Enhancing

Page 1 of 54
ANTENNA SYSTEMS

Application of FSS Structures to
Selectively Control the
Propagation of signals into and
out of buildings
Annex 3: Enhancing propagation
Into buildings

M Philippakis, C Martel, D Kemp

S Appleton
S Massey

ERA Report 2004-0072 A3
ERA Project 51-CC-12033
FINAL Report

Client : Ofcom
Client Reference : AY4464

ERA Report edited and checked by: Approved by:

Martin Shelley
Project Manager
Robert Pearson
Head of Antenna Systems
February 04
Ref. Z:\AS_Projects\Custom Antennas and Consultancy_SW\12033_RA_in_and_out_building_FSS\Reporting\FINAL REPORTING\Annex 3 Passive FSS.doc

ERA Report 2004-0072 Annex 3

2

Crown copyright 2004. Applications for reproduction should be made to HMSO.

This report has been prepared by ERA Technology Limited and its team for the Ofcom under Contract No.
AY4464.

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3
Contents
Page No.
1. Introduction 7
2. FSS requirements: spectral properties of illumination 7
3. Equivalent circuit analysis of FSS structures 10
3.1 The equivalent circuit method 11
3.2 Transmission through dielectric layers 14
4. Matching glazing with FSS 17
4.1 Cases analysed 17
4.2 Basic properties of glazing structures 17
4.3 Matching using grid FSS 18
4.4 Matching using mostly metal FSS 20
4.5 Manufacturing technologies 30
4.6 Regulatory issues 31
5. Matching cavity walls with FSS 32
5.1 Basic RF properties of brick walls 33
5.2 The effect of loss in the cavity wall model 37
5.3 Tolerance analysis of cavity wall model 39
5.4 Low cost manufacturing technologies 42
5.5 Regulatory issues 52
6. References 54


4
Figures list
Page No.
Figure 1: Test room illuminated by an in-building dipole radiator 7
Figure 2: Electric field distribution due to a dipole radiator inside the test room at 400 MHz 8
Figure 3: Electric field distribution due to a dipole radiator inside the test room at 900 MHz 8
Figure 4: Angular distribution of incidence energy at f=400MHz 9
Figure 5: Angular distribution of incidence energy at f=900MHz 10
Figure 6: Equivalent circuit parameters for TE incidence on the plane T 11
Figure 7: Equivalent circuit parameters for TM incidence on the plane T 12
Figure 8: Equivalent circuits for periodic square loops 12
Figure 9: Equivalent circuit for grids 13
Figure 10: Equivalent circuit for double square loops 13
Figure 11: Equivalent circuit for gridded square loop 13
Figure 12: Equivalent circuit for gridded double square loops 14
Figure 13: Equivalent circuit for gridded Jerusalem cross 14
Figure 14: Transmission line model for double glazing 14
Figure 15: Reflection coefficient for TE and TM polarisation for a 60 incidence angle 16
Figure 16: Transmission coefficient for TE and TM polarisation for a 60 incidence angle 16
Figure 17: Transmission and reflection for float glass at 60 incidence 18
Figure 18: Transmission and reflection for double glazing (float) at 60 incidence 18
Figure 19: The effect on the S11 of float glass with and without a matching section 19
Figure 20: Predicted performance for float glass with a matching section 20
Figure 21: FSS and its complementary, (a) Inductive grid, (b) capacitive patches 21
Figure 22: Transmission line model for the FSS in Figure 21 (a) 21
Figure 23: Transmission characteristics of a grid and patch FSS 22
Figure 24: Single annular slot geometry 23
Figure 25: Transmission characteristics of a single annular slot FSS: TE incidence 24
Figure 26: Transmission characteristics of a single annular slot FSS: TM incidence 24
Figure 27: Dual annular slot geometry 25
Figure 28: Transmission characteristics of a dual annular slot FSS: TE incidence 26
Figure 29: Transmission characteristics of a dual annular slot FSS: TM incidence 26
Figure 10: Singular annular slot FSS 28
Figure 11: Double glazing measurement setup 29
Figure 12: Comparative performance of the double glazing 29
Figure 30: Brick geometry with dimensions in mm 33
Figure 31: Brick model in a periodic skewed lattice 34
Figure 32: Measured real part of the complex relative permittivity of brick and mortar 34
Figure 33: Measured electric loss tangent of brick and mortar 35
Figure 34: Transmission coefficient of the brick wall without mortar 36
Figure 35: Transmission coefficient of a mortar wall without brick 36
Figure 36: Transmission coefficient of the brick wall with mortar 36


5
Figure 37: Cavity wall model 37
Figure 38: Loss effects in the cavity wall model for TE transmission at 0 incidence 38
Figure 39: Loss effects in the cavity wall model for TE transmission at 60 incidence 38
Figure 40: TE transmission for cavity wall with Thermolite block
r
= 3.2 40
r
= 3.55 40
r
= 3.9 40
Figure 43: TE transmission for cavity wall with Thermolite block thickness = 90 mm 41
Figure 46: QMP manufacturing process 43
Figure 47: PCB manufacturing process 44
Figure 48: FSS locations in a cavity wall 53

Tables list
Page No.
Table 1: Glass structures analysed 17
Table 2: Comparison of single and dual slot FSS performance 27
Table 3: Impact of using mostly-metal FSS on building regulations 31
Table 4: Cavity wall analysed 32
Table 5: Material properties used for frequencies around 400 MHz 35
Table 6: QMP Resolution 46
Table 7: Cost of screen printing system 48
Table 8: Cost of inkjet printing system 48
Table 9: Cost of electrolytic system 49
Table 10: QMP chemical costs 49
Table 11: Electrolytic plating chemical costs 50
Table 12: Substrate costs 50
Table 13: Cost of screen printing ink 50
Table 14: Cost of inkjet-printing ink 51
Table 15: Sheet cost for screen printing 51
Table 16: Sheet cost for ink-jet printing 52
Table 17: Impact of using cavity wall FSS on building regulations 53


6
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7
1. Introduction
This is Annex 3 to the Final Report provided under Ofcom Contract AY4464, Application of FSS
Structures to Selectively Control the Propagation of signals into and out of buildings. It gives a
detailed description of the work carried out concerned with propagation through glass and cavity wall
structures.
In Section 2, an analysis is described which was aimed at identifying whether preferential angles of
incidence are present in typical propagation scenarios. Section 3 describes the basic analysis
technique that was used to undertake the bulk of the theoretical work described. Section 4 provides
details of the work undertaken to improve propagation through glass. This focuses on transmission
through K-glass, a coated material providing thermal insulation which is almost completely opaque at
RF frequencies. Section 5 describes the work undertaken to assess the potential to improve radiation
through cavity walls. References are provided in Section 6.
2. FSS requirements: spectral properties of illumination
Exterior walls and windows clearly form a barrier to efficient propagation of radio waves into and out
of building and, hence, propagation which may be improved using FSS structures to match these
elements. In general, the performance of FSS structures depends on the angle of incidence of the
illuminating wave. In this section, a short study is described which aimed to identify if there are any
more common angles of incidence on the walls or windows of the building so that structures can be
optimised to reflect this.
A typical office type room with dimensions of 4.5 x 6 x 2.5m (width w, length l, height h) was
considered (Figure 1). Six 1.1 x 1.25m openings, corresponding to windows, were included in the
model.
4.5 m
6.0 m
2.5 m
Aperture plane
Dipole radiator
x
y
z

Figure 1: Test room illuminated by an in-building dipole radiator


8
The theoretical analysis was based on the FEKO ray tracing modelling tool. Metal walls were
assumed since the current version of FEKO cannot be used to consider dielectric sheets. A dipole
type illumination was used. The radiator was placed at a number of different locations inside the test
room and the angles of incidence on the wall surfaces analysed.
Typical examples of radiated field distribution inside and outside the test room can be seen in Figure
2 and Figure 3 for frequencies of 400 and 900 MHz.

Figure 2: Electric field distribution due to a dipole radiator inside the test room at 400 MHz

Figure 3: Electric field distribution due to a dipole radiator inside the test room at 900 MHz


9
In order to evaluate the spectral characteristics of the radiation that illuminates the walls, an aperture
plane such as the one shown in Figure 1 was created. This is located slightly inside the room
(aperture plane to wall separation 0.01m) to avoid coinciding exactly with the metallic walls. Using
ray tracing, it is possible to evaluate the electric fields that are tangential to the aperture plane.
Fourier Transformation (Plane Wave Spectrum) of the aperture fields will reveal if there are any
preferred directions of illumination.
The analysis was conducted for a number of illumination scenarios. Typical 3D spectral distributions
for the aperture field distribution at the interface plane can be seen in Figure 4 and Figure 5.
It is clear that there is no preferred directional trend. However, it has been shown that, for cases
where the radiator is aligned to radiate vertically polarised waves, the bulk of radiation ( 70% of
power) available in the aperture tends to be distributed within a cone with an apex angle of 60. This
was used as the limiting value when designing FSS structures.

Figure 4: Angular distribution of incidence energy at f=400MHz
(a) y = +0.25 w from room centre along y-axis
(b) y = at room centre
(c) y= -0.25 w from room centre along y-axis
(a)
(c)
a)


10

Figure 5: Angular distribution of incidence energy at f=900MHz
y = + 0.25 w from room centre along y-axis
y = at room centre
y= -0.25 w from room centre along y-axis
3. Equivalent circuit analysis of FSS structures
Equivalent circuit modelling of FSS requires very limited computer resources when compared to full
three dimensional electromagnetic modelling and is therefore useful for quickly predicting the
performance of structures. The circuits also provide a useful physical insight into how an FSS works
as its parameters are changed.
(a)
(c)
(b)


11
3.1 The equivalent circuit method
The starting point for developing equivalent circuits for FSS structures is the circuit representation of
an infinite parallel conducting strip developed by Marcuvitz [Ref 1]. The development of the strip
array formulation for TE incidence is shown in Figure 6. The metal strips have a zero thickness, a
width, w , and period p . The plane wave is incident onto the strips at an angle q .
E
w p
X
Z
o
Z
o

Figure 6: Equivalent circuit parameters for TE incidence on the plane T
The equivalent circuit inductive reactance is calculated by:

( )
( ) ( )
+
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =

, , ,
2
sin
1
ln
cos
, , w p G
p
w
p
w p F
Z
w X
o

( )
( ) ( )
( )
+ +
+ +
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
A A A A
A A A A
w p G
6
8 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
8 2
1
4
1
4
4
1 1
2
1
, , ,

1
sin
1
2 2
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

p p
A
p 2
sin
=
where l is the wavelength and
o
Z is the characteristic impedance of free space.
Similarly, the equivalent circuit representation for TM incidence is shown in Figure 7. The incident
magnetic field vector is parallel to the metal strips and is incident at an angle of . The strips have a
period, p , and a gap spacing g . The capacitive susceptance is calculated by:


12
( )
( )
4 , ,
o
B g
F p g
Z
=

H
g p
B
Z
o
Z
o

Figure 7: Equivalent circuit parameters for TM incidence on the plane T
The equations presented above are valid for wavelengths and angles of incidence in the range
( ) 1 sin 1 p + < . They are also only valid for plane waves incident in either the E or H plane and
hence they cannot be used to model the cross polarisation effects of the FSS.
Equivalent circuits for different periodic structures can be obtained by modification of the strip array
formula presented above. For example, a square loop FSS and its equivalent circuit are shown in
Figure 8.
s
d
p
g
Z
o
Z
o
L
C

Figure 8: Equivalent circuits for periodic square loops [Ref 2]
Marcuvitzs strip array formula can be adapted to account for the finite lengths of strips. The
reactance of this structure is:
( )
, 2 ,
L
o
X d
L F p s
Z p
= =

and the susceptance is given by:
( )
4 , ,
c
o
B d
C F p g
Z p
= =


13
The reactance and susceptance are each reduced by a factor d p from the corresponding array of
infinite strips to account for the finite strip length. Furthermore, if the period is greater than the gap
spacing, g p << , the widths are equal to 2s .
Using the approach described above, equivalent circuits can be identified for other FSS elements.
Examples of these structures are grids, the double square loop, the gridded square loop, the gridded
double square loop and the gridded Jerusalem cross FSS, which are shown in Figure 9 to Figure 13.
Z
o
Z
o
L1

Figure 9: Equivalent circuit for grids
Z
o
Z
o
L1
C1
L2
C2

Figure 10: Equivalent circuit for double square loops [Ref 3]
Z
o
Z
o
L1
C1
L2

Figure 11: Equivalent circuit for gridded square loop [Ref 4]


14
Z
o
Z
o
L1
C1
L2
C2
L3

Figure 12: Equivalent circuit for gridded double square loops
Z
o
Z
o
L1
C1
L2
C2

Figure 13: Equivalent circuit for gridded Jerusalem cross
The formulations of these equivalent circuits do not take into account the effect of dielectric
substrates. The presence of a dielectric substrate will only effect the capacitance of the circuit and not
the inductance. The effects of dielectric layers can be accounted for by considering them as
transmission lines connected to the equivalent circuits of the FSS. This method is discussed in the
next section.
3.2 Transmission through dielectric layers
The analysis of plane waves travelling through dielectric layers has been treated comprehensively in
literature [Ref 5] and therefore only a brief review of the concepts will be presented here. Consider
the example shown in Figure 14, an equivalent circuit representation for double-glazing.
TLIN
F0=
EL=
Z0=
ID=
fs GHz
D[1]=17.05 Deg
Zte[2]=143.4 Ohm
TL1
TLIN
F0=
EL=
Z0=
ID=
fs GHz
D[2]=12.97 Deg
Zte[3]=377 Ohm
TL2
TLIN
F0=
EL=
Z0=
ID=
fs GHz
D[3]=17.05 Deg
Zte[4]=143.4 Ohm
TL3
PORT
Z=
P=
Zte[1]=377 Ohm
1
PORT
Z=
P=
Zte[5]=377 Ohm
2
Glass Glass Vacuum
Free space
Free space

Figure 14: Transmission line model for double glazing


15
The double-glazing analysed consists of two 6mm thick planes of glass separated by a 12 mm thick
vacuum. These layers are represented as transmission lines in the model, which are characterised by
their impedance and electrical length. The equations presented above can be used to calculate these
parameters. The ganged transmission lines are connected to ports at each end to terminate the model
with free space. In Figure 14, the impedance values shown are for an angle of incidence of 0. In this
case, the port terminations and the vacuum have the free space propagation impedance of 120, or
377 . The glass layers have an impedance of 143.4 and an electrical length of 17.05 at 800 MHz.
As the angle of incidence varies, these parameters change accordingly.
An outline of the underlying physics is given below. A plane wave is incident on a dielectric layer at
an angle of
i
q from normal. The dielectric constant of the sheet is
r
e and the thickness is d and the
index of refraction is
r
h em e = . The characteristic impedance of free space measured in a
direction at an angle
i
q to the direction of propagation of the plane wave is:
1
and cos cos
cos cos
o o o
i o i
o i i o
Z
Z Z Z
m m
q q
e q q e
^
= = = =
P

where Z
^
and Z
P
are the characteristic impedance for transverse electric (TE) and transverse
magnetic (TM) incident fields. The impedance of the wave within the dielectric are given by:
and cos
cos
o o
r
r r r
Z Z
Z Z q
e q e
^
= =
P

where
r
q is the angle of the propagating wave passing through the dielectric. This angle is calculated
using Snells law of refraction and is given by:
{ }
1
sin sin
sin where
sin
i i
r
r
q q
q h
h q
-
= =
The electrical length of the dielectric with thickness d is:
( )
2
' cos
r
d d
p
q
l
=
The equations presented above can be used to determine the impedance and electrical length of an
arbitrary number of dielectric layers for TE and TM incident fields. Only the permittivity, thickness
and angle of incidence onto the first dielectric layer are required to determine these relations which
can be used to construct transmission line representations of the dielectric layers. Therefore, with
knowledge of the incident angle and material properties, an equivalent circuit can be constructed to
represent the propagation through the multilayer materials.
Commercially available software is used to construct these equivalent circuits. The software,
Microwave Office, is a general-purpose linear and non-linear circuit analysis tool. It contains many
off the shelf components for ease of building circuit models. This modelling technique has been


16
validated by comparing reflection and transmission data obtained using this approach with an ERA
written code called GUIDE. GUIDE predicts the reflection and transmission through cascaded
infinite dielectrics for arbitrary angles of incidence and has been extensively validated through
measurements.
A comparison of the reflection and transmission through double glazing, based on the use of the
equivalent circuit model and GUIDE, over a frequency range of 0-4 GHz and at an incidence angle of
60 is shown in Figure 15 and Figure 16. The results from the two methods are identical.

Figure 15: Reflection coefficient for TE and TM polarisation for a 60 incidence angle

Figure 16: Transmission coefficient for TE and TM polarisation for a 60 incidence angle


17
4. Matching glazing with FSS
4.1 Cases analysed
The materials listed in Table 1 below have been used to assess the potential for FSS structures to
improve propagation through glass. In all cases, the initial equivalent circuit analysis was based on
loss-less dielectric materials. Since float and toughened glass have very similar properties, all
analysis has been carried out based on the properties of float glass. It has been assumed that low-
emissivity glass (K-glass) is float glass with a solid metal coating, giving no transmission under any
circumstances.
Table 1: Glass structures analysed
Building type Material profile Relative
permittivity
Thickness (mm)
Float glass Glass 7.01 6
Toughened glass Glass 6.912 6
Double glazing (float) Glass
Vacuum
Glass
7.01
1
7.01
6
12
6
Double glazing (toughened
glass)
Glass
Vacuum
Glass
6.912
1
6.912
6
12
6

4.2 Basic properties of glazing structures
Various glass structures were analysed for a number of incidence angles. The transmission and
reflection coefficients for 60 incidence for 6mm float glass and double glazing (using 6mm float
glass and a 12mm gap), are shown in Figure 17 and Figure 18 respectively. Being electrically thin,
both the single layer and double layer glass structures have similar transmission performance at
frequencies up to 2GHz. The double glazing has slightly higher losses which is expected since the
plane wave travels through two layers of glass.


18

Figure 17: Transmission and reflection for float glass at 60 incidence

Figure 18: Transmission and reflection for double glazing (float) at 60 incidence
4.3 Matching using grid FSS
FSS can be used to match both the cases analysed above. The matching procedure is to add lumped
elements to the transmission line models. The parameters for these lumped elements can be derived
from the analytical models for the FSS. An initial study using different periodic structures was
carried out and the grid configuration was chosen to match the structures. This structure can easily be
implemented on both the glass and the wall without significantly affecting the cosmetic appearance.


19
The benefits of using a matching section based on a grid FSS can be seen in Figure 19. In this
example, a simple grid of wires is placed on the surface of a single layer of float glass. The grid adds
inductance to the transmission line model. This inductance can be chosen to provide optimum
transmission for a given frequency. When the desired inductance is obtained, the physical dimensions
of the FSS can be found from the equations presented above. In this case, the level of the reflection is
reduced from 30% of the energy to less than 1% of the energy at 950MHz.
This process can also be performed in reverse. Therefore, the design of the matching section can be
performed taking into account practical constraints on feature sizes. For example, to implement the
matching section in Figure 19 a grid with a thickness of 35m and a period of 248 mm is required;
this grid thickness would be difficult to achieve so an alternative design may be preferred.

Figure 19: The effect on the S11 of float glass with and without a matching section
To prove the concept of matching with FSS, a design for the float glass was developed suitable for
measurement in a waveguide (WG4). The waveguide has dimensions of 248 by 124 mm, and its
operational frequency is from 0.75 to 1.12 GHz. To achieve a useful measurement, the periodicity of
the grid must be a sub-multiple of the waveguide a dimension and manufacturing constraints
defined the minimum thickness of the grid to be 150m. These constraints are restrictive, making the
design of an optimum matching section impossible; however, a reasonable theoretical performance
was still obtained. Figure 20 shows the predicted performance of the matching section for 0
incidence. These predictions show the obvious benefits of using a matching section for glass. This
design was manufactured by QinetiQ.


20

Figure 20: Predicted performance for float glass with a matching section
4.4 Matching using mostly metal FSS
Metal-coated glass has been identified as a structure for which an FSS would be highly beneficial. K-
glass, which uses a very thin, optically transparent layer of sputtered Tin Oxide particles, is being
more and more widely applied to buildings to improve the thermal efficiency of the building.
Unfortunately, this layer forms an impenetrable barrier to RF propagation. At frequencies above
about 2.5GHz, this can be an advantage, making the screening of Wireless LANs more
straightforward. However, below 2.5GHz, transparency is required to allow the use of TETRA, GSM
and UMTS applications inside buildings. The patch FSS and other mostly-metal structures, have
significant potential to provide the required RF transparent characteristics at these lower frequencies
without significantly degrading the thermal properties of the glass.
4.4.1 Equivalent circuit analysis of mostly-metal FSS
Marcuvitz [Ref 1] developed closed form expressions for the lumped impedances of loss-less infinite
strips with zero thickness. The equivalent circuit representation of many FSS structures can be
obtained by suitable modification of these infinite strip array formulas. However, these equations
cannot be used to obtain the equivalent circuit representation of more complex FSS configurations
using, for example, rings or spirals. Derivation of an equivalent circuit representation of these
elements is possible, but the complexity of the analysis increases rapidly. Furthermore, certain
assumptions must be made in the formulation, which reduce the accuracy of the solution. Therefore,
as the intricacy of the element increases, equivalent circuit analysis must be replaced by the use of a
full wave solver.
For FSS structures based on strip arrays without dielectrics, the complementary solution can easily be
extracted. For example, the infinitely thin inductive grid FSS shown in Figure 21 (a) can be
represented by the equivalent transmission line problem shown in Figure 22 [Ref 6].


21
(a) (b)
Metal
Non metal

Figure 21: FSS and its complementary, (a) Inductive grid, (b) capacitive patches

2Y
I T
R

Figure 22: Transmission line model for the FSS in Figure 21 (a)
The FSS is represented by a normalised shunt admittance 2Y. The reflection and transmission
coefficients for this circuit can be calculated from simple transmission line theory as:
Y
T
+
=
1
1

1
) 1 ( 1
1
=
+
= T
Y
R
which applies to both the inductive grid and a complementary structure consisting of square metallic
patches, shown in Figure 21 (b). The relationships between transmission and reflection coefficients
for the grid and patch elements can be obtained from Babinets principle [Ref 7] and are given by:
ind cap
R T = and
ind cap
T R =
When the FSS is infinitely thin and there are no dielectrics, the performance of the patch exactly
complements that of the grid. The transmission performance for a grid and a patch FSS under these
conditions is shown in Figure 23. When the grid FSS is in its passband, the patch design is in its
stopband, and vice versa.


22
Finite metal thicknesses and dielectric loading have an effect on the response of an FSS and its
complementary solution and the expressions presented in the equations above are no longer valid and
equivalent circuit analysis is no longer possible.

Figure 23: Transmission characteristics of a grid and patch FSS
4.4.2 FSS design for K glass
The work method of moments (MoM) technique was used to analyse mostly-metal FSS structures.
Two mostly-metal designs, based on annular slots, were investigated for application to a double-
glazed window.
4.4.2.1 Single annular slot FSS
The first design is based on single annular slot FSS which is shown in Figure 24 [Ref 8]. The double-
glazed window is constructed from two panes of 6 mm float glass, separated by a 12 mm air gap. The
glass was modelled using a permittivity of 7.01 and a loss tangent of 0.017. The metallic shielding of
the K glass is implemented in the simulations as an infinitely thin sheet of metal on the inner face of
one of the panes of glass. The FSS was designed using an optimisation procedure that uses the ring
diameter and lattice spacing as variables. The design goal was to obtain an optimum transmission
response at 900 MHz for incidence angles in the range 0 to 60. The optimum design is shown in
Figure 24. The FSS is based on tightly spaced slots approximately 25mm in diameter with a width of
0.25 mm. Using this geometry, more than 95% of the metal surface is retained.


23
60
Glass
Glass
FSS
Slots
0.25
Vacuum
6
12
6
All dimensions in mm

Figure 24: Single annular slot geometry
The transmission characteristics for TE and TM polarised fields for 0 to 60 incidence angles are
shown in Figure 25 and Figure 26 respectively. A benefit of this design is that the transmission
passband is relatively broad. For both TE and TM polarisations, the transmission rapidly increases
above 500 MHz. At 900 MHz, the worst-case transmission loss for the FSS is for TM polarisation at
60 incidence, which is 2.15 dB. Furthermore, at this frequency, the transmission response is
reasonably constant with angle of incidence. The stability of the transmission loss with incidence
angle tends to reduce away from the optimisation frequency. Even so, the worst-case loss is
approximately 6 dB for TE polarisation at 1700 MHz. The equivalent losses for clear glass double
glazing are 4dB for both 900MHz and 1700MHz.


24

Figure 25: Transmission characteristics of a single annular slot FSS: TE incidence

Figure 26: Transmission characteristics of a single annular slot FSS: TM incidence


25
4.4.2.2 Dual annular slot FSS
The single annular slot design is shown to have a large transmission bandwidth operating from 800
MHz to above 2GHz for small angles of incidence. For higher angles of incidence, the losses for TE
polarised fields increase. These maximum losses occur close to the GSM band of 1800 MHz, so it
would be desirable to reduce the losses at this band while retaining the performance at 900 MHz. A
dual band structure is necessary to achieve this.
A dual annular slot FSS provides two resonances, one at a lower frequency (caused by the larger slot)
and the other at a higher frequency (caused by the smaller slot) [Ref 9]. The dual slot FSS was
designed using the same principles as for the single slot. The slot diameter and lattice spacing were
used as variables in the optimisation procedure. The FSS design was optimised for best transmission
performance at 900 and 1800 MHz over multiple angles of incidence. The final design is shown in
Figure 27. The FSS consists of two concentric slots with a width of 0.25 mm, on a 60 lattice of
about 35mm.
60
Glass
Glass
FSS
Slots
0.25
Vacuum
6
12
6
All dimensions in mm
0.25

Figure 27: Dual annular slot geometry
The dual band transmission characteristics for TE and TM polarisations are shown in Figure 28 and
Figure 29 respectively. An inherent characteristic of a dual resonance FSS is that a rejection band is
formed between the passbands. This occurs in this design just below 1500 MHz. In the lower


26
passband region, the effect of angle of incidence shifts the passband peak to a lower frequency for TE,
while the opposite effect occurs for the TM incident fields. The worst-case loss at 900 MHz is
approximately 6 dB. In the upper passband, the sensitivity to incident angle is significantly reduced
for values of less than 60. The TM response remains nearly constant for all angles of incidence. The
greatest loss at 1800 MHz is 4 dB for the TE polarisation at 60.

Figure 28: Transmission characteristics of a dual annular slot FSS: TE incidence

Figure 29: Transmission characteristics of a dual annular slot FSS: TM incidence


27
A comparison of the transmission response at GSM and WLAN frequencies for an uncoated double
glazed panel, and for double glazed panels incorporating both the single and dual slot FSS, is shown
in Table 2; clearly, for K-glass double glazing, the transmission loss is always very high (typically
more than -30dB). The greatest transmission losses are for TE polarised fields at high angles of
incidence. The single slot FSS performs marginally better than the dual slot FSS at 900 MHz.
Furthermore at 1800 and 2400 MHz, the dual slot FSS is better. These results indicate that a single or
dual band complementary FSS can be designed to allow propagation of RF energy through normally
opaque K-glass with varying degrees of efficiency.
Table 2: Comparison of single and dual slot FSS performance
Freq (MHz) Polarisation Incidence
angle
900 1800 2400
Average
loss (dB)
TE / TM 0 -1.24 -1.00 -0.29
TE 60 -3.82 -4.44 -1.44
Standard float glass
double glazing
TM 60 -0.19 -0.37 -0.34
1.31
0 -1.65 -2.03 -3.92
TE
60 -1.02 -6.18 -3.8
0 -0.44 -2.43 -4.28
Single slot FSS +
double glazing
TM
60 -2.15 -1.06 -2.37
2.61
0 -1.35 -1.23 -2.21
TE
60 -5.82 -3.97 -2.71
0 -3.12 -1.16 -2.39
Dual slot FSS +
double glazing
TM
60 -0.22 -0.51 -1.99
2.22

4.4.3 Breadboard characterisation
A breadboard unit, using a 900 mm x 900 mm double glazed panel incorporating the single annular
slot design, was manufactured. The FSS film was bonded onto one of the inside surfaces; the sample
was not optically transparent. The panel was compared with two other double glazed units, one
containing two panes of standard float glass and one containing a single pane of float glass and a pane
of K-glass. All the units had the same overall dimensions and used the same glass and separation
thicknesses.
The FSS panel was manufactured by QinetiQ in two sections. These were subsequently aligned and
overlaid by ERA with both copper sides in contact to form an electrical contact; Figure 30 shows this
join region of the two sections of the FSS. The FSS panel was bonded onto the inner pane of the glass
using a spay mount adhesive and taped in the central join region to ensure the continuity of electrical


28
contact. Unfortunately, during the manufacture of the double glazed unit, which resulted in the FSS
sheet being sealed inside, the tape was removed. During removal of the tape, some of the copper was
stripped from the polyester substrate and the contact along the joint was degraded.

Figure 30: Singular annular slot FSS
The transmission properties of the panels were measured using a two-antenna transmission
measurement. Two log-periodic antennas, connected to a vector network analyser, were positioned
either side of the double-glazed panel, as shown in Figure 31. The transmitted signal was time gated
to minimise the effects of edge diffraction and multipath. The glass measurements were referenced to
the case when no glass was present.
The comparative measurement for the three panels and the theoretical prediction for the FSS panel are
shown in Figure 32. The standard float glass had a maximum loss of 1.7 dB across the band, whereas
the K glass was consistently more than 14 dB. The FSS structure significantly improved the
transmission through the double-glazing when compared to the K-glass case; at resonance, the losses
are broadly equivalent to those measured using the standard float glass unit. The measured resonance
of the FSS panel is higher than the theoretical predictions. This shift between the measurement and
theory is believed to be due to the delamination of the two panels. Note that the plot for clear glass
goes above 0dB at low frequency. This is believed to be attributable to multipath effects; signals
constructively add for the float glass at these frequencies.
From the results, it is clear that the FSS structure provides significant improvements to the RF
performance of metal coated glazing. Optically opaque coatings as used in this experiment clearly
cannot be used in a real building environment and it will be necessary, in a further programme of
work, to look at the performance of optically transparent coatings to ascertain whether the same
benefits can be achieved.


29

Figure 31: Double glazing measurement setup

Figure 32: Comparative performance of the double glazing


30
4.5 Manufacturing technologies
4.5.1 Modifying coated glass
The European Technical Centre of Pilkington has provided the following input, concerning the
technical and commercial feasibility of implementing mostly-metal FSS structures on glass.
4.5.1.1 Base materials
Pilkington manufactures coated glass using two different generic processes.
On-line coating is a term which describes the process of introducing a coating while the glass is
being manufactured. K-glass is one of a number of products which is manufactured using the on-
line process. This uses a Tin Oxide layer.
Off-line coating refers to the process of putting down a coating as a separate process after the glass
has been manufactured. A wide variety of coatings can be applied using this process. In particular,
an layer of Silver can be deposited, sandwiched between two matching dielectric layers to make the
glass optically transparent, which provides significantly better conductivity than the Tin Oxide used in
K-glass.
4.5.1.2 Technical Feasibility of patterning the coatings
It would be possible to etch the required ring FSS pattern on coated glass which is manufactured using
either on-line or off-line processes. Etching using a CO
2
laser would be the preferred approach.
This process is already used locally on some automotive products to create an RF window in a metal-
coated windscreen to allow the use of screen-mounted electronic tags used by drivers using toll
motorways.
Pilkington already uses lasers on its production lines to scan glass for imperfections at line speeds of
1m/sec (for a 6m x 3.2m panel). In principle, they believe it would be feasible to introduce a laser
etching system into the line which could also create the required pattern at the same production line
speeds.
4.5.1.3 Costs
Pilkington was unable, at the meeting, to assess the capital and unit costs of introducing the process
into a glazing line with any degree of accuracy. It was felt that the unit manufacturing cost may
increase by 10-20%. No estimate of capital costs was provided. It was noted that the price of the
patterned glass would depend as much on market forces as on production costs.
4.5.1.4 Markets
Low E glazing was being used in 90% of new office installations in Germany, but in only 10% of
installations in the UK. To date, Pilkington had not been made aware of any problems with the use of
wireless telecommunications into buildings which had been directly attributed to the fitting Low E


31
glass. However, it was recognised that such an association may not be obvious to the operators of the
buildings. Pilkington expressed interest in becoming involved in further research to develop glass that
combined the benefits of thermal insulation with the frequency selective RF transparency, but stated
that it was unlikely to take such technology to the marketplace until it was mandated by legislation.
4.5.2 Alternative manufacturing approaches
An alternative approach would be to coat ordinary glass with a polymer film. Multi-layer non-
metallic optical interference films are available which can be tuned to reflect radiation in a particular
wavelength band. A film could therefore be developed which was relatively clear in the visible region
but reflective in the infrared, say 950 1150 nm. There is, however, a limit to the amount of
reflection that can be obtained in this way. Greater reflection can be achieved by adding a metallic
coating to the film. Such a film could serve two purposes:
forming the FSS structure and
improving the U-value of the unit compared with clear glass.
A further alternative for glazed facades would be to make use of the spandrel panels. These are often
made from glass without a metallic coating, backed by insulation and plasterboard. They could be
made to look similar to the transparent glazing of the windows by painting the inner surface of the
glass. A polythene layer could be used as a vapour barrier. Provided there is no metallic layer, this
should be reasonably transparent to radiation. Pilkington produce such spandrel panels to match the
appearance of many of their glass types.
4.6 Regulatory issues
Etching circular ring patterns into K-glass and similar low-emissivity glasses will reduce the coated
area by up to 10 %. This may have implications on the thermal management of buildings, particularly
as the regulations covering glazing structures become ever more stringent. Table 3 provides a
summary of the expected impact on each of the Approved Documents.
Table 3: Impact of using mostly-metal FSS on building regulations
Reg Pass/Fail Comment
A - K N/A
L Special measured needed
to ensure compliance
Thermal transmission of window would be
increased, see notes (1) and (2) below
M - N N/A
Workmanship
& buildability
Pass Coated glazing need to be handled with care to
avoid damaging the coating.


32
1. Removal of metallic coating from the glass will increase the thermal transmission. The U-value
of the window will increase in proportion to the amount of sputtered material removed. A
window with a wood or PVC frame has a U-value of 2.0 W/m
2
K, as presently required by Part
L, with the following glazing parameters:
a) interpane gap at least 16 mm,
b) air filled,
c) emissivity 0.15 (K-glass).
If it is argon filled, about 10% of the glass area could have the coating removed, to give
the same U-value of 2 W/m
2
K. Alternatively if a soft coating is used, emissivity 0.05,
again about 10% of the glass area could be un-coated, to give the same U-value. Note that
the currently proposed Mostly-metal FSS only has 5% metal removal. Removal of
larger areas of coating would require further changes to the window such as addition of a
third pane; triple glazing with clear glass meets the current Building Regulations Part L
requirements.
2. Future revisions of Part L are likely to see a tightening of thermal insulation requirements. Thus
a system which just meets current requirements for thermal transmission could fall outside any
new tighter requirements. However, as outlined in above, the addition of films and use of a
triple glazed unit may offset the losses in performance.
5. Matching cavity walls with FSS
The transmission characteristics of a cavity wall are dependent on the dielectric parameters of the
individual wall materials, their thickness and their relative locations. In this section, the effect of loss
and variation of the electrical permittivity are investigated. The cavity wall assessed here is
constructed using a layer of brick, followed by an insulating material (modelled as air) and a layer of
Thermolite block. Measurements on samples of brick and Thermolite block have shown that their
electrical permittivities vary significantly from sample to sample and also that they are dependant on
moisture content. Therefore, it is considered that effective matching of cavity walls using FSS will be
very challenging.
Table 4 below shows the wall build used to assess the potential for FSS structures to improve
propagation through a cavity wall.
Table 4: Cavity wall analysed
Material profile Relative permittivity Thickness (mm)
Brick 3.5 5.5 100
Insulator 1 100
Thermolite block 3.2 3.9 100


33
5.1 Basic RF properties of brick walls
This section describes the theoretical study undertaken to assess the RF propagation through typical
brick wall section, taking in account the finite size and non-rectangular shape of the bricks and the
mortar in between.
Figure 33 shows the geometry of a typical brick. The brick dimensions were measured from a real
brick sample. Figure 34 shows the unit cell used to model an infinite brick wall. The lattice is
skewed so that the relative displacement between each layer of bricks can be accounted for. When
used, the mortar completely fills the void between the bricks. The mortar gap is assumed to be 10 mm
(dimension measured from the ERA main building).
170
63
24
100
100
210
72
Top view
Side view

Figure 33: Brick geometry with dimensions in mm


34

Figure 34: Brick model in a periodic skewed lattice
The material proprieties of the bricks and the mortar, which were measured by NPL, are used to carry
out the theoretical assessment. Figure 35 and Figure 36 show the measured relative permittivity and
the loss tangent of brick and mortar respectively. Unfortunately, material property data is not
available in the frequency region of 400 MHz. The measured permittivity data has therefore been
extrapolated from these measurements to give the values shown in Table 5.
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20
Frequency (GHz)
R
e
a
l

(
E
r
)
Brick
Mortar

Figure 35: Measured real part of the complex relative permittivity of brick and mortar


35
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20
Frequency (GHz)
L
o
s
s

t
a
n
g
e
n
t
Brick
Mortar

Figure 36: Measured electric loss tangent of brick and mortar
Table 5: Material properties used for frequencies around 400 MHz
Relative permittivity Loss tangent
Bricks 4.45 0.031
Mortar 2 0.725
A selection of wall types was analysed at various frequencies including 400 MHz and 900 MHz for
plane wave incidence angles ranging from 0 to 70. The transmission loss as a function of frequency
and incidence angle was calculated for the following cases:
a homogeneous brick wall (Figure 37),
a homogeneous mortar wall (Figure 38),
a realistic brick wall with mortar (Figure 39).
In general, the transmission degrades as the angle of incidence increases. The transmission
degradation becomes significant for incident angles higher than 60. Solid mortar has losses between
0.5 and 2.5 dB more than homogenous brick. The transmission characteristics of a realistic brick wall
lie between those for a solid brick and a solid mortar construction, but do not seem to follow the same
well behaved trends (ie linearly degrading over frequency) as the solid dielectrics. Therefore, it
appears not to be possible to accurately model a brick and mortar wall using an effective dielectric.


36
-20
-18
-16
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Incident angle (deg)
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

(
d
B
)
350 MHz
400 MHz
450 MHz
850 MHz
900 MHz
950 MHz

Figure 37: Transmission coefficient of the brick wall without mortar (TE polarisation)
-20
-18
-16
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

(
d
B
)
350 MHz
400 MHz
450 MHz
850 MHz
900 MHz
950 MHz

Figure 38: Transmission coefficient of a mortar wall without brick (TE polarisation)
-20
-18
-16
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

(
d
B
)
350 MHz
400 MHz
450 MHz
850 MHz
900 MHz
950 MHz

Figure 39: Transmission coefficient of the brick wall with mortar (TE polarisation)


37
5.2 The effect of loss in the cavity wall model
In this section, the wall build shown in Figure 40 is analysed with loss included. The ohmic loss
places a fundamental limit on the performance improvement that can be realised by the addition of a
matching section. In this analysis, the grid matching section has been omitted so that the true effects
of the material losses are clear; reflection losses are still included. The loss tangents used in the
model are based on an average of the measurements undertaken by NPL. Mean permittivity values
were used when assessing losses.

Figure 40: Cavity wall model
Transmission losses through the wall are highest when the incident plane wave is TE polarised;
therefore, the analysis is shown for TE polarisation only. The transmission performance with and
without losses is compared in Figure 41 and Figure 42, for 0 and 60 incidence respectively. For
information, frequencies relating to TETRA, GSM, UMTS and WLAN are also shown in the figures.
At both incidence angles, the inclusion of loss systematically reduces the transmission through the
wall. As expected, the loss increase is greater at higher frequencies (greater electrical thickness) and
for largest angles of incidence. As an example, at 60 incidence the incorporation of loss results in a
reduction in transmission of close to 10 dB.
The ohmic loss places a fundamental limit on the performance improvement that can be realised by
the addition of a matching section.
BRICK
(
r
=4.5, tan= 0.03)

INSULATOR
(
r
=1, tan= 0.00)
THERMOLITE BLOCK
(
r
=3.6, tan= 0.085)


38

Figure 41: Loss effects in the cavity wall model for TE transmission at 0 incidence

Figure 42: Loss effects in the cavity wall model for TE transmission at 60 incidence


39
5.3 Tolerance analysis of cavity wall model
The electrical properties of the building materials used in a cavity wall can vary quite considerably as
a function of moisture content, in particular, and also from sample to sample. The physical properties
of such materials are also not as well maintained, as would be the case for materials traditionally used
in microwave applications. In this section, the effect of varying the permittivity and thickness of the
wall are analysed for a lossless system. The cavity wall model shown in Figure 40 is used as the
baseline. The permittivity of the brick and the Thermolite block is varied over the range of the
measurement values presented earlier, and the thickness is altered by 10 % of its nominal value of 100
mm.
A square grid matching section is included in the model. The FSS is designed to improve the
transmission characteristics around the TETRA and GSM bands at 400 and 900 MHz respectively.
The optimum design is a square grid with a lattice period of 216 mm and grid thickness of 1 mm.
This FSS is placed on the outer surface of the brick.
Losses are greatest for TE polarised fields at large incidence angles. Therefore, 60 incidence has
been used in the assessment, and the results for TM polarisations are excluded for clarity. The effects
of varying the permittivity of the brick layer between 3.5 and 5.5, using fixed values for the dielectric
constant of the Thermolite layer of 3.2, 3.55 and 3.9, are shown in Figure 43, Figure 44 and Figure 45.
It can be seen that changing the permittivity of the brick has a significant effect on the predicted
transmission bands of the wall. An increase in the permittivity reduces the resonance frequencies of
the transmission bands at the TETRA and GSM1 bands. The effect is even more significant at the
GSM2 band. Similar levels of degradation are seen when the Thermolite layer properties are
changed.
The effects of varying the thickness of the brick layer between 90 and 110mm, using fixed values for
the thickness for the Thermolite layer of 90, 100 and 110mm, are shown in Figure 46, Figure 47 and
Figure 48.


40

r
= 3.2

r
= 3.55

r
= 3.9


41

Figure 46: TE transmission for cavity wall with Thermolite block thickness = 90 mm




42
These results highlight the major impact that changes in electrical and physical properties of building
materials have on the RF performance of a cavity wall. The passband shift is less pronounced in the
TETRA band, but due to the high-Q response at this frequency, even a small shift can result in a large
change in transmission loss. At 900 MHz, where the passband bandwidth is larger, reasonable shifts
in resonance frequency due to material changes can be accommodated. At frequency bands higher
than this, the effects are less predictable.
These results indicate that it is very difficult to design an FSS that can provide consistent performance
for a number of different cavity wall geometries. A more appropriate technique would be to have a
reconfigurable FSS that can be tuned to optimise the transmission characteristics for predefined
passband frequencies. A number of these active FSS structures have been addressed in WP3400 and
further work is on-going to assess the potential to use two layer passive FSS structures which are
moved with respect to each other and the wall.
5.4 Low cost manufacturing technologies
5.4.1 Introduction
This section described a novel low cost manufacturing technology that has been developed by
QinetiQ, which could be ideally suited to the implementation of FSS structures in the built
environment.
QinetiQ Metal Printing (QMP) is an innovative process for creating patterned metal deposits, using a
range of metals and alloys, onto most rigid and flexible substrates. In contrast to alternative methods,
QMP is an efficient and cost-effective route to patterned metals and, because the original electrical
and RF properties of the base metal are preserved, it lends itself well to the creation of frequency
selective surfaces (FSSs).
The QMP process affords considerable reductions in operating capital, equipment costs and waste
materials compared to traditional acid etch processes. In addition, the use of non-toxic chemicals in
the QMP process provides an environmentally safe alternative to those employed in processes today.
5.4.2 The QMP Process
The QMP process in its simplest form is a tool which can be used to produce metal patterns on a
range of substrates. QMP have invented a catalytic ink (Patent GB 01 134 08, GB 01 285 71) that can
be deposited by a range of printing techniques to form patterned metals, for example to form FSS
structures. The focus of this current project is on inkjet- and screen-printing.
Once the ink has been printed onto a substrate by one of these printing methods, it is dried at about
80-100 C. The substrate, in this case either polymer or glass sheet, is then immersed in an electroless
solution. Metal is grown on the printed ink regions, with negligible sideways growth (typically 1%).
Although the thickness grown varies from metal to metal, a few m of coating is typical. Once
plating is complete the substrate with its metal coating is rinsed and dried.


43
5.4.3 Benefits of the QMP process
The benefits of the QMP process in a wide-range of applications are significant and many. This
section identifies those benefits, and highlights the advantages of this technique over conventional
production methods, such as lithography and etching.
5.4.3.1 Manufacturing
Typically, the QMP process will enable the following savings:
Capital costs - 90% saving.
Floor space - 90% saving.
Waste - 99% saving.
Materials - 75% saving.
These figures are from a direct comparison between a reel-to-reel QMP system and a conventional
flexible printed circuit board (PCB) production line with a web width of 610mm.
The QMP process uses only five steps to produce an FSS pattern on a polymer (Figure 49); this
compares to the 30 or more required during conventional PCB manufacture (Figure 50). Restricting
the number of processing steps dramatically reduces the cost of the capital equipment and the
manufacturing floor area that it occupies.

Figure 49: QMP manufacturing process
Print
QMP
Dry Copper
growth
Rinse/Dry FSS Waste Substrate
=


44

Figure 50: PCB manufacturing process
QMP is an additive processes (i.e. metal only grows where the ink is printed) and is extremely
economic in terms of material waste. Indeed, the only waste generated is during the replacement of
the electroless chemicals, which takes place every 4-6 months. This waste is of low toxicity and is
readily disposed of.
The manufacture of FSS for buildings may require a wide web width. The widest webs used for reel
to reel PCB processing are 610mm wide, this being driven by the size of the lithographic development
units. QMP does not have the same constraints so the web width is only constricted by the width of
available polymer. FSS produced by a QMP system could be 2-5m wide, depending on polymer
availability.
The QMP process typically deposits 1-2m of copper, but if thicker metal is required, an electrolytic
stage can be easily added to the production line. A limitation is that a pattern can only be
electroplated if it is continuous.
If a metal thickness of more than 10m were required, then etching of copper-clad substrates would
provide a more cost affective method. Note that web widths would be a limiting factor in this case.
Stage 1: Obtain copper-coated PCB substrate
Stage 2: Apply etch resist in required pattern
Rinse /
Dry
Develop Expose
pattern
Soft bake Apply
photo-resist
Hard
bake
Stage 3: Selective etch
Substrate SnCl
2

treat
Electroless
Copper
Rinse /
Dry
PdCl
2

treat
Rinse Rinse Dry
Rinse /
Dry
Etch
copper
PCB Remove
resist
Waste Rinse /
Dry


45
5.4.3.2 Substrates
There is a diverse and wide range of surfaces to which the QMP process is applicable. The process
can be applied to virtually any water-resistant material, such as synthetic paper, polyester,
polypropylene, polyimide, FR4, ceramic, and glass.
The wet chemistry stage of QMP prevents it being used to directly create FSS on some building
materials, such as breeze block and plasterboard. However, QMP can be used to create FSS patterns
on polymer films that can, in turn, be attached to such materials. In the case of vapour shield
plasterboard, which has an aluminium backing film, it may be possible to replace the aluminium film
with QMP copper on a polymer substrate.
5.4.3.3 Application method
QMP is unique in that it can use of wide variety of print methods. It can be printed using industrial
drop on demand inkjet or desktop inkjet printers. Such digital printing methods are ideal for fast
prototyping and limited production where a quick turnround of candidate patterns is required.
However, for mass production of a fixed FSS pattern, other printing methods such as gravure,
flexographic or rotary screen-printing are more suitable. These methods have all been demonstrated
in the context of QMP, and they all offer wide web widths, high resolutions and potentially very rapid
print speeds in industrial-sized systems.
Wide-web inkjet systems are more specialised and are normally bespoke for a particular customer, at
inherent additional cost. Inkjet-printed QMP patterns are less stable when electroplated. Work is
being performed to resolve this problem, but currently their use is not recommended for patterns
requiring electroplating.
5.4.3.4 Metal surfaces
A range of metals can be grown, including copper, nickel, cobalt, iron, tin, silver and gold. Mixed
magnetics can also be deposited, for example 45% nickel, 5% boron, 25% iron, 25% cobalt. These
blends are described as mixes rather than true alloys, as they are the results of co-deposition rather
than a heating process.
In addition, a combined QMP copper/nickel mix is currently being used for EMP shielding by a
leading defence contractor who has replaced metal boxes with QMP coated plastics.
5.4.3.5 Performance
There is a wide range of EMP shielding inks/pastes and conductive polymer products available. QMP
differs from these conductive pastes and polymers in a number of ways.
Conductive inks rely on a high loading of a conductive metal, usually silver, in a non-conductive
binder. Conduction is caused by contact between silver particles within the binder structure.
However, such inks have a much higher RF resistance and do not match the performance of a true


46
metal. In some pastes, the silver particle loading is so high that the ink price mirrors the price of the
raw silver component. Conductive polymers have lower dc and ac conductivity.
The metals deposited by QMP are as pure as chemical deposition allows. Copper is typically 98%
pure, nickel is 90%. QMP metals are fully dense and exhibit the same RF characteristics as a pure
metal skin.
5.4.3.6 Quality
QMP has an internal QA system for guaranteeing its inks from batch to batch. Metal coatings have
been produced which satisfy a wide range of criteria. EMP coatings satisfy UK MOD and American
Mil Standard Peel Strength tests.
5.4.3.7 Resolution
The resolution achievable using QMP is solely dependent on the print process used. A list of the print
processes and currently achievable resolutions can be found in Figure 6 below.
It should be noted that QMP is also suitable for the printing of double-sided aligned FSS patterns,
since the first ink coating can be dried before the second coating is applied. Both ink surfaces are
then cured before electroless plating. The tolerance of the alignment process is also listed.
Table 6: QMP Resolution
Print Process Resolution (m) Double sided tolerance
(m)
Inkjet Industrial 140 Theoretical 140
Inkjet Desktop 70 N/A
Screen-print (sheet) 200 200
Screen-print (rotary) 150 150
Gravure 70-90 70-90

During the electroless plating stage the metal grows on all of the surfaces of the ink, giving both
sideways and vertical growth. If a 2m thick copper pattern is deposited there will typically be an
additional 2m of metal on the sidewall of each track. This is not ideal but is significantly better than
the results caused by undercut in the etching process.
5.4.3.8 Prototyping
QMP offers a rapid prototyping capability for small-scale samples, using desktop printing inks. The
maximum sample size is currently limited to A4 sheets, but this can easily be increased depending on
customer requirements. Digitally produced A3 to A0 sheets could feasibly be produced for the
evaluation of FSS designs. It should be noted that the desktop printers can only print on a synthetic


47
paper and that generally these patterns cannot be electroplated, limiting this facility to producing 1-
2m copper and 1-10m nickel patterns.
5.4.3.9 Scalability
The simplicity of QMP is that it is a new production method based on existing production machinery.
Hence, scaling-up of QMP would use existing machinery from the wide-format printing industry in
conjunction with QMP ink, followed by metal growth using industry standard electroless- and electro-
plating systems.
In full-scale production the web width of a reel-to-reel QMP line would only be restricted by the
available polymer web width. Referring back to section 5.4.3.2, a QMP system with a web width of
2-5 m using a rotary screen- or gravure-printing stage would be relatively easy to produce.
5.4.3.10 Customisation
QMP has a range of stock inks, which have been tailored for customers individual substrates. These
can be modified to customers needs, this process normally taking 1-2 weeks, depending on the
substrate.
5.4.4 Cost estimates
5.4.4.1 Introduction
The cost estimates in this section are broken down into the following categories:
Printing systems for the deposition of the QMP ink,
Electrolytic chemistry system for the subsequent thickening of the QMP metal,
Consumables such as chemicals and polymer substrate,
QMP inks,
Indicative yearly costs for production by each method.
Although the QMP inks can be deposited by a variety of methods, this study has concentrated on
screen- and inkjet-printing because these are known to achieve the typical pattern resolutions likely to
be needed for polymer- and glass-backed FSS structures. Further costs have been provided for
subsequent electrolytic plating, should this be necessary, to thicken the QMP metal coatings.
Costs have been prepared for printing systems and electrolytic chemistry systems capable of
producing three web widths: 600, 1200 and 2400 mm.
After the initial investment in the production facility, the cost of the FSS sheets is dictated by the price
of the QMP ink, the substrate polymer and the consumables of the production line. The cost of inks is
driven by volume, hence this portion of the cost estimates has been based on the area coverage of the
FSS design. Bulk prices have been estimated for the chemicals and polymer substrates.


48
5.4.4.2 Assumptions
The following assumptions have been made in preparing these cost estimates:
A standard thickness of 1-2m of copper is assumed for these calculations, which is typical of the
QMP process,
The reel-to-reel linear speed is 3m/min,
Prices are for new equipment.
5.4.4.3 Hardware Costs
5.4.4.3.1 Screen-printing system
The estimated initial Capital Equipment cost for a reel-to-reel screen-printing system with electroless
(QMP) deposition facility is shown below as a function of web width. The printing system would use
metal mesh screens (typically 200 mm in diameter) and would also include a corona treatment stage
for preparation of the substrate, electronic across web registration to prevent pattern drift and either
hot air or infra-red dryers to cure the QMP ink. An in-line electroless deposition stage and further
dryers complete the system.
Table 7: Cost of screen printing system
Web Width (mm) Price (K)
600 95
1200 135
2400 175

5.4.4.3.2 Inkjet-printing system
The initial Capital Equipment cost for a reel-to-reel inkjet-printing system with QMP deposition is
shown below as a function of web width. The price includes corona treatment, drying and in-line
electroless QMP deposition, and is based on the same basic structure as the screen-printing system.
Table 8: Cost of inkjet printing system
600 105
1200 155
2400 195


49
5.4.4.3.3 Electrolytic System
An in-line electroplating system would require specially designed anode and cathode arrangements
and control circuitry, suitable for maintaining the correct electrical current through the FSS elements
during plating. The resistance of any one FSS circuit would create the need for a given current.
Additional chemicals would be needed to maintain the purity of the deposited metal.
The transit time of the web in the plating bath is dictated by the rate of coating, typically 20m/hour.
Running at 3m/min approximately 200m of substrate would be required and a coating tank capable of
holding such a length of polymer.
Table 9: Cost of electrolytic system
600 65
1200 75
2400 100

5.4.4.3.4 Consumables
Chemicals
The yearly price for QMP chemicals, based on bulk buying and three bath regenerations, are shown in
Table 10 below. The chemicals are more expensive than those used for simple electroplating (Table
11).
Table 10: QMP chemical costs
Web Width (mm) Tank capacity (litres) Chemical costs (K)
600 6000 6
1200 12000 12
2400 24000 24

The yearly prices of electrolytic plating chemicals, based on bulk buying, are shown below for various
web widths. No bath regenerations are necessary for electroplating.


50
Table 11: Electrolytic plating chemical costs
Web Width (mm) Tank capacity (litres) Chemical costs (K)
600 600 0.4
1200 1200 0.8
2400 2400 1.2

Substrates
The costing has been performed for 50m thick polyester film. Bulk buying of quantities >500 kg
can reduce the price by up to another 25%.
Table 12: Substrate costs
Web Width (mm) Cost per Sheet ()
600 x 600 0.36
1200 x 12000 1.15
2400 x 2400 3.40

Inks
The QMP ink for polyester is in the process of commercialisation and a final purchase price has not
yet been set. The prices stated in the following tables are indicative only.
Table 13: Cost of screen printing ink
Coverage (%) FSS Sheet Size (mm) Ink Price ()
10 0.16
50 0.78
90
600 x 600
1.40
10 0.64
50 3.12
90
1200 x 1200
5.6
10 2.56
50 12.48
90
2400 x 2400
22.4


51
Table 14: Cost of inkjet-printing ink
Coverage (%) FSS Sheet Size (mm) Ink Price ()
10 0.02
50 0.19
90
600 x 600
0.33
10 0.08
50 0.76
90
1200 x 1200
1.32
10 0.32
50 3.04
90
2400 x 2400
5.28

5.4.4.3.5 Yearly costs for FSS Production
The following tables give estimates of total yearly output of QMP FSS sheets and the costs per sheet
(consumables and inks only) as a function of FSS area coverage. Although the figures are for reel to
reel web processing, an effective sheet size is used to show how the price per sheet decreases as the
sheet size increases. It should be noted that the range of potential FSS coverage areas is very wide.
For simple grid structures it is likely to be well below 5%. For mostly-metal structures, it could
reach 95%.
Screen-printing
Table 15: Sheet cost for screen printing
Coverage
(%)
Sheet Size (mm) Number of Sheets Cost per sheet ()
QMP only
Cost per sheet ()
Electroplating
10 0.55 0.01
50 1.17 0.01
90
600 x 600 720000
1.79 0.01
10 1.86 0.01
50 4.34 0.01
90
1200 x 1200 350000
7.22 0.01
10 6.10 0.01
50 16.02 0.01
90
2400 x 2400 175000
25.94 0.01


52
Inkjet-printing
Table 16: Sheet cost for ink-jet printing
Coverage
(%)
Sheet Size
(mm)
Number of
Sheets
Cost per sheet ()
QMP only
10 0.41
50 0.58
90
600 x 600 720000
0.72
10 1.3
50 1.98
90
1200 x 1200 350000
2.54
10 3.86
50 6.58
90
2400 x 2400 175000
8.82

5.4.5 Comments
The QMP process is extremely scalable. Even with the small scale equipment costed above, a large
quantity of product can be produced cheaply. It should be noted that the dominating recurring cost is
the per sheet cost of the polymer substrate; this could be reduced by buying in bulk.
The price of the electrolytic chemicals is so low that in production quantities the additional cost per
item is negligible and 0.01 is quoted as a maximum.
There is a significant difference in ink price between inkjet and screen print inks. This is caused by
the amount of ink used in a screen print compared to an inkjet print.
5.5 Regulatory issues
For the purposes of assessing the regulatory impact of fitting FSS structures into walls, it has been
assumed that the FSS consists of a rectangular grid of square metallic patches printed onto a plastic or
polymer substrate. This can either be attached to the insulation batts for installation in the cavity or
used as wallpaper on the inside of the wall. It is assumed the external face of the wallpaper presents
a suitable medium for decorating (painting or additional decorative wallpapering). Possible locations
for the FSS film are shown in Figure 51 below.


53
Figure 51: FSS locations in a cavity wall
Table 17 provides a summary of the expected impact on each of the Approved Documents.
Table 17: Impact of using cavity wall FSS on building regulations
Reg Pass/Fail Comment
A N/A No structural implications
B Pass See note 1
C Pass Vapour permeability needs to be designed accordingly (see
note 2)
D Pass Assuming the FSS is metal element is sealed and washable
(see note 3)
E - K N/A
L Pass Likely to increase the thermal resistance (see note 4)
M - N N/A
Workmanship and
buildability
Pass Recommend placing FSS on inside wall (see note 5)

1. This would seem to introduce no more fire risk than any of the other materials found in a
cavity, inner leaf or inside wall. Thin facings (0.5 mm or less) do not generally affect the fire
classifications, so walls and ceilings can effectively be papered. Use of thicker laminates needs
to be substantiated by flame propagation tests.
2. The FSS would introduce a further impermeable membrane within the cavity, though continuity
could not be guaranteed and therefore it would not be advisable to assume it has the same
function as a vapour barrier.
For the inside installation it would be advisable to give the FSS substrate a similar
characteristic with regard to vapour permeability as wallpaper to enable the wall to breathe and
new plaster to dry.
Inside Outside


54
3. An issue is any moisture run-off from the FSS will have to comply with any regulations about
metals in waste water. Thus, the use of FSS on the outside of the building will raise issues
about runoff. Increasing the amount of metal in the cavity may raise similar issues.
4. Whilst the installation is unlikely to alter the thermal characteristics of the wall the membrane
should not be considered as a continuous thermal barrier especially if installed in the cavity.
5. From the perspective of construction it would be possible to put the FSS inside the cavity, say,
by printing the FSS on to the rigid insulation batts. These will have to conform to the
appropriate sizes for installation between the wall ties and the system will not be continuous.
There is a distinct possibility that the batts may be damaged or incorrectly installed. Also they
will become inaccessible once put in place.
Use of the FSS on the inside of the building would enable ease of fitting, continuous placement
and correctly placed FSS. This obviously could be retro-fitted to buildings. This would require
similar properties to wallpaper and the metallic elements would need to be reasonably sealed.
6. References
[Ref 1] Marcuvitz, N.,
Waveguide Handbook
Radiation Laboratories Series, McGraw Hill, 1951
[Ref 2] Langley, R. J. and Parker, E. A.,
Equivalent circuit model for arrays of square loops
Electron. Lett., 18, pp. 294-296, 1982
[Ref 3] Hamdy, S. M. A. and Parker, E. A.,
Current distribution on the elements of a square loop frequency selective surface
Electron. Lett., 18, pp. 624-626, 1982.
[Ref 4] Langley, R. J. and Parker, E. A.,
Double square frequency selective surfaces and their equivalent circuit
Electron. Lett., 19, pp. 675-677, 1983
[Ref 5] Collin, R.E.,
Field Theory of Guided Waves
McGraw Hill, 1960
[Ref 6] Lee, S. W., Zarrillo, G., Law, C. L.,
Simple Formulas for Transmission Through Periodic Metal Grids or Plates
IEEE Trans. AP, vol 30, no. 5, Sept. 1982, pp 904 909.
[Ref 7] Lo, Y. T., Lee, S. W.,
Antenna Handbook. Theory Applications and Design
Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1988, pp 2-13 2-16
[Ref 8] Parker, E. A. and Hamdy, S. M. A.,
Rings as elements for frequency selective surfaces'
Electron. Lett., 17, pp. 612-614, August, 1981.
[Ref 9] Parker, E. A., Hamdy, S. M. A. and Langley, R. J.,
Arrays of concentric rings as frequency selective surfaces
Electron. Lett., 17, pp. 880-881, November 1981

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