i

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Chapter One
Introduction to the Training Establishment


1.1 History of the Organization

Etisalat is the first cellular network in South Asia, commenced operations in 1989 with the
brand name of Celltel. It is a company owned and operated by Comvic International of
United States of America. Then the company was sold to Millicom International Cellular
(MIC) in the same year. In 2007 MIC changed the name of Celltel to Tigo.
Etisalat acquired the Sri Lankan Operation of MIC, Tigo on 16
th
October 2009. In 2010,
Tigo was rebranded as Etisalat and now Etisalat is the worlds 12
th
largest mobile service
provider [2] which operates with 140 million customers with operation in 15 countries
across the Middle East, Africa and Asia. Mother company of Etisalat is situated in Abu
Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.

1.2 Present Performance

Etisalat has achieved the Middle Easts fastest fixed line broadband service with the speed
of up to 500 Mbps which is the highest mobile broadband connectivity speeds to date. And
also Etisalat has launched 4G mobile services in the UAE and Saudi Arabia and operates
the Middle Easts largest LTE network with population coverage exceeding 82 per cent.
Currently Etisalat is the worlds 12
th
largest mobile service provider which operates in 15
countries. The slogan of Etisalat is Its about you that prove its care towards customers.

Vision Statement : - A world where peoples reach is not limited by matter or distance
Mission Statement : - To extend peoples reach [1]


Etisalat provide number of value added services (VAS) including Web Patashala, SMS to
Email, GPRS/MMS, Give Me Balance, Credit Gifting, Call A Tune (PRBT), SMS Gift
etc...

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1.3 Organizational Structure

The company is structured into three main divisions, namely Financial, Marketing and
Engineering. There is also the Human Resources Department to handle all HR related thing
of the company. The technical organization structure of Etisalat is shown in below figure.
Technical team has well organized with radio access network (RAN), network operation
(NOP), rollout, switching, value added services (VAS), network operational Centre (NOC)
and intelligent network (IN).



Figure 1.1: Technical Organization Structure



1.4 Strengths and Weaknesses

1.4.1 Strengths

Etisalat provides the widest coverage with high quality to their customers. The
company has reached very rural areas without expecting higher revenue, but
coverage for all. Not only providing coverage for all but the company also consider
providing QoS to their subscribers. This has caused to company to higher position
among other service provider.
Another most valuable strength of the company is that it has strong,
knowledgeable, and committed staff although it is comparatively small. The new
recruits are also having positive attitudes with high performance to match the
current work force. So the strong human resource is a solid foundation to the
company to be strength.
Etisalat provides number of value added services to their customers including Web
Patashala, SMS to Email, GPRS/MMS, Give Me Balance, Credit Gifting, Call A
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Tune (PRBT), SMS Gift, SMS loaded, Cricket alerts, horoscope SMS, Daily
Lottery results etc...And also Etisalat introduce new packages such as super SIM,
tourist SIM pack and application such as Net Nanny to attract customers.
Etisalat has a plan to enlarge the coverage annually while adding new sites in less
coverage areas and rural areas. And also they always try to improve the quality of
the network through analyzing the daily report in sector wise. The slogan of
Etisalat, Its about you implies that its array of services to match the hearts of
their customers while considering their customers as their own by giving first
priority to them.


1.4.2 Weaknesses


The work load and responsibility of each engineer is bit too much in urgent and
critical tasks due to staff mismatch. Since the existing staff is talented although they
manage the workload it results for long working hours in stress. This will impact
for the company growth heavily.
Another weakness is that the lack of communication and understanding between
the departments even though there is a friendly environment within each
department itself.


1.5 Usefulness to the Nation

Etisalat has a wide network coverage which continuously expands its coverage to all major
cities to provide the best connectivity and clarity across Sri Lanka. As a service provider
Etisalat offer almost 90% of coverage while providing good quality of service to their
customers. Etisalat give service to many rural areas where there are no any other sources of
communication. Etisalat is consistently providing not only the widest coverage and an
unprecedented service, but also a host of other Value Added Services. They are dynamic
and treat their customers as their own, and consider customer service as their first priority
proving the slogan Its about you.


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Figure 1.2: Etisalat coverage map


Etisalat carries out range of services which range from both medium-to-long and short-
term projects, namely education, community/livelihood development, environment and
disaster relief. One project was the OLPC (one laptop per child) which providing laptops to
children in rural schools for contributing towards improving the literacy and IT skills. In
this Vesak, Etisalat organized a spectacle dansala at Galle to provide over 3000 pairs of
spectacles to financially challenged Sri Lankans, unable to afford the services of an
optometrist and lenses.

Etisalat donate Rs. 3.5 million to build cottage, Abimansala to disabled war heroes to live
in. It is a great service that provide by Etisalat in brave heart project. Another project is
that Sondurudiriya which launch to recycle marketing waste. The objective was not only to
recycling marketing waste but also an opportunity to uplift the lives of rural housewives to
turn out handy environmentally friendly grocery bags. And also Etisalat help to overcome
the devastation caused by the floods by distributing parcels containing essentials to flood
victims.

The company also provides various job opportunities in technical, financial, marketing,
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sales and human resource management fields with comparatively high incomes. Etisalat
also helps to the local education system by offering internship opportunities to various
universities and other institutes.

So Etisalat is consistently providing not only the widest coverage but also great services to
Sri Lanka as above described.


1.6 Suggestions to improve

According to my point of view, Etisalat need an expansion in the staff especially in
planning and optimization section due to high workload on one engineer. That is results for
lack of time to do research and development areas in order to meet the increasing and
competitive demand of new technology with other operators. So working with fewer
amounts of employers is a huge disadvantage for the company. And also the
communication should be further strength between each department in order to be
successful in all aspects.

During my training period I was able to observed that the lack of tools especially in
planning department. Sometimes engineers have to wait until another one return the tool.
So the number of tools should be increased if there requirement is high and if it is more
useful.

And also Etisalat should pay their attention more on introducing new attractive packages
(they are not providing couple packages which is a high profit that all other operators
provide) and value added services to attract more customers.












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Chapter Two
Technical Details


Engineering division of Etisalat Lanka (Pvt) Ltd is function under seven main divisions
which are RAN, NOP, NOC, switch, IN, VAS and roll-out. Within my training period of
12 weeks I was assigned to three divisions which are RAN, switch and NOP. It was a well-
organized and well-planned training program so that I was able to get fruitful technical
knowledge during that period. Although I was assigned to three divisions I was able to get
a basic idea on other divisions too. Sometimes they provide us the opportunity to handle
responsibilities and take technical decisions all by ourselves so that it was a massive
opportunity to us doing things instead of just looking over. This is the schedule of my
training at Etisalat during 12 weeks of the period from 20
th
January 2014 to 11
th
April
2014.

Table 2.1: Training Schedule

Division Time period
RAN (Radio Access Network) 20
th
January to 20
th
February 2014
Switch 21
st
February to 20
th
March 2014
NOP (Network Operation) 21
st
March to 11
th
April 2014


In this chapter I have described the technical knowledge that I experienced during 3
months of my training period. I have described them in different subsection according to
the knowledge got from the three sections which I was assigned. Finally I have described
the Etisalat network architecture as a whole in the last sub section and it is a combination
of details described in previous sub sections.


2.1 Radio Access Network (RAN)

This is the department in which I started my training and I was there for one month under
the supervision of Engineer Parakrama Wijemanna who is responsible for planning and
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optimization of the Central area.

According to Etisalat the whole country has divided into 7 territories (CA, CB, WA, WB,
NA, NB, and SA) and these regions have subdivided into clusters. There is an engineer for
each and every cluster for planning, optimizing and maintaining QoS. I was assigned to
the Engineer who is responsible for CA- KDY (central area- Kandy) cluster. In this period,
I got the basic idea of the GSM network and familiar with several tools. These are some
works carried out during planning division.

frequency planned for several sites using Map Info
Completed several TSSR (technical site survey report)
Site planning using RNP tool
Marked routes for benchmarking drive test in Google Earth
Analyzed on Independent Day traffic variation with the added TREs
Check on issues regarding daily report by using NPO (Network Performance
Optimizer) tool in Central area
Update piano file
Participate to a site survey at Padukka which was a sharing site of Airtel
Drive test at Padukka using TEMS.

In these sub sections I have described about the technical knowledge gathered during these
activities.

2.1.1 Site Planning

New site establishment is done as a result of coverage issues, customer complaints and
RNE suggestion to expand the coverage and capacity requirements. With feedback from
regional engineers and marketing section, radio network engineers (RNE) identifies the
potential area where new site establishment can be performed. Then RNE check the area
by using planning tools such as Aircom ASSET and Alcatel radio network planning tool
(A9155RNP) to identify the best location by using coverage prediction. Drive test results
also use to identify the location.

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Figure 2.1: Coverage prediction map

The above figure shows a coverage prediction by using the tool A9155RNP which we can
get prediction by changing azimuth, mechanical and electrical tilt, tower height
etc...During my training period, I was asked to decide the best location with antenna tilt
and azimuth for the given two longitudes, latitudes at Hapugastalawa.
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According to the TRC regulations, if there is a site near to that location then it should share
with that service provider. Even though company had to pay a rental for the site, sharing
site is a quick process. Otherwise it is required to do site survey to find a physical location
for the site. I was able to participate to the site survey at Padduka which is an Airtel site.
And also I completed number of TSSR at Kandy.

Considerations for new site establishment

Availability of line of sight to an existing site (for MW link)
No obstacles in the near field of the antenna
Space availability for tower construction
Power availability
Civil suitability (soli condition)
150m or 250m clearance from the high tension line
Availability of access path to the site
15m clearance from transformers, houses
Operation and maintenance facility
Installation possibility
Site acquisition
o Central Environmental Authority (CEA)
o Civil Aviation Authority (CAA)
o Urban Development Authority (UDA)
o Board of Investment (BOI)
o Local Authority

These are some approval that should be taken in order to get the TRC (Telecommunication
Regulatory Commission) approval.

When the exact location is finalized, RNE make a TSSR (technical site survey report) and
then roll-out department proceed with the site acquisition. Sketch of a sharing site is
attached with appendix.


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Physical parameters planning

Antenna height, azimuth and tilt are physical parameters that should be considered for new
site establishment.

Antenna height High antenna height mean large serving area but cause for
interference with other sites. Low antenna height may not interfere with other sites
but may not cover the expected area. So antenna height should be decided based on
both geographical nature of the area and the requirement. High towers use in rural
areas to maximize coverage but in urban area use low tower height to minimize
interference.

Azimuth In general one site has three sectors. Antenna position in horizontal
plane is called as azimuth. Widely use antenna azimuths are 0
0
, 120
0
, 240
0
. But
these values can be changed depend on coverage requirement (population), area
that is not covered by other sites, direction of highway and roads, existence of
town, hotel

Antenna tilt Tilting is done in order to concentrate the beam to the desired area by
reducing overshoot hence to reduce interferences from neighboring sites. In rural
areas the antenna tilt is very low or zero to maximize the coverage since the
distance between adjacent sites are high so it is not caused for interference. But in
urban areas antenna down tilt is high to minimize interference. There are two ways
of tilting an antenna.

Figure 2.2: Effect of antenna tilt

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Table 2.2: Mechanical and Electrical down tilting

Mechanical down tilting Electrical down tilting
Physically down tilt the antenna The antenna is physical not changed but the
beam is tilted
Only the main lobes are down tilted while
side lobes are remain same
Same down tilt for both main lobes and side
lobes
Fast adjustment is possible Adjustment of electrical tilt mostly not
possible
Accurate adjustment is difficult Accurate adjustment can perform
Problems with sites with difficult access Introduction of additional antenna types
necessary



Figure 2.3: Mechanical tilt from clamp




Figure 2.4: Electrical tilt


2.1.2 Frequency planning

GSM uses the concept of cells. One cell covers a small part of the network. A GSM
network will have several cells. The cells are normally drawn as hexagonal, but in practice
they are irregularly shaped.
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Figure 2.5: Cell structure

In Omni-directional cells it radiates the radio waves to 360
0
and if the site has a single cell
it causes for low capacity. To increase capacity within the geographical area a technique
called sectorization is used. It splits a single site into a number of cells, each cell has
transmit and receive antennas and behave as an independent cell. Each cell uses special
directional antennas to ensure that the radio propagation from one cell is concentrated in a
particular direction.

Since a cell has limited area, the frequency used in this cell can be re-used in some other
cell. This is known as frequency re-uses. Frequency reuses do mainly in two ways.
Reuse same frequency in sufficient distance separation in geographical area
Time sharing of frequency in a defined pattern as no interference with adjacent
sites

The cells which use the same frequencies are known as re-use or co-channel cells. So in
order to provide enough capacity frequencies have to be reused since the GSM spectrum is
limited. But it should be such that to minimize co-channel and adjacent-channel
interference.

GSM spectrum

The frequency spectrum is very congested since it has allocated only narrow slots of
bandwidth for cellular communication. The table shows the frequency spectrum of
GSM900, EGSM 900, DCS and PCS1900.

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Table 2.3: GSM Frequency Bands


Band
Uplink
frequency
Downlink
frequency
Channel
bandwidth
GSM 900 890 - 915MHz 935-960MHz 200kHz
EGSM 900
880 - 915MHz

925 - 960MHz

200kHz
GSM 1800 (DCS)
1710 - 1785MHz

1805 - 1880MHz

200kHz
PCS 1900 1850 - 1910MHz 1930 - 1990MHz 200kHz


Uplink refers to signal flow from MS to BTS and downlink refers to signal flow from BTS
to MS. The simultaneous use of uplink and downlink frequencies enables communication
in both transmits and receives so it is full duplex. Lower frequencies are used for uplink
and high frequencies are used for downlink since MS has lower transmit power than
antenna (high frequency means high attenuation so high transmit power is needed).

Uplink and downlink frequencies are separated by a wide frequency range to minimize
interference between transmission and reception. We can see that there is a 45MHz
separation between uplink and downlink in both GSM 900 and extended GSM but in DCS
it is 95MHz.
This GSM band is divided into 124 channels with bandwidth of 25MHz for both uplink
and downlink.



Figure 2.6: Channel separation in GSM900 band

This channels are given a number call ARFCN (Absolute Radio Frequency Channel
Number) since it is difficult to work with real frequencies. ARFCN or RF carrier is
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actually a pair of frequencies, one used in each direction (transmit and receive). TRC has
allocated these limited resources to each operator. Etisalat was given ARFCN from 51 to
87 which are 37 channels in GSM900 band and another 30 channels from DCS band i.e.
ARFCN from 624 to 653.

Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)


The BCCH (downlink only) is transmitted by a BTS (Base Transceiver Station) to provide
the signaling information required by the MS to access and identify the network. The
BCCH will include information such as MS present cell (LAI-Location Area Identity), list
of neighboring cells, list of frequencies used in the cells etc... It is transmitted continuously
as its signal strength is measured by all MSs on surrounding cells. So this is the frequency
in which each cell broadcast information needed by a MS to be connected with the network
so that each site needs one BCCH frequency per sector. Etisalat uses BCCH frequencies
from ARFCN 51-72.

As the BCCH carrier has the highest interferer potential because of being on air all the time
it should be planned such that the interference to be avoided mainly co-channel and
adjacent-channel interference. And also BCCH frequencies in sectors of the same site
should have at least 2 ARFCN difference.

Co-channel interference
This occurs when RF carriers of the same frequency are transmitting in close proximity to
each other; the transmission from one RF carrier interferes with the other RF carrier.
Interference margin for two co-channels is -9 dBm.

Adjacent-channel interference
This occurs when an RF source of a nearby frequency interferes with the RF carrier.

Base Station Identification Code (BSIC)

BSIC is used to distinguish between base stations using the same BCCH frequency. So
BCCH and BSIC combination is used for identifying the site, to which the subscriber is
attached to and this is more important in call handovers. The network should avoid same
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BSIC and BCCH combination in nearby cells. BSIC (Base Station Identification Code) is
composed with two parts BCC (base station color code) and NCC (network color code).
For Etisalat the permitted values for NCC are 3 and 5. For the BCC the permitted values
are 0 to 7. Therefore integers from 30-37 and 50-57 can be used as BSICs.



Figure 2.7: BSIC Allocation

During my training period I was asked to frequency re-planning with relevant BSIC values
for several sites in Kandy to minimize interference.

Frequency Hopping

When the site has 4 - 4 - 4 configuration, if we apply static frequency plan it need at least
12 frequencies for one site. But this is difficult with the limited frequency spectrum with
increasing capacity even with reuse. Frequency hopping is used to overcome this problem
which is a dynamic frequency allocation mechanism. The basic idea here is to change the
transmit frequency continuously. Etisalat use ARFCN from 74 to 87 (14 frequencies) that
generate 64 unique HSN (Hopping Sequence Number) which is a random pattern to have
minimum interference with any other HSN. Those patterns are orthogonal to each other.
This value can range from 0 to 63 and 0 indicates a cyclic hopping pattern while any
number from 1 to 63 give a pseudorandom hopping pattern.

When planning HSN each site should has same HSN. But this is caused for co channel
interference between the sectors of the site since all sectors use same frequency to transmit
at all times. To overcome this problem each TRE of the site starts the hopping sequence
from a different frequency which is called as MAIO (Mobile Allocation Index Offset).
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MAIO should differ by two to avoid adjacent channel interference.

Table 2.4: MAIO allocation

ARFCN F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F11 F12 F13 F14
MAIO 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13


If we define MAIO as 0 the frequency pattern will start with F1 and if it is 7 the frequency
pattern will start with F8 and the HSN number will define the hopping pattern.

HSN and MAIO allocations for a site with 4 4 4 TRE configuration can be defined as,


Table 2.5: MAIO and HSN allocation for a site with 4, 4, 4 TRE configuration

TRE number Sector 1 Sector 2 Sector 3
TRE 1 BCCH 1 BCCH 2 BCCH 3
TRE 2 HSN=5, MAIO=0 HSN=5, MAIO=2 HSN=8, MAIO=1
TRE 3 HSN=5, MAIO=4 HSN=5, MAIO=6 HSN=8, MAIO=3
TRE 4 HSN=5, MAIO=8 HSN=5, MAIO=10 HSN=8, MAIO=5


For one HSN there can be only 7 MAIOs in this case 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12. Since this site has
12 TREs it is needed to define another HSN with MAIOs 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13.

2.1.3 Handover

The handover (HO) process is one of the fundamental principles in cellular mobile radio,
maintaining the call in progress (dedicated mode) whilst the mobile subscriber is moving
through the network. The MS switches from channel to channel and cell to cell as it moves
to maintain call continuity. There are four different types of handovers.

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Figure 2.8: Handover types


1. Intra BTS handover Same BTS, only change the channel or slot. This form of HO
occurs to change frequency or slot use due to interference or other reasons. So this
is the switching of call from one channel/ TRX to another TRX within the same
cell independently by the BSC. This type of HO usually takes place when the
RxQuality on the source channel deteriorates.

2. Inter BTS intra BSC handover When mobile moves out of the coverage area of
one BTS but move into another cell controlled by same BSC. Then BSC assign a
new TCH and slot to the mobile before releasing the old BTS.


3. Inter BSC handover When mobile moves out of the range of cells controlled by
one BSC to another, then BSC has to change. In this case not only change BTS but
BSC also change.

4. Inter MSC handover When mobile moves from one MSC to another MSC this
type of HO occurs.


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2.1.4 Cell Selection/ Re selection


Cell Selection

When a mobile switched on it will be selected to a cell. This process is called as the Cell
Selection. Mobile will be selected to the cell having Best C1 (path loss criterion). (C1 > 0)
C1 is used to determine whether a cell is suitable to camp on. At start up (IMSI attach) the
MS selects the cell with best C1. C1 is defined as,

C1 = A - Max [B, 0])

Where,
A = (RXLEV - RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN) => Received signal level at MS Minimum
received signal level the MS is allowed to access the cell

B = (MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH P)
MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH is the maximum power level the control channel (when MS
sending on RACH)

P is the maximum TX power of MS

Cell Reselection

Cell reselection is a process MS change its service cell in idle mode. When the MS selects
a cell and if there are not major changes in various condition the MS will stay in the
selected cell and MS will begin to measure the signal levels of the BCCH TRX of its
adjacent cells, record 6 adjacent cells whose signal levels are the strongest and extract from
the various types of system messages and control messages of each adjacent cell. When
given condition are met, the MS will move from the current cell into another one. This
process is called as cell reselection.

When PI indicates YES, the MS will get parameters (CRO, TO and PT) from BCCH, to be
used to calculate C2 (channel quality criterion), which serves as cell reselection criteria.
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Mobile will be re-selected to the cell with best C2 if PI = Yes. The equation is as follows.

C2C1CROTO (T) ; when PT 31
C2C1 CRO ; when PT 31

Where,

CRO: Cell Reselect Offset (The artificial influence is to encourage the MS to take the
priority in accessing to some cells or prevent it from accessing to others.)
PT: Penalty Time (whose main role is to avoid frequent cell reselection by MS)
T is a timer. When a cell is recorded by MS as one of the six strongest cells, timer starts
counting, otherwise, T is reset to zero.
TO (T): Temporary Offset (to avoid locating on transient cell)



Figure 2.9: MS with serving cell A and B



Assuming MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH = P, if we calculated C1 for both cell A and B they
will be 29 and 22 respectively. So the cell A will be selected by the MS at start up (when it
on).

If we calculated C2 values for both cell A and B they will be 24 and 26 respectively. So the
cell B will be re-selected by the MS if,
C1 criterion is too low
MS cannot decode downlink messages
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The current cell is becoming forbidden (barred)
MS cannot access the cell
there is a better cell regarding C2 criterion


2.2 Switch Department


The second month of my training schedule was spent with the Switch team. Switch is the
department which is responsible for the core network. During that period I was able to get
knowledge on call flows, NGN concepts, MPLS and services, WCS, MGW functionalities,
signaling protocols, power system of NSS, voice interconnection technologies, routing and
basic idea on networking. In this section the switch Engineers conduct sessions to us on a
schedule as it can cover most of the section that we want to know. During that month I was
able to visit all three switch site and get hand on experience of configuring a WCS test bed
at Grandpass and links were configured from remote MGW at Kotikawatta to BSC.

2.2.1 Functionality of the department

The GSM architecture mainly can divide into core network and the access network. Core
network or the NSS (Network Switching System) includes the main switching function of
the GSM network. So it can be considered as the heart of the network.

In order to prevent mesh topology interconnection between these components the central
node is a switch in the core network. These components are interconnected through the
switch as in a star topology. Etisalat has three switch sites at Grandpass, Wallampitiya and
Kotikawatta for geo-graphical redundancy. I was there for a period of one month so I was
able to get the concepts and theory behind the core network. Following are the main
function carried in the switch engineering division.

2G and 3G core network switching (maintenance and monitoring of MSC)
Operation and maintenance of HLR
Implementing IDD and roaming facilities
Interconnection with RAN, VAS, IN and other operators
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OAM of NSS power system
SMS routing
QoS monitoring of the core network
Give solutions to the customer complaints relevant to core network
OAM of the IP/MPLS core
CDR (call data record) generation

In switch evolution first there were hardware switches that it requires to manually connect
the path. Next it was implemented to TDM switches. Then MSC (NGN Next Generation
Network) that currently use is a combination of TDM matrix and IP. IMS (IP Multimedia
Subsystem) which is a fully IP based technology. When this technology is implemented all
subscribers and systems will be used IP.

Mainly there are two types of switches. They are,
VMSC (Visited Mobile Switching Centre) All subscribers connect with the
VMSC
GMSC (Gateway Mobile Switching Centre) Connect our network with other
service providers network

2.2.2 Network Switching System (NSS)

NSS includes the main GSM function of the GSM network. Its main function is to manage
communications between the GSM network and other telecommunication networks. The
components of the NSS are as below.
Mobile Service Switching Centre MSC
Home Location Register HLR
Visitor Location Register VLR
Equipment Identity Register EIR
Authentication Centre AUC

There are main network elements which connect with the MSC.

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1. Home Location Register (HLR)
This is the database for subscriber parameters which are included by the network provider
when a new subscriber is added to the system. It has subscriber profile which including
location information, services and authentication parameters The data it contains is
remotely accessed by all the MSCs and the VLRs in the network. The subscriber data in
the HLR can be accessed through either IMSI or MSISDN. The data can also be accessed
by am MSC or VLR in a different PLMN.

2. Visitor Location Register (VLR)
VLR is also a database which store temporary data that exists for only as long as the
subscriber is active in the particular area covered by the VLR. So it contains some
duplicate data as well as more precise data relevant to the subscriber remaining within the
VLR coverage. VLR eliminates the need for excessive and time-consuming references to
the HLR database which is home of the data. Additionally mobile status (busy/free/no
answer), location area identity (LAI), TMSI, MSRN are also stored in the VLR.

3. Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

EIR is a database of IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity). This database is
concerned only with MS equipment and not with the subscriber who is using MS to make
or receive a call. It contains three types of lists. They are
White list IMEIs which are valid MS equipment
Black list IMEI which have been reported as stolen or which are to be denied
service.
Grey list IMEI which have problems. These are not sufficiently significant to
warrant as black listing.

4. Authentication Centre (AUC)

AUC is a processor system that performs authentication function. AUC is normally co-
located with the HLR. The AUC/HLR can be co-located with the MSC or located remotely
from the MSC.

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5. Mobile Service switching Centre (MSC)

In traditional mobile MSC (legacy switch), the intelligence and connectivity are combined
in the switch. In next generation network soft switch solution, the network intelligent
resides in the call server while the connectivity resides in the media gateway (MGW).
Etisalat uses NGN (Next Generation Network) type switches. NGN switch has mainly two
parts.

i. Wireless Call Server (WCS)
This is the controlling part of the NGN. WCS only handles signaling. Capacity of the WCS
depends on BCCH (Busy hour call attempts). This is also called as MSC server.

ii. Media Gateway (MGW)
This handles only traffic (media). MGE communicate with the WCS on IP basis.
2.2.3 Numbering Standards

Standardized numbering format are used in telecommunication such as E164, E212, E214.

1. E164 format
MSISDN (Mobile Subscriber Integrated Digital Network Number)
This is the general mobile numbered format.

MSISDN = CC + NC + SN


Country code Network code Subscriber number
(For Sri Lanka 94) (For Etisalat 72)

For example 94729040275 is in E164 format.

2. E212 format
IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity)

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IMSI = MCC + MNC + MSIN


Mobile Country Code Mobile Network Code Mobile subscriber
(For Sri Lanka 413) (For Etisalat 03) identification number
(10 digits)

3. E214 format
This numbering format is mostly used in the location update process of roaming. When the
subscriber is not form the providers network the IMSI convert into E214 format, which
can then be used for accessing the subscribers data in remote HLR. Removing MCC +
MNC add CC + NC. For example,
E212 413 03 0100001201
E214 94 72 0100001201
Then any PSTN in the world know this should be send to Etisalat, Sri Lanka.
2.2.4 Inter-MSC Location Update

This is the way how the service provider can route calls to us by finding where we are. A
GSM network is divided into cells. A group of cells is considered as a location area. A
mobile phone in motion keeps the network informed about changes in the location area. If
the mobile moves from a cell in one location area to a cell in another location area, the
mobile phone should perform a location area update to inform the network about the exact
location of the mobile phone. [8]

There are three types of location updates.

1. Normal Location update When change LAC boundary this type of LU happen
2. Periodic Location update When there are no LAC changes happen there is a timer
T3212 at MS so when it timeout this type of LU happen
3. IMSI attach When MS is switched OFF and ON this type of LU happen

The BCCH of the neighboring cells is monitored to determine if any of the neighbors have
a better signal strength. If the old and new location areas are different then mobile initiates
25

the location area update procedure as shown in above figure.

1. The mobile request for a control channel to establish a radio connection in order to
send the location update to the network.
2. A radio channel is assigned to the GSM mobile
3. BSC send LU request with IMSI, new LAC, CI (cell identity), LU type...etc.
4. MSC find that old location area was handled by a different MSC. So MSC need to
contact HLR. Check IMSI in new VLR, it does not find it.
5. Then the VLR decides to authenticate the subscriber and send authentication
information message to the HLR with IMSI. HLR check whether IMSI exists in
HLR.
6. If it exists, HLR passes the information about the new subscriber to the VLR
including 5 sets of a 64 bit ciphering key used as a session key (Kc), a 128 bit
random challenge (RAND) and a 32 bit signed response (SRES).
7. VLR decides to authenticate the MS by using this given RAND.
8. Then VLR send authentication request with RAND (that was sent by HLR) to the
MS.
9. The SIM applies secret GSM algorithm (A3) on the RAND and secret key Ki to
obtain the session key Kc and SRES. Then SRES send to VLR.
10. If the SRES obtained from the mobile matches the SRES obtained from the HLR
then subscriber authentication is successfully completed.
11. Now VLR send LU request with IMSI to the HLR. This message is needed for two
reasons.
HLR need to update its record to point to the new MSC
The new MSC does not have information about this subscriber. So this
request uses to get the subscriber information.
12. HLR sends ISD (Insert Subscriber Data) including prepaid, postpaid details, call
forwarding information (call forwarding if busy, call forwarding if no answer, call
forwarding if not reachable, call forwarding if unconditional), call waiting, call
barring, multi-party...etc.
13. Send acknowledgement for ISD. At this point HLR ask the old MSC/VLR to delete
the record about this subscriber.
14. LU accepted.
26

15. MSC initiate ciphering of the data being sent on the channel. So that it send cipher
mode command to the mobile through BSC.
16. Send cipher mode complete message indicating that ciphering has been
successfully enabled.
17. The new MSC replies back to the mobile via BSC by assigning a new TMSI
(Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity). Since TMSI assignment is being sent after
ciphering is enabled, the relationship between TMSI and the subscriber cannot be
obtained by unauthorized users. Finally the radio connection is released.

2.2.5 Mobile Originating (MO) and Mobile Terminating (MT) call

Calling party is prepaid and called party has activated PRBT.

1. After establish radio connection, BSC allocate a TCH (Traffic channel) to the
mobile. In that it assigns a specific frequency and a time slot on that frequency.
After that MS only use those resources to communicate with the mobile network.
Then mobile send CM_SERV_REQ message indicating what type of service it
requires.
2. MSC asks for authentication by sending AUTH_REQ (with RAND) message to
mobile via BSC.
3. Mobile will send AUTH_RSP with calculated SRES. After successful
authentication,
4. The MSC initiate ciphering of the data being sent on the channel. Send CIPHER
MODE COMMAND to the mobile. This is still a clear message. Then mobile
enables ciphering.
5. Then MS sends the setup message to establish a voice call with the ISDN of the
called party (to whom the call is).
6. The mobile is informed that the call setup is in progress. At this point the mobile
phone displays a message on the screen to indicate that call setup is being
attempted.
7. The MSC allocate a voice circuit (CIC) between the MSC and the BSC.
8. Using ISD in VLR separate whether calling party is postpaid or prepaid.
27

9. If it is a prepaid subscriber, MSC/VLR send INITIAL_DP (Initial Detection Point)
message to IN with called party address, calling party information (MSISDN &
IMSI) and VMSC GT of the originator.
10. Request report BCSMEvent is sent back from IN with operation code Continue (if
sufficient balance is available)/Release (if sufficient balance is not available). If
there is sufficient balance IN send BCSMEvent message by saying at which event
it should be told to the IN (trigger when call answer).
11. It the called and calling parties are not belongs to the same subscriber then it
requires contacting the GMSC (If the call is from Etisalat to Mobitel). Send IAM
(Initial Address Message) with MSISDN.
12. IAM send to other parties GMSC
13. MSISDN will be routed to the HLR asking SRI (Send Routing Information) since
HLR has the MSC/VLR GT of the subscribers last location in the profile. If the
terminating party is an incoming charger (TCSI) HLR send camel information of
terminating party to MSC. Then TCSI generate for relevant IN. Then it send
INITIAL_DP message to that IN to check availability of credit.
14. Then HLR request location information from that VLR.
15. VLR replies with LAC and CI of the subscriber.
16. Again MSC/VLR send SRI with suppress TCSI. Because this SRI is not requesting
camel information.
17. A roaming number (MSRN) is requested. MSC has MSRN pool and this use to
identify the subscriber location.
18. Send roaming number.
19. GMSC send IAM with called number (MSRN), calling number, CLIR details
(use to display the MSISDN of the calling party in the called party display)
20. Now MSC VLR needs to find the subscriber. Since one location area has several
cells paging mechanism is used to locate the subscriber. PAGING message send to
all BSCs that handle the relevant location area. Corresponding BSC receives the
paging message and BSC send page message to all cells that serve the subscribers
location area. All cells in the location area will broadcast the page message on
paging channel (PCH).
21. All MS listen to this channel every few seconds. MS finds that the TMSI specified
in the page message matches its own TMSI. So mobile responds to the page. And
request for a radio connection.
28

22. Now MSC VLR decides to authenticate the called party by sending AUTH_REQ
with RAND.
23. MS send AUTH_RESP and cipher mode enable message.
24. Setup message
25. CIC will allocate between MSC and BSC.
26. Once channel is allocated MS send ALERT message.
27. Simultaneously MSC VLR sends ACM (Acknowledgement message).
28. ACM sends back to where IAM was originated via GMSC.
29. At this point MSC VLR will trigger for PRBT.
30. PRBT server will respond with ACM.
31. After that song will be played and calling party can hear the song.
32. Once the called party answers the call Connect message sends by the MS.
33. ANM (answer message) will be sent to the originating side.
34. When disconnect the call all resources will be released and IN will be triggered
with released call.

2.2.6 SMS MO and MT


1. No need to request for a traffic channel to send message since message also send in
a signaling channel. SMS is transferred to MSC VLR.
2. Assuming the subscriber has authenticated. Cipher mode command send to MS to
enable ciphering.
3. Cipher mode complete message sent by MS.
4. According to the IMSI, SMS is forward to the relevant SMSC.
5. Then MSC VLR send ack message to MS. This is not the delivery report.
6. SMSC also send ACK message for SUBMIT_SM.
7. SMSC request SRI from MSC VLR.
8. MSC VLR request SRI from HLR.
9. HLR send the VMSC GT of the end party.
10. MSC VLR forwards it to SMSC.
11. SMS is forward to the new MSC VLR.
12. To find the end party paging message send to all BSC.
13. The relevant MS will respond to the paging message.
29

14. MSC send CP_DATA to MS via BSC.
15. MS send ACK for CP_DATA.
16. MSC VLR sends ACK for forward SM.
17. Delivery report is sent by SMSC to MS via MSC and BSC.

2.2.7 MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching)

In conventional layer 3 IP forwarding, when a packet traverses through the network, each
and every router extracts all the information of the packet header that relevant to
forwarding it. In the most common case, the only relevant field in the header is the
destination address field, but in some cases, other header fields might also be relevant.
Then routing table lookup determines the next hop of the packet. All other routers which
pass the packet should analysis the header independently to determine the next hop. In
addition, a complicated table lookup must also be done at each router. In conventional IP
forwarding mechanism, it is needed to look at the table two times. RIB (Router
Information Base) is used to check whether destination is exists or not. And FIB
(Forwarding Information Base) is used to find the best forwarding path of the packet. So it
has a complicated process due to this double lookup.

But in MPLS it is used label switching mechanism which analysis layer 3 header only one
time. The Layer 3 header is then mapped into a fixed length, unstructured value called as
label. Once a label is assigned, a short label header is added at the front of the Layer 3
packet. This header is carried across the network as part of the packet. At subsequent hops
through each MPLS router in the network, labels are swapped and forwarding decisions are
made by means of MPLS forwarding table (LFIB-Label Forwarding Information Base)
lookup for the label carried in the packet header. Because the label is of fixed length and
unstructured, the MPLS forwarding table lookup process is fast than normal IP forwarding.
So MPLS is used for speeding up network traffic flow in an IP network compared to
normal IP based routing network.



30

MPLS network Architecture

MPLS operate at a layer between layer 2 (data link layer) and layer 3 (network layer), so it
is referred to as layer 2.5 protocol.


Figure 2.14: MPLS network routers

Label edge router (LER)
LER is operating at the edge of an MPLS network so it acts as the entry and exit point for
an MPLS network. The function of LER is to push an MPLS label at the entry point and
pop an MPLS label at the exit point. In that case, when IP datagram forward into an MPLS
network, LER use routing information to determine which label to be assigned and then
forward that labeled packet to the network. When packet is destined to exit the MPLS
network, what LER do is strip off (pop) the label and forward the IP packet to the
destination by using normal IP forwarding. The LER which first prefixes the MPLS header
to a packet is called as ingress router and the LER which pops the label from the packet is
called as egress router. And also LER that function as ingress or egress are often called as
PE (Provider Edge) router.


31

Label switch router (LSR)
LSR is operating at the middle of an MPLS network which performs routing based only on
the label. So these routers are responsible for switching the labels (swap). The function of
LSR is to determine the next hop by using the label included in the packet header and old
label is then removed from the header and replaced with the new label before the packet is
routed forward. They are also called as P (Provider) routers since they are function as
transit routers.
Label-switched path (LSP)
A label-switched path (LSP) is a path through an MPLS network that set up by using a
signaling protocol. Normally MPLS routers use BGP (Boarder Gateway Protocol) as
routing protocol due to high MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit). The LSPs are shown in
above figure with blue and red color lines. LDP (Label Distribution Protocol) is used to
distribute labels between LERs and LSRs.

MPLS network operation
In MPLS not only the IP lookup is replaced with a label lookup in the label forwarding
information base (LFIB), it use different label operations as below.
Push-The label is added to the packet header.
Swap-The old label is removed and a new label is replaced with a new label.
Pop-The label is removed.
32



Figure 2.15: Example of MPLS network

Firstly ingress router (R1) inserts a label (push) into the header and forwards the packet.
According to the LFIB R1 knows it should forward to R2. Then R2 switches (swap) the
label by simply looking at the LFIB. R3 also switches the label. Finally the egress router
(R4) removes (pop) the label and forwards the original IP packet to the CE (customer
edge) router.



Figure 2.16: Push, pop and swap operation in MPLS network


33

MPLS services

Epipe

Epipe is a point to point Ethernet bridging service that forward traffic from one site to
another. When an epipe is required between two sites, only one pseudo wire is required. By
making a tunnel through PE routers this service can implemented in an MPLS network.
For example if a subscriber wants to get a constant speed data link by making an epipe, it
can give priority to that subscriber. It inserts a service label to identify this special
subscriber.


Figure 2.17: Epipe service

VPLS (Virtual Private LAN Service)

VPLS is a multipoint layer 2 services that enables to connect geographically dispersed
sites. After implementing the VPLS service those site appear to be on the same LAN.
VPLS can provide point to point and multipoint services. As an example in order to
communicate between all Ceylon bank branches within the country it can implement a
VPLS based network in MPLS network.
34



Figure 2.18: VPLS service

VPRN (Virtual Private Router Network)

Figure 2.19:VPRN network

Without VPRN, when router 1 send a packet to router 3 source IP is 10.0.0.0/8 and the
destination is 192.168.10.0/24 so PE router cannot distinguish whether it send to router 3 or
4. So that router discard it or send to either router 3 or 4. So ISP router need two virtual
35

routers (one for Ceylon bank and other one for Commercial bank) at both PE to separate
that two networks. So VPRN is configured virtual routers in PE routers. For example, when
router 1 (Ceylon bank) sends a packet to router 3 it add a tag of 10 and when router 2
(Commercial bank) sends a packet to router 4 it add a tag of 20 which is called as router
distinguisher. Now PE router knows to which virtual router it should forwards. If router 1
send a packet with tag a label of 10 then PE router forward it to the virtual router. Then it
add a tag of 40 which is called as route target and it send through the link. When packet
reaches to the other side PE router knows that it should pass to the virtual router of ceylon
bank. So the packet successfully forwards to router 3.

Cpipe
Cpipe is used to carry TDM frames between two nodes on IP/MPLS network. This is a point
to point service that is used when the end nodes are TDM based equipments.

2.2.8 NSS power system




Figure 2.20: NSS power system block diagram

The basic block diagram of the NSS is shown in above figure. -45V DC is required for
switches (MGW, WCS), HLR, SGSN, IN, VLR etc. 230V AC is required for VAS
servers, air conditioners, lights, PCs etc.

36

Function of each blocks are described below.

ATS (Automatic Transfer Switch) - Automatically switches on the generator when CEB
power is not available.

MCCB (Moulded Case Circuit Breaker) - Isolates the circuit when there is a fault (earth
fault, overcurrent)

Surge Protector To protect electrical devices from voltage spikes (lightning). Uses filter
to filter out high frequencies.

Battery bank Rectifier is connected to a battery bank in order to store DC power. When
CEB and generator power is out of service battery power is discharged.2V batteries are
connected series in order to have 48V.



Figure 2.21: Battery bank







37

Rectifier Rectifiers are used to convert AC into DC.


Figure 2.22: Rectifier bank


Inverter Inverter is used to convert DC into AC. When AC power is out of service
inverter is used to convert stored power in battery bank to AC.
Diesel Generator Diesel generator will automatically switch on when the commercial
power unavailable.



Figure 2.23: Main Distribution Panel

38

Power factor is the ratio between real power and apparent power. Etisalat switch power
factor is around 0.94 (0.93-0.94). Power factor is reduced mainly due to inductive loads
such as air conditioner units. It increases due to capacitive load such as rectifiers. By using
a capacitor bank power factor can be improved. But Etisalat does not use a capacitor bank
because comparatively the cost for capacitor bank is higher than to the cost of reactive
power.


2.3 Network Operations (NOP)

I spent the last month of my training in this department and it is responsible for the
operation and maintenance of the BSS. NOP Engineers are always on-call and usually not
in their seats since most of the maintenance is done during night. All NOP Engineers are
not at the head office, some of them are regional engineers which responsible for a set of
sites in there region and they also on call duty. I was given the chance to visit sites with
Galle region Engineer for two days and they were BTS site at Imaduwa and BSC, BTS site
at Rumassala. We were able to participate to several BTS, BSC site visits with Engineers
when there are issues on those sites when we were at head office. I was able to get
knowledge on BSS equipment and also about the MW transmission from those site visits
as described in these sub sections.


2.3.1 BTS (Base Transceiver Station)

The area covered by a BSS is divided into cells and each cell is managed by one or more
BTS. Each BTS consists of radio transmission and reception devices, including antenna
and signal processing equipment for the Air Interface. So BTS can be considered as a GSM
network element that implements the radio (air) interface between the network and the
mobile station.

Three types of BTSs used in Etisalat,
Indoor BTS
Outdoor BTS
Micro BTS

39

BTS performs
Telecommunication functions

o The coverage of the radio transmission
o The management of air interface with the mobile
Modulate and encode traffic and signaling data from the BSC. This data is then sent to the
Mobile Stations over the air Interface as a radio signal. Traffic and signaling received from
the Mobile Stations is demodulated and decoded to recover the baseband data.

O&M functions

O&M functions monitor and control the correct operation of the BTS and its external
interfaces. These functions are shared between the BTS and BSC. There are three
categorized of O&M function:
o Configuration Management
o Fault Management
o External Alarm Handling

Transmission functions

This is a function of managing the transfer of traffic and control data between the BTS and
BSC. To minimize operating costs, all data passed between the BTS and BSC in time
division multiplexed onto a single physical interface. This is the Abis Interface, which
carries all the data sent between the BSC and BTS. One Abis can carry 12 TRE traffic.
Abis interface connection can be dedicated cabling or microwave or fiber optic.

40



Figure 2.24: BTS BSC communication




Figure 2.25: BTS architecture



41

2.3.2 Transceiver Equipment (TRE)


TRE transmits and receives the signals with MS using TDM. There are many types of
TREs mainly two types according to the two frequency bands GSM900 and GSM1800
(DCS). Half rate, full rate and frequency hopping supported and non-supported are also
available. And also there are twin TRE which has two TREs in a single module and single
TRE which has single TRE in a single module are used in Etisalat. One TRE has 8 time
slots.


Figure 2.26: Twin type TRE


2.3.3 Antenna Network Combiner (ANC)


The ANC is the intermediate stage between the GSM antennas and the TRE. Up to 4 TRE
and 2 GSM antennas (there are two antennas inside a GSM panel antenna) can be
connected to one ANC. It also allows the same antenna to be used both for transmission
and reception of radio signals. This is done using an internal duplexer. Even though it is
possible to connect two TREs per antenna this operation will cause a power loss of 3dB
(air-combining).
42



Figure 2.27: Antenna Network Combiner


2.3.4 SUM (Station Unit Module)

This is the module that performs center controlling and management of all modules of the
BTS. This card consists with a micro-processor which can be configured by logging into.
Generating the clocks for all other BTS modules, handling operation and maintenance link
(OML to communicate with the BSC), bundling channels into Abis are some duties.



Figure 2.28: SUMA card (Station Unit Module Advance)

43

2.3.5 BSC (Base Station Controller)


BSC acts as the network controller of the BSS. BSC provides telecommunication
functions, transmission functions and operation and maintenance functions.

Telecommunication functions

GSM and GPRS Radio Frequency Management (Managing the broadcast and
common control channels, managing the signaling channels)
Traffic Channel Resources Management (Selecting TCH, establishing and releasing
radio resources in response to requests from the MSC, the MFS and the MS)
Short Message Service Cell Broadcasting (Broadcasting messages to all the MSs
of one or more cells)
BSSAP Protocol Management (Handling messages between the MS and the MSC
for circuit service)
BSCGP Protocol management (Handling messages between MS and MFS for
packet service)

Transmission function

The transmission functions consist for the 9130 BSC Evolution in providing BTS to
TC access for CS Services and MFS access for PS services.

O & M function

Database Management
Software Management
Logical and Hardware Configuration Management
Fault Management
Performance Management (counters use to check performance)
44

During my training period I was able to identify the hardware architecture of Alcatel 9130
BSC at several sites. It comprises the ATCA (Advanced Telecom Computer Architecture)
shelf and the LIU (Line Interface Unit) shelf with LIU cards which interface A-bis and A-
terMux traffic E1s to Ethernet.




Figure 2.29: ATCA and LIU shelf in 9130 BSC


2.3.6 TC (Transcoder)

The Transcoder is required to convert the speech or data output from the MSC (64 kbps
PCM), into the form specified by GSM specifications for transmission over the air
interface, that is, between the BSS and MS (64 kbps to 16 kbps and vice versa) The 64
kbps Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) circuits from the MSC, if transmitted on the air
interface without modification, would occupy an excessive amount of radio bandwidth.
This would use the available radio spectrum inefficiently. The required bandwidth is
therefore reduced by processing the 64 kbps circuits so that the amount of information
required to transmit digitized voice falls to the rate of 16 kbps.

45

Although the reason for transcoding was to reduce the data rate over the air interface, the
number of terrestrial links is also reduced approximately on a 4:1 ratio since TC has
located in the MSC site.



Figure 2.30 : Transcoder function [12]


2.3.7 BTS to antenna connectivity




Figure 2.31: BTS to antenna connectivity
46

The main feeder is normally a 7/8-inch (diameter) cable or larger. This size cable has good
transmission efficiency to minimize signal loss. Jumper cables, at each end of the feeder,
are 1/2-inch (diameter) or smaller but signal loss is high. They are typically five to 10 feet
in length and have a smaller bend radius than the main feeder to ease attachment of the
transmission line to the equipment and antenna.

When all the cables are fixed, install the connector at the bottom, and, if recommended, the
surge arrestor can be installed to protect from lightning. Then the bottom jumper can be
connected as shown in the below figure.




Figure 2.32: Feeder-jumper connectivity


2.3.8 Transmission technologies

Transmission link play a crucial role in transporting large volumes of data from the BTS to
the BSC, from the BSC to the MSC and between MSCs. MW transmissions is used to
connect BTS to BSC via Abis interface and BSC to TC (transcoder) via Ater-Mux
interface. Optical fiber links are used to carry critical, high capacity links such as A-
interface from TC to MSC.
47



Figure 2.33: 2G transmission network





Figure 2.34: 3G transmission network


Comparison of microwave and fiber optic transmission

Microwave transmission
Less time for deployment compared to fiber. MW link planning and deploying can
be done within a week
48

Both capital and operational expenditure are low compared to fiber
MW transmission is the best solution for high traffic planning within less time
Allocating a frequency for a new link is a big issue since MW spectrum has fully
utilized
MW equipment damage due to lightning
MW links fail due to rainfall
Interference, fading issues

Fiber optic transmission
Require more time for laying (about several months)
Capital and operational expenditure are high
Fiber optic transmission is best for long term planning
High reliability with respect to MW transmission
If there is a fiber cut it is very difficult to find it
Higher data rate with respect to MW transmission

2.3.9 Microwave link planning

Due to coverage issues, customer complaints, RNE suggestions require to establish a new
site. In MW planning it should try to connect to the BSC in shortest path. And also it
should try to avoid site overloading from antennas. Those are some main considerations
when planning MW links.

1. MW frequency planning
Selecting frequency for a link is decided by TRC. Type of the link depends on the usage of
that link on the network. High frequencies use for short distance and low frequencies use
for long distance due to high attenuation in high frequencies. Frequency should be selected
such that it is matched with the distance as shown in the below table.




49

Table 2.6: MW frequency with distance

Distance (km) MW frequency (GHz)
0-2.5 23
2.5-6.5 18
6.5-10 15
10-15 13
>15 8


And also frequency planning should be such that to avoid high-low conflict as shown in
below figure.



Figure 2.35: MW frequency selection with minimum interference

2. Line of sight (LOS)
Line of sight must have to consider in MW link planning. Not only the LOS at least 1
st

Fresnel zone should be clear without any obstacles. Planning tool can be used to check the
LOS. But LOS cannot determine by only using tool (due to buildings) so path survey
(mirror test) is done to check LOS. Loss of LOS is a big issue in MW transmission due to
50

trees, buildingsLOS with no any obstacles in 1
st
Fresnel zone is shown in below figure.



Figure 2.36: Line Of Sight

3. Capacity of the link
Based on expected traffic number of E1 links needed must be determined. The capacity of
the other end of the microwave link should be able to carry this new traffic to the BSC.
This is the reason, to identify a nearest microwave point having an adequate amount of
capacity as the first step. The MW links support the most commonly used digital
communication hierarchies.

PDH (Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy)
SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy)

The required capacity of the link is determined based on the number of TREs in the site. A
single time slot in GSM is 16kbps and one TRE contains 8 time slots. So the data rate of a
TRE is (16*8 = 128 kbps) 128 kbps. And also one E1 link consists of 32 channels of 64
kbps each and so one TRE requires 2 channels of an E1 link. Other than this traffic
channels, a TRE require the service of signaling channel named RSL and channels for
synchronization and OAM.





51

PDH (Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy)

PDH links more suitable for access networks.




Figure 2.37: PDH Hierarchy

Capacity of a PDH link may vary from 4, 16 and 64 E1s etc.

SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy)


SDH links widely use for backbone networks.





Figure 2.38: SDH Hierarchy [13]




52

So STM-1 (Synchronous Transport Module 1) means 63E1 => 155.52 Mbps
STM-4 (Synchronous Transport Module 4) means 252E1 => 622.08 Mbps

Due to overhead these values are greater than to the exact value.


2.3.10 Main equipment in MW link





Figure 2.39: Equipment of MW link


Antenna

This is the component which transmits the microwave signal to the air. It is usually a
highly directional antenna resulting in high antenna gain. Polarization is another important
characteristic. Links can either be horizontally polarized or vertically polarized or both
depending on the antenna. The input to the antenna from the ODU is always a RF signal
which is Omni directional hence the antennas task is to direct the signal it transmit thereby
increase its dBm level. And on the other hand receive radio transmission signals. Antenna
comes in various frequency bands, types and sizes.

IDU (Indoor Unit)


This is where all the baseband signal processing is carried out. IDU is responsible to
modulating and multiplexing signals into a predefined IF (intermediate frequency) and also
add power to this modulate signal and that compound signal is sent to ODU through the IF
53

cable. IDU is also responsible to de-multiplex the captured signal by ODU and give the
relevant output in mode of E1 or STM. PDH IDU has capable of multiplexing and de-
multiplexing the E1s as required. But for SDH link a separate MUX is required.



Figure 2.40: Indoor Unit


ODU

The outdoor unit contains all the equipment that are needed to generate the microwave
signal on the transmit frequency and amplify the weak received signal before it is sent to
the IDU. The ODU has a
High power amplifier to amplify the transmit signal
Low noise amplifier to amplify the weak received signal
Band pass filters reject any frequency which does not belong to its operational
range.
Modulators and demodulators

The ODU receive the signal that is required to transmit at an intermediate frequency via
the IF cable. An internal oscillator generates the microwave signal and modulates it. Then
it feeds to the high power amplifier to amplify the transmit signal. ODU has capability of
Tx and Rx of both vertical and horizontal polarization (with a dual polarized antenna)
which enables maintain 2 logical links over single physical link.

54




Figure 2.41: MW Antenna with ODU



IF cable

Carry signals in intermediate frequency from IDU to ODU and vice versa. Signals includes
traffic, power (-48V DC for ODU) and control information. Coaxial cables are used.


Figure 2.42: Block diagram of IDU and ODU

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MW link requirements

-32dBm < Rx level < -25dBm
Link availability 99.999%
Fade margin 36 dBm
Interference power < -95dBm








































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