means of suitable incentives, particularly in the smallmedium
power ranges.
Taking into account that LSPMs are already available in
the market, it can be said that the efciency limits of Super-
Premium IE4 Class were already achieved. The starting torque
of those motors is similar to that of SCIMs.
Although the price of LSPMs is about 2.238 times higher
than that of equivalent IE2-Class SCIMs, when considering the
two options for a new application operating more than 6000 h/
year, the payback time for the additional investment in the
LSPMs is expected to be less than three years, which is an
attractive solution from an economic point of view.
If permanently oversized or having variable load, as SCIMs,
LSPMs can also benet in terms of efciency and power
factor from the voltage regulation or, alternatively, winding
connection mode change (e.g., delta to star).
It seems that the simplest and accurate method to determine
the full-load efciency of LSPMs is the direct inputoutput
method at thermal equilibrium with ambient temperature cor-
rection of the stator/armature winding losses. Regarding the
additional harmonic losses when motors are supplied by VSDs,
it was found that, at full load, they are lower in LSPMs (in
respect to those in SCIMs), thus providing additional savings in
such operating conditions. However, at no load, the harmonic
losses seem to be higher in LSPMs.
Finally, it should be mentioned that, in most cases, energy-
efciency optimizations will have to focus on improved overall
system efciency, including the individual component ef-
ciency, such as motor, VSD, lters, cables, mechanical trans-
mission/coupling, and load/application.
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DE ALMEIDA et al.: TECHNICAL AND ECONOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON SUPER HIGH-EFFICIENCY MOTORS 1285
Anbal T. De Almeida (SM03) received the
Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from Imperial
College, University of London, London, U.K.
He is currently a Professor with the Department
of Electrical Engineering and Computers, Univer-
sity of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal. He is also a
Consultant of the European Commission Framework
Programmes, UNDP and UNIDO. He is the coauthor
of six books on energy efciency and industrial
automation and more than 200 papers published in
international journals and conference proceedings
and presented at meetings. He has coordinated six European projects dealing
with energy-efcient technologies. He has also participated as a consultant
on several international projects to promote energy efciency in developing
countries.
Prof. de Almeida was a recipient of the Best Paper Award at the 2001
IEEE Industry Applications Society Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
Technical Conference.
Fernando J. T. E. Ferreira (SM09) received the
Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Uni-
versity of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal, in 2009.
He is currently with the Department of Electri-
cal Engineering, Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra
(ISEC-IPC), Coimbra, Portugal, as a Professor. Since
1998, he has also been a Researcher with the Institute
of Systems and Robotics, University of Coimbra
(ISR-UC), Coimbra, and has participated in sev-
eral European projects dealing with electric motor
technologies.
Dr. Ferreira was a recipient of the Best Paper Award at the 2001 IEEE/
Industry Applications Society Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Tech-
nical Conference and of the Best Poster Presentation Award (for the technical
competence displayed in the poster presentation) at the 2010 International
Conference on Electrical Machines.
Andr Quintino Duarte received the Licentiate and
M.Sc. degrees in electrical engineering from the
University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal, in 2012.
He is currently a Researcher with the Institute of
Systems and Robotics, University of Coimbra, where
he has been working on electric motor efciency,
automation, and data acquisition systems for ground
source heat pumps in the FP7 GroundMed project
since 2011.