Psychology

School of Thoughts of Psychology

The word Psychology is derived from the Greek word psyche which means soul or mind, ology
means study.
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Schools of thoughts in psychology
Structuralism (Wundt)
Functionalism(Carr and Angell)
Behaviorism (Watson)
Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud)
Humanism (Abraham Maslow)
Gestalt Psychology (Kohler)
Scope of Psychology
Clinical Psychology
Counseling Psychology
Psychometric Psychology
Social Psychology
Psychological Psychology
Developmental Psychology
Educational Psychology
Experimental Psychology
Cross-culture Psychology
Industrial Psychology
Environmental Psychology
Engineering Psychology
Forensic Psychology
Community Psychology
Recent trends in Psychology
Eclectic Psychology
Psychology of Cyberspace
Energy Psychology
Scientology
Critical Psychology
Kinesiology

Nervous System
The nervous system is the complex system of cells that allows an organism to gain information about
what is going on inside or outside the body and to respond appropriately. It allows to learn and to react.
Central Nervous System
Brain (12 pairs of cranial nerves)
Spinal Cord (3 pairs of spinal nerves)
Peripheral Nervous System
1. Somatic Nervous System (Voluntary)
2. Autonomic Nervous System (Involuntary)
Sympathetic NS (Emergency)
Parasympathetic NS Relaxation)
Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral nervous systemis the systemof sensory and mortor neurons that form the interface between
the central nervous system and surface of the body.
Somatic Nervous System
This system is under voluntary control. It controls the skeletal muscles of the body.
The Neuron
Neurons form the basic building blocks of the nervous system. All behavior begins with the action of
neurons. A neuron is a cell specialized to receive process and transmit information to other cells within
the body.
Structure of neuron
Cell body or Soma
Dendrites
Axon
Myelin Sheath
Terminal Buttons
Types of Neurons
On the basis of its structure neurons are divided into three types.
Unipolar Neurons
Bipolar Neurons
Multipolar Neurons


On the basis of its functions neurons have three other kinds.
Sensory Neurons
Mortor Neurons
Interneurons

Synapse
Synaptic Transmission
Reflex Arc (The simplest circuits are called reflex arcs, which may involve a sensory neuron, a
mortor neuron or an interneuron between them in the spinal cord)
Reflex Action (A reflex action involves many reflex arcs and other interconnections and may be
quite complex)

Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic Division
Parasympathetic Division
Central Nervous System
Brain
Spinal Cord
Brain
Fore Brain
Mid Brain
Hind Brain
Fore Brain
Cerebrum or Cerebral Cortex (Left Hemisphere /Right Hemisphere)

Four Lobes
Frontal Lobe (voluntary muscles, intelligence, personality, planning, reasoning)
Temporal Lobe (hearing, language processing and memory)
Parietal Lobe (spatial location, attention, motor control, body sensation)
Occipital Lobe (visual stimuli)

Area of Cortex
Sensory Area (vision and hearing)
Motor Area (voluntary activity)
Associative Area (higher mental processes such as problem solving, remembering and thinking, linguistic
and perceptual functioning)


Thalamus (relay station/ wakefulness and sleep)
Hypothalamus (monitor critical internal body functions/ eatingbehavior/ thermostat/ endocrine
system/ aggressive and sexual behavior)
Basal Ganglia (voluntary movements/ habitual behavior such as riding a bicycle)
Limbic System (display of emotional reaction/ memory)
Amygdala (discrimination of objects such as appropriate food, mates and social rivals/ rage/
aggression
Septum (opposite effect of Amygdala)
Hippocampus (formation of memories)
Mid Brain
Relay information between the brain and the eyes and ear.
Hind Brain
Medulla (involuntary reflexes/ breathing/ heart circulation)
Cerebellum (smooth and coordinate rapid body movement/ little brain)
Reticular Activating System (determine level of activation and arousal)
Brain Stem (Medulla and Pons. Determine alertness, regulate breathing, heart beat and blood
pressure)
Spinal Cord
Grey Matter
White Matter
Transmit neural impulses rapidly to and from the brain. Spinal reflexes
Functions of Brain
Homeostasis
Study of Brain
Recording (EEG)
Stimulation
Lesion
Accidents
Images (CAT/ PET/ MRI)




Endocrine System
Release their chemical product directly into the blood stream. Travel more slowly than nerve impulse.
Pineal Gland (wake/sleep pattern)
Pituitary Gland (Master gland).
Anterior Pituitary (ACTH/ TSH/ Prolactin hormone/ GH/ Gonadotropin Hormone)
Posterior pituitary (Oxytocin Hormone/ ADH)
Thyroid Gland
Thyroxin
Cretinism
Thymus Gland
Immune system
Adrenal Gland
Cortex (Cortisol/ Aldosterone/ Androgen)
Medulla (Epinephrine/ Adrenaline, Non-epinephrine/ Nor-adrenaline)
Fight or flight
Pancreas Gland
Insulin
Diabetes
Gonads
Testes
Ovaries















Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience
Factors Which Influence Degree and Quality of Learning
Subjective Factors/ Personal Factors
Intelligence
Interest
Aptitude
Mental Health
Motivation
Stress
Emotional Health
Attention/ Concentration
Previous Learning
Physical Health
Other Personal Traits (assertive person v/s passive person, curiosity/ goal directedness)
Objective Factors/ Methods of Learning
Practice
Conceptualization
Guidance/ Counseling
Learning Intervals
Reinforcement
Meaningful v/s Non-meaningful Material
Nature of Task
Association
Zeigarnik Effect
Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
Operant Conditioning (B F Skinner)
Contiguity Theory of Learning (Edwin Guthrie)
Connectivism(Edward Thorndike. Law of Effect/ Law of Readiness/ Law of Exercise)
Sign Learning Theory (Tolman. Approach learning/ Escape learning/ Avoidance learning/ Choice-
point learning/ Latent learning)
Insight Learning Theory (Kohler)
Social Learning Theory (Bandura. Attention/ Retention/ Motor Reproduction/ Motivation)



Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
A learning procedure in which associations are made between a neutral stimuli and a natural stimuli
Neutral stimulus
Unconditional stimulus
Unconditional response
Conditioned stimulus
Conditioned response
Acquisition
Generalization
Discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Classical Conditioning and Human Behavior
Infant fear of rats
Bed wetting
Taste aversion
Application of Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life
Fantasies
Advertisement
Election campaign adds
Business practice
Clinical setting
Health problems
Resolution of conflicts
Prejudice





Operant Conditioning (B F Skinner)
Learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resultingin corresponding increase or
decrease in occurrence.
Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcer
Negative Reinforcer
Extinction
Primary Reinforcer
Secondary Reinforcer
Schedule of Reinforcement
Continuous Schedule
Partial Schedule
Ratio Schedule (fixed-ratio schedule/ variable-ratio schedule)
Interval Schedule (fixed-interval schedule/ variable-interval schedule)



Shaping
Chaining
Response Chain
Aversive Control
Negative Reinforcement
Escape Conditioning
Avoidance Conditioning
Punishment
Disadvantages of Punishment

Applications of Operant Conditioning
Application at Home
Application at Work
Application at School
Difference between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
Classic reflexive and operant voluntary
Classical involves an association between an involuntary response and a stimulus while operant
involves an association between a behavior and a consequence
Classical also called Pavlovian while Operant also called Skinnerian
Classical UCR and CR similar while in Operant UCR and CR may be dissimilar
In classical conditioning response comes after reinforcement while in operant conditioning
reinforcement comes after response
Classical passive role while operant active role
Operant usually for behavior modification
Law of operant conditioning is the law of effect






























Motivation
Motivation means a need or desire that energizes and directs the behavior towards a goal
Or
An internal state that activates behavior and direct it towards a goal
Or
Motivation refers to the influence that govern the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of
behavior
Homeostasis
Factors / Aspect of Motives
Need
Drive
Incentive
Effect
Classification / Types of Motives
Maslows hierarchy of Needs
Biological or Psychological needs
Safety
Love, Belongingness and Attachment
Self Esteem
Self-actualization
Primary Motives
Hunger
Cannons Experiment
The Set Weight Level
Role of Hypothalamus (Lateral Hypothalamus exciting feeding/ Ventromedial Hypothalamus inhibiting
feeding)
Glucostatic Theory of Hunger
Metabolic Rate of the Body
Learned Cues
Flavor Cue
Variety
External Incentives
Over Eating
Thirst
Internal Mechanism
Thermostatic System
Water Meter


Temperature Regulation
Limits
Hypothalamus
Clothing
Sleep Motive
Body Time/ Circadian Period/ Posterior Hypothalamus
Individual Difference
Lack of Sleep
Psychological Patients
Pain Reduction
Analgesia
Drugs
Negative Incentives
Gate Control Theory
Sexual Motive
Drive and incentive
Social Approval
Displacement
Maternal Motive
Oxygen Motive
Fatigue Reduction
Lactic Acid
Psychological Fatigue/ Neurasthenia
Bowl or Bladder Motive
Secondary Motives
Social Motives
Social Approval
Social Comparison
Achievement Motive
Fear of Failure
Fear of Success
Psychological Motives
Affiliation
Self-Esteem
Self-Actualization






General Motives
Aggression
Definition
Freud Catharsis
Causes
Genetic Influence
Natural Influence (lesion of septumincreases aggression and lesion of amygdala decreases aggression)
Biochemical Influence (Testosterone level)
Other Causes (Imitation/ Social learning)
Achievement Motive
Henry Murray
Development of Achievement Motivation
Power Motive
Curiosity Motive
Exploration and Manipulation
Secondary Deprivation study
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation
Over-Justification Effect
Theories of Motivation
Drive Reduction Theory (Carl Hull)
Instinct Theory (Bergen/ Freud)
Incentive Theory of Motivation
Optimal Arousal Theory
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Measurement of Arousal
Individual Differences
Opponent Process Theory
Cognitive Theories
Attribution Theory
Julian Rotters
A Locus of Control
Maslows Theory of Need Hierarchy
Psychological Needs
Safety
Love and Belongingness
Self-Esteem
Self-Actualization
Work Motivation
Views about Human Nature
Theory X (Taylor/ People are lazy, ignorant, selfish, prone to error and motivated exclusively by money)
Theory Y (Gregor/ People are basically creative, responsible, intrinsically motivated to do work)
Theories of Work Motivation
Need Theories
Cognitive Theories
Equity Theories
Expectancy Theories
Job Design and Goal Setting (Job enlargement/ Job enrichment)































Emotions
Emotions are feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive element and that influence
behavior.
Characteristics of Emotions
Functions of Emotions
Aspects of Emotions
Basic Emotions
Emotional Changes
Physiological changes in Emotion (Sympathetic division)
Role of Autonomic Nervous System (Sympathetic NS/ Parasympathetic NS)
Polygraph (Lie detector)
Role of Adrenal Gland (Adrenal Cortex is the part of the endocrine system/ Adrenal Medulla is the part
of sympathetic NS)
Limbic System (Amygdala/ Rage and aggression, Septum/Relaxation)
Theories of Emotions
James Lange Theory of Emotions ( Perceived stimulus Physiological arousal Experienced
emotion)
The Schechter Singer Theory ( Perceived stimulus Emotional experience Physiological
Arousal)
Two-Factor Theory
Attribution Appraisal
Experiment (Placebos)
Criticism
Conclusion
Facial Feedback and Emotions
Canon Bard Theory of Emotion/ Thalamic Theory of Emotions ( Perceived stimulus
Physiological Arousal +Emotional Experience/ Thalamus as emotional control center)
Expression of Emotions
Body Positioning
Context
Facial Expression
Charles Darwins Evolutionary Theory
Innate Expression
Cross-Cultural Study
Social Referencing
Voluntary Control
Smile
Brain Activity



Expression of Emotions and Psychological Well Being
Color of Life
Avoidance of Unpleasant State
Functions of Emotions
Eliminate Undesirable behavior
Physical Health
Non-Verbal Communication of Emotions
Description about some emotions
Fear
Anger
Happiness
Measurement of Emotions
B.P Apparatus and Device ( Sphygmomanometer/ ECG)
Polygraph (lie detector)
Galvanic Skin Response
Pupillometric
Electroencephalograph
Electromyography
Electrocardiograph
Thermometer
Pneumograph or Spirograph



















Sensation
Messages from the senses are called sensations
Or
Sensation is the process of receiving stimulus energy from the external environment. Stimuli consist of
physical energy i.e. light, sound and heat. A stimulus is detected by the specialized sense organs which
are in the eyes, ears, skin, nose and tongue.
Or
Sensation is the initial message from the stimuli
Or
The activation of sense organ by a source of physical energy
Sensory System
Sensory Receptors
General Characteristics of Sensation
Quality
Intensity
Duration
Specific Stimulus
Sensory Threshold
Absolute Threshold
Differential Threshold
Terminal Threshold
Sensory Acuity
Senses
Sight Light waves Eyes Rods and Cons of Retina Colors, patterns, textures, motion,
depth in space
Hearing Sound waves Ear Hair cells located in the inner ear Noise, tones
Skin Sensation External contact Skin Nerve ending in skin Touch, pain, warmth, cold
Taste Soluble substances Tongue Taste buds of tongue Flavors (sweet/ sour/ salty/
bitter)
Vestibular Sense Mechanical and gravitational forces Inner Ear Hair cells of semicircular
canal and vestibule Spatial movement, gravitational pull
Kinesthesis Body Movement Muscles, tendons and joints Nerve fiber in muscles,
tendon and joints Movement and position of body parts




Vision/ Eye
Stimulus for Vision
Wave Amplitude
Wave Length
Wave Purity

Structure of the Eye
Outermost Layer ( Sclera/ Fibrous layer)
Cornea
The Middle Layer/ Choroids
The Anterior Chamber
Aqueous Humor
Iris (Aperture)
Pupil
Lens (Myopia/ Shortsightedness, Hyperopia/ Long-sightedness)
Retina (Photoreceptors/ Rods/ Cons/ Fovea)
Blind Spot
Bipolar Cells
Optic Nerve
Optic Chiasma

Light and Dark Adaptation
Sensory Adaptation
Color Vision
Hue
Saturation
Brightness
Color Blindness
Binocular Fusion
Retinal disparity
Color Vision Theory
The Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision
The Opponent Process Theory of Color Vision





Hearing/ Ear
The Physical Characteristics of Sound
Amplitude
Wavelength
Frequency
Psychological Dimension of Sound
Loudness
Pitch
Timber
Structure of Ear
Outer Ear
Pinna
Auditory Canal
Middle Ear
Eardrum
Ossicles
Oval Window
Eustachian Tube
Inner Ear
Cochlea
Organ of Corti/ Hair Cells
Semicircular Canal
Function of Ear
Auditory Processingin the Brain
Localization of Sound
















Cutaneous Sense/ Skin
Touch (Parietal Lobe)
Temperature
Pain
Pathway of Pain
The Somato Senses

Chemical Senses
Taste / Gustation
Receptor Cells
Smell / Olfaction
Functions
Receptors
Importance
Pathway to Brain

Kinesthetic and Vestibular Senses




































Perception
Perception is the meaning given to the initial message
Or
The sorting out, interpretation, analysis and integration of stimuli by the sense organ and brain
Factors of Perception
Objective Factors
Perceptual Organization
Perceptual Organization
Figure and Ground
Grouping
Gestalt Principle. Law of Perceptual Organization
Simplicity
Similarity
Proximity
Continuity
Common Fate
Closure
Reference Frame
Figural Goodness
Perceptual Constancy
Size Constancy
Shape Constancy
Brightness Constancy
Characteristics of Stimulus
Contrast
Change
Movement
Size
Intensity
Context
Repetition
Subjective Factors
Motivation
Perceptual Set
Expectation
Past Experience
Attention
Interest
Attitude
Personal Attributes
Emotional State
Personal Values
Social factors
Social Values
Social Beliefs
Customs/ rituals
Social Norms/ Mores
National Laws
Types of Perception
Depth and Distance Perception
Stimulus Cues
Relative Size
Relative Height
Motion Parallax
Texture Gradient
Relative Brightness
Light and Shadow
Interposition
Linear Perception
Binocular Cues
Retinal or Binocular Disparity
Convergence
Accommodation
Linear perspective
Role of Motion in Depth Perception
Monaural Cues
Distance From the Origin of Sound
Direction of Sound
Binaural Cues
Time Difference
Intensity Difference
Head Movement
Other Cues



Motion Perception
Real movement
Apparent Movement
Phi Phenomenon
Auto Kinetic Effect
Factors in Perception of Movement
Speed
Size
Distance
Time perception
Factors Affecting Time Perception
Subjective Factors
Objective Factors
Form Perception
Illusion
Causes of illusion
Illusion can be due to the defect of the sense organ
Limitations of the sense organs
Due to temporary state of mind
Odd arrangement of stimuli
Habit and familiarity
Context
False cues
Types of Illusion
UFO
Illusion of Movement ( Auto-kinetic Effect/ phi-Phenomenon/ Gama-phenomenon
Illusion of Space
Illusion of Direction
Illusion of Weight
Illusion of Form
Illusion of Size
Illusion of Context
Horizontal/ Vertical Illusion
Zolliner Illusion
Ponzo Illusion
Aristotles Illusion
Herrings Illusion
Wundts Illusion
Diagonal Illusion
Muller Lyre Illusion
Pogandroff Illusion
Impossible Figures
Perceptual Problems (Illusion and Hallucination)
Difference between Illusion and Hallucination
Auditory Hallucination
Visual Hallucination
Tactual Hallucination
Gustatory Hallucination
Olfactory Hallucination































Personality
It refers to characteristics that make a person unique
Or
It refers to the stability of persons behavior that leads to act uniformly both in different situations and
over extended period of time
Or
The sum total of characteristics that differentiate people or the stability in persons behavior across
different situations
Factors Affecting Personality
Heredity
Heredity and Basics of Genetics (Microcephaly)
Biochemistry of Genes
Basic Genetic Principles ( Genotype/ Phenotype/ DNA)
Structure and function of Chromosomes (XX/ XY)
Dominance and Recessiveness
Twins (Identical Twins/ fraternal Twins)
Chromosomes and Behavior Abnormalities (Phenylketonuria/ Sickle-cell Anemia/ Tay-Sachs
Disease/ Down Syndrome/ Turner Syndrome/ Klinefelters Syndrome/ XYY)
Environment
The Internal Environment ( Mother Nutrition and State of Mind/ Illness of Mother/ AIDS/
Mothers Drug Intake/ Birth Complications)
The External Environment
Interaction of Heredity and Environment
Animal Studies
Human Studies
Theories of Personality
Psychodynamic Perspective
Sigmund Freud Theory
Structure of Personality ( Id/ Ego/ Super Ego/ Conscious/ Pre-conscious and Unconscious
Regions)
Stages of Development ( Oral Stage/ Anal Stage/ Phallic Stage/ Latency Stage/ Genital Stage)
The Ego Defense Mechanism ( Identification/ Sublimation/ Repression/ Regression/ Denial/
Projection/ Reaction Formation/ Rationalization)
Evaluating Freudian Theory






Neo-Freudian Perspective
Carl Jung
Psychic Energy
Structure of the Psyche (The Ego/ The Personal Unconscious/ The Collective Unconscious/
Archetype/ Persona/ Masculine/ Feminine)
Introversion and Extroversion
Dream Analysis
Word Association Test
Summing Up
Alfred Adler
Feeling of Inferiority
Striving for Superiority
The Self
Order of Birth
Goals of Adlers Theory
The Type and Trait Perspective
Type Theory (Carl Jung/ Extrovert/ Libido emergency)
Trait Theory (Surface Trait/ Deeper Source Trait)
The Behavior Perspective
Classical Conditioning
Operant conditioning
Social Learning
Observation
Modeling
The Humanistic Perspective
Carl Roger and Maslow
Carl Roger Theory
Development of the Personality (Positive Regards/ Self-concept/ Conditional Positive Regard/
Psychological Problems/ Evaluation)
Personality Assessment and Measurement
Non Projective Techniques
Interviewing
Rating Scale
Personality Inventories (MMPI/ CPI/ The 16 PF/ EPPS)





Projective Techniques
Rorschach Test
The Thematic Apperception Test
The Sentence Completion Test
The Blocky Test
The Draw-a Man Test and The House-Tree Person Test
Projective Techniques an evaluation
Summary




















Social Psychology
Socialization
Socialization Agencies
Family (Norms/ Outside Groups/ Stereotype)
Peer Group
School
Work Place
Mass Media
Modes of Socialization
Direct Instruction
Shaping
Modeling
Social Groups
Characteristics
Group Formation
Attraction
Similarity
Task (CSS Forum)
Affiliation (Lahore Gymkhana)
Need Fulfillment
Group structure
Group Norms
Positions and Roles
Status Hierarchies
The Distribution of Power
Leadership

Types of Group
Primary Group/ Secondary Group
In-Group/ Out-Group
Formal and In-formal Group
Organized and Spontaneous Group
Reference Group and membership Group

Group Cohesiveness/ Solidarity



Conformity
A change in the behavior or attitude brought about by the desire to follow the beliefs and
standards of other people
Situational Factors Governing Conformity
Group Size
Group Composition
Group Influence
Asch Study
Conformity Conclusion
The characteristics of the Group/ Status
The situation which the individual is responding (Publicly/ Privately)
The kind of task
Unanimity of group (Social supporter)
Group Think/ Caving into Conformity
Compliance/ Submitting to Direct Social Pressure
Behavior that occurs in response to direct social pressure
Foot-in-the-door Technique
Door-in-the-face Technique
Thats-not-all Technique
Not-so-free-sample
Industrial Organizational Psychology
Obedience/ Following Direct Orders
A change in behavior in response to orders of others (Stanley Milgram)
Attitude
Persons liking or disliking for any object, person, idea and so forth
Components of Attitude
Cognitive Component ( Beliefs)
Feeling Component (Emotions)
Action Tendency Component (Behavior)
Culture and Attitude
Formation of Attitude
Socialization (Conditioning/ Modeling)
Personal experience
Reducing Surplus Information
Personal Interest
Need Satisfaction
Solution of Problems
Personal Information
Group Affiliation
Personality and Attitude
Pervious Experiences
Isolated Events
Racial Prejudice
Reliable Personality
Parents Influence
Peer Group Influence
Teachers Influence
Mass Media
Functions of Attitude
The Adjustment Function
The Ego-Defense Function
The Value-Expressive Function
The Knowledge Function
Measurement of Attitude
The Method of Equal Appearing Interval
The Method of Summited Rating (Likert Scale)
The Social Distance Scale
Cumulative Scaling
Special Techniques
Disguised Techniques
The Semantic Differential technique
Attitude Change
Congruent Change
Incongruent Change
Extremeness
Multiplexity
Consistency
Interconnectedness
Consonance of Attitude Cluster
Strength and Number of Wants Served
Centrality of the Related Values
Personality Factors
Intelligence
Prejudice
Prejudice is an attitude (usually negative) towards the members of some group, based solely on their
membership in that group.



Discrimination
Discrimination is the differential treatment of individuals belongs to a particular social group. To treat a
member of a subordinate group as inferior is to discriminate against the person.
Reverse Discrimination
Stereotype
A set of generalized beliefs and expectations about a particular group and its members
Socio-Cultural Approach
Situational Approach
Psychodynamic Approach
Phenomenological Approach
Theories of Prejudice and Discrimination
Causes of Prejudice
Psychological Factors
Projection
Stereotyping
Authoritarian Personality
Scapegoating
Learning
To Reduce Prejudice
Authoritarian Personality Theory
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
Realistic Group Conflict Theory
Social Identity Theory
Contact Hypothesis
Liking and Loving: Interpersonal Attraction and Development of
Relationships
How Do I Like You: Let ME Count The Ways
Proximity
Mere exposure
Similarity
Physical Attractiveness
Friendship Qualities (Keeping confidence/ Loyalty/ Warmth/ Supportiveness/ Frankness/ Sense
of Humor/ Willing to make time/ Independence/ Good Conversationalist/ Intelligence)
How Do I Love You: Let Me Count The Ways
Passionate or Romantic Love
Companionate Love
Commitment Component
Intimacy Component
Passion Component

Aggression and Pro-social Behavior: Hurting and Helping Others
Hurting Others: Aggression
Instinct Approach: Aggression as a Release (Freud/ Catharsis)
Frustration-Aggression Approach: Aggression as a Reaction to Frustration
Observational Learning Approaches: Learning to Hurt Others
Helping Others: The Brighter Side of Human Nature
Pro-social Behavior (Noticing the person. Event or situation that may require help
Interpreting the event that may require help Assuming responsibility for help Deciding on
and implementing the form of help
Diffusion of Responsibility
Altruism
Helping behavior that is beneficial to others but clearly required self-sacrifice
Theoretical Perspective on Altruism
Evolutionary Perspective (Darwin/ Rabbits/ Baboons/ Mother/ Mutual Biological Needs)
Socio-culture Perspective
Learning Perspective
Neurobiological Perspective
Factors Affecting Altruism
Bystander Effect/ Diffusion of Responsibility
Time Pressure
Emotions
Personality Traits
Challenges to Altruism

Ways to Deal With Anger
Look at the anger-provoking event from the perspective of the others
Minimize the importance of the situation
Fantasize on getting even- but dont act on it
Relax
Leadership
Leadership is the process whereby one individual influences other group members towards the
attainment of defined goal.
Theories of Leadership
Great Man Theory of Leadership
Situational Theory of Leadership
Power ( Coercive Power, Qaddafi/ Reward Power, Khosa/ Legitimate Power, Leghari Chief/
Expert Power, Wasim Akram/ Referent Power, Katrina
Leadership Styles
Bureaucratic Leadership
Charismatic Leadership
Autocratic Leadership
Democratic Leadership
Laissez-Faire Leadership
People-Oriented Leadership
Task-Oriented Leadership
Servant Leadership
Transactional Leadership
Transformational leadership
Functions/ Qualities of Leadership
An Executive
As Planner
As Policy maker
As Expert
As Able Diplomat
As External Group Representative
As Controller of Internal Relations
As Purveyor of Rewards and Punishments
As Arbitrator and Mediator
As Exemplar
As Symbol of the Group
As Substitute for Internal Responsibility
An Ideologist
As Father Figure
As Scapegoat
















Paper 2
Methods of Psychology
Psychologists used a variety of methods to acquire knowledge about behavior
Case study
Types of Case Study
Prospective (To Determine Outcome)
Retrospective (Start with an Outcome i.e. Disease)
Outline for Case Study
Present Status
Manifest Personality
Personality Dynamics and Structures
Social Determinants & Current Life Situation
Major Stressors & Coping Potentials
Personality Development
Formulation of the Case
Recommendations & Predictions
Strength of the Case Study
Limitations of the Case Study
Some Famous Case Studies in Psychology

Methods of psychology
Observational Method
Subjective Observation
Objective/ Naturalistic Observation
Field Study Method
Daybook Method
Biographical Method
Clinical Method
Survey Method
Selection of the Problem
Questioner About the Problem
Sampling the Population
Method of Measurement
Analysis of Data
Result or Report writing
Advantages
Disadvantages
Experimental Method (cause & Effect Relationship)
Hypothesis
Variables (Independent/ Dependent)
Controls
Unknown Variables
Several Variables
Advantages
Disadvantages
Interviewing












Developmental Psychology
Developmental Psychology is the branch of Psychology that studies physical, cognitive and social
changes throughout the life span.
Scope of Developmental Psychology
Methods of Developmental Psychology
Longitudinal Method (Panel Study/ Cohort study/ Retrospective Study/ Advantages/
Disadvantages)
Cross-sectional Study (Advantages/ Disadvantages)
Cross-sequential Method
Nature and Nurture Theory
Maturation and Development
Factors affecting Development
Heredity / Nature Theory
Heredity and Basics of Genetics (Microcephaly)
Biochemistry of Genes
Basic Genetic Principles (DNA/ Genotype/ Phenotype)
Structure and Functions of Chromosomes (XX/ XY)
Dominance and Recessiveness
Twins (Identical Twins/ Fraternal Twins)
Chromosomes and Behavior Abnormalities (Phenylketonuria/ Sickle Cell Anemia/ Tay-Sach
Disease/ Down Syndrome: Trisomy: Mongolism/ Turner Syndrome, 45X / Klinefelters Syndrome,
XXY / XYY Comp)
Environment / Nurture Theory
Internal Environment (Mothers Nutrition and state of Mind/ Illness of Mother/ AIDS/ Mother
Drug Intake/ Birth Complications/ Alcohol and Nicotine Use)
External Environment
Interaction of Heredity and Environment
Animal Studies
Human Studies
Aspects of Growth
Physical Development (Grasping Reflex/ Sucking Reflex/ Babinski Reflex/ Moro Reflex)
Cognitive Development(Piaget Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor Stage Pre-operational
Stage Concrete-Operational stage Formal Operational stage)
Social Development
Social Development During Childhood
Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial Development
Trust vs. Mistrust (0 to 1.5 Year)
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1.5 to 3 Year)
Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6 Year)
Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 12 Year)
Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)
Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood)
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)
Ego-integrity vs. Despair (late Adulthood)
Development of Language
Elements of Language (Phonemes: vowels/ Morphemes: Basic words/ Syntax: Phrases and
sentences/ Semantics: Final and broadest language)
Development of Meaningful Words and Grammar
Vocabulary Growth
Pre-school development
Environmental Influence on Language Development
Acquisition of Language (Imitation/ reinforcement/ innate Language structure/ cognitive
Development)
Piagets Theory of cognitive Development
Four factors Interact to Influence Changes in Thinking (Biological Maturation/ Activity/ Social
Transmission/ Equilibrium)
Organization (Schemas)
Adaptation (Assimilation/ Accommodation)
Equilibration
Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Stage (0 to 2 Years: Sensory Functions/ Motor Functions/ Reflexes/ Object
Permanence/ Strangers Anxiety)
Pre-operational Stage (2 to 7 Years: Thinking/ Pretend Mommy or Daddy/ New Schemas called
Operations/ Centration/ Representational Thoughts/ One-way logic/ Ego-centric)
Concrete-operational Stage (7 to 11 Years: Conserve Numbers and Amount/ Hands-on Thinking/
Logical Stability/ Reversibility)
Formal Operational Stage (Over 11 Years: Include Conductive and Deductive Reasoning/ What
Ought to Be)




Phases of Development
Prenatal Development
Postnatal development
Prenatal Development
Autosomes
Sex Chromosomes
Genes
Cell Division (Mitosis/ Meiosis)
Genotype
Phenotype
Twins (Identical Twins/ fraternal Twins)
Prenatal Development Stages
Germinal Period (Conception to 1
st
week: Fertilized Ovum, Blastula/ Implantation)
Embryonic Period (1
st
week to 2
nd
month: Embryo develop within Embryonic sac/ Placenta/
umbilical Cord/ Ectoderm, Outer Layer: Skin and NS/ Mesoderm, Middle Layer: Muscle, Blood,
Excretory System/ Endoderm, Inner Layer: Digestive System, Lungs, Endocrine System )
Fetal Period (3
rd
month until Birth: 1
st
2
nd
3
rd


Trimesters)
Sensitive Period
Pre-term Infants
Teratogens
Potential Challenges to Pre-natal Development
Tests to Determine Chromosomal Abnormalities (Ultrasound Sonography: Microcephaly, Precise
location/ Amniocentesis: Amniotic Fluid Withdrawn 12
th
to 16
th
week/ Chronic Villus Test:
Placenta Sample, 8
th
to 11
th
week/ Maternal Blood Test: 14
th
to 20
th
week)
Post natal development
Child Birth and Neonate/ Infancy
Labor (5 to 18 Hours)
Birth (30 Min to 2 Hours)
Afterbirth (20 Min)
Weight of Neonate (5.5 to 9.5 Pounds/ 19 to 22 Inch)
The Apgar Scale
Reflexes (Moro/ Tonic Neck/ Stepping/ Grasping: Palmer/ Rooting/ Sucking/ Babinski)
Sensory Threshold
Physiological Reactivity
Skeletal Development
Teeth
Muscles
Basic Needs (Oxygen/ Temperature Regulation/ Sleep/ Elimination/ Hunger/ Thirst)
Sensory Development (Vision/ Hearing/ Olfaction/ Gustation/ Thermal Sensitivity/ Pain)

Childhood
Early Childhood (Motor Development/ Physical Changes)
Middle Childhood( Childhood and Cognition/ Sibling/ Birth Order/ Friendship/ Influence of Peer
Group/ Competence Motivation)
Adolescence
Physical Changes (Body Type and Body Appearance)
Psychological Changes
Needs of Adolescence (Self Image/ self-esteem and Puberty/ Identity Crisis/ Adolescence and
Cognitive Development/ Adolescence and Vocational Choice)
Parenting Styles (Authoritarian Families/ Democratic or Authoritative Families/ Permissive or
Laissez-faire Families/ Uninvolved Parents)
Effects of Parenting Styles
Adulthood
Self-concept
Marriage
Family
Cognition in Adulthood
Middle Adulthood
Cues of Middle Age
Decline
Middle Life Crisis
Old Age (Late Adulthood)
Biological Factors (Baldness/ Wrinkles/ Deafness/ Blindness/ Sense of Smell/ CreakingJoints/
Shortness of Breath)
Retirement
Causes of Aging
Death and Dying



Moral development
Interpersonal Dimensions
Intrapersonal Dimensions
Theories of Moral Development
Kohlberg Theory of Moral Development (Internalization)
Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality
Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation (Ego-centric/ Avoid Punishment)
Stage 2: Naive Hedonism(Avoid Punishment/ Get Rewarded)
Level 2: Conventional Morality
Interpersonal Norms (Social Approval)
Order Maintaining Morality (Obey Law & Order)
Level 3: Post-conventional Morality
Stage 1: the Social Contract Orientation (Whether the Law is Just or Fair)
Stage 2: Universal Ethical Principles (Universal Ethical Principles)
Piaget Theory of Moral Development
The Pre-Moral Period (Pre School/ Have Fun)
Heteronomous Morality (5 to 10 Year/ Absolute Respect for Rules)
Autonomous Morality (10-11 Year/ Social Rules are Arbitrary Agreements)
Bronfenbrenners Theory of Moral Development
Self-oriented Morality
Authority-oriented Morality
Peer-oriented Morality
Collective-oriented Morality
Objectively-oriented Morality
Role of Empathy in Moral development
Role of Emotions in Moral development













Abnormal Behavior
Criteria for Abnormality
Distress
Dysfunction
Disability (Substance Abuse/ Bulimia/ BeingShort)
Violation of Norms (Criminal/ Prostitutes/ Highly Anxious)
Goals of Clinical Assessment
Classification
Description
Diagnosis
Prediction (True/ False Positive Prediction/ Sensitivity, True/ False Negative Prediction/
Specificity)
Techniques to Get Information in Clinical Diagnosis
Clinical Interview
Case History
Mental Status Examination
Psychological Tests
Behavioral Assessment
Physiological Assessment (CAT/ MRI/ PET)
Psychopathology & Clinical Psychology
Concept of Normality & Abnormality
Abnormality as Deviation from Average
Abnormality as Deviation from Ideal
Abnormality as a Subject of Subjective Discomfort
Abnormality as the Inability to Function Effectively
Legal Definition of Abnormality
Views of Abnormality through History
Philosophical Era
Plato (Biological disorders)
Hippocrates (Fluids or Humors)
Ancient Demonology & Witchcraft
Superstitions
Witchcrafts
Renaissance & Rise of Humanitarian Approach
Pre-scientific Biological Approach/ Phrenology
Moral Treatment/ Sigmund Fried
Mental Illness in the 20
th
Century
Models of Psychopathology
The Biological or Medical model
Bodys Biochemical Imbalance
Biomedical Factors
Psychoanalytical Model
Childhood Conflicts/ Freud
Behavioral Model
Learning Theories (classical/ operant/ Social)
Cognitive Model
Cognitive Structures
Cognitive Processes
Cognitive Products
Emotional Disorders
Humanistic Model
High Degree of control (Roger)
Socio-cultural Model
Family
Social Relationships
Model Providing Complete Explanation of Abnormal Behavior
Factors of psychopathology
Role of Biological Factors
Genetic Factors (Down Syndrome / XYY)
Brain structure (Birth Complications/ Prefrontal Damage/ Environmental Toxins)
Neurotransmitters (Low Serotonin/ High Testosterone)
Role of Sociological Factors
Family
Education
Peer Influence
Drugs & Alcohol
Unemployment
Social Injustice
Treatment of Psychopathology
Medication
Psychological Treatment
Other Treatments


The Assessment/ Purpose of Psychopathology/ DSM-IV-RT
Multiaxial Classification System
Axis I (Clinical Syndromes)
Axis II (Personality & Mental Retardation)
Axis III (General Medical Condition)
Axis IV (Psychosocial & Environmental Problems)
Axis V (Global Assessment of FunctioningGAF Scale)
Utility of DSM-IV-RT
Cultural Consideration in DSM-IV-RT
Merits
Drawbacks
DSM-IV-RT Classification of Psychopathology
Anxiety Disorder
Somatoform Disorder
Dissociative Disorder
Mood Disorder
Schizophrenia
Personality Disorder
Ethical Issues in Psychology (CC-SIR-RID)
Competence
Confidentiality
Safety of Participant
Informed Consent
Right to Service
Relationship with Vulnerable Individuals
Institutional Consent
Deception
Ethics for Research With Animals
Anxiety Disorder (Psychoneurosis)
Causes of Anxiety
Biological Factors (Genetic Factors/ Twins/ Bio-medicals/ Neurotransmitter)
Psychological Factors (Phobias/ Manias/ Chronic Vague Anxiety/ Cognitive Factors)
Social Learning
Psychodynamics
Behavioral

Subtypes of Anxiety Disorders
Generalize Anxiety Disorder
Panic Disorder
Phobic Disorder
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
Treatment of Anxiety Disorder (Minor Tranquilizer/ Sedative Medicines)
Somatoform Disorder (Psychosomatic Disorder)
The somatoform disorder involves physical symptoms or complaints of illness in the absence of true
physical stimuli.
Causes of Somatoform Disorders
Subtypes of Somatoform Disorders
Somatization Disorders
Hypochondriasis
Psychogenic Pain Disorder
Hysteria or Conversion Disorder
Treatment of Somatoform Disorders
Dissociative Disorders
Dissociative disorders are loosely defined by some sudden alteration of consciousness, memory,
perception or identity.
Causes of Dissociative Disorders
Symptoms & Sub-types
Amnesia (Localized Amnesia/ Systemized Amnesia)
Fugue (Wandering/ New Personality/ More Sociable/ More Violent)
Multiple Personality
Depersonalization & De-realization
Treatment
Mood Disorder Affective Disorder (Elation / Depression)
The affective disorders are characterized by mood problems: either excessive sadness or its opposite,
frenzied excitement and elation/joy.
Major Types
Depressive Affective Disorder
Manic Affective Disorder/Uni-Polar Disorder
Manic Depressive Disorder/ Bi-polar Affective Disorder
Causes of Mood Disorders
Biological Causes (Brain chemistry, Na, K, Transmitter Systems)
Psychological Causes (Anger at oneself/ Cognitive Psychologists/ Learned Helplessness/ Parent-
Children Relations)
Self-defecting Thinking
Genetic Predisposition
Treatment ( Lithium Carbonate/ Antidepressant Drugs/ Psychotherapy/ electroconvulsive
Therapy)
Schizophrenic Disorder/ Psychosis
Common Symptoms
Positive Symptoms
Faulty Perceptual Processing
Disorganized Thinking
Emotional Distortion
Delusion (Grossly Inaccurate Belief: Delusion Through Broadcasting/ Delusion of Grandeur/
delusion of Persecution/ Delusion of Reference)
Hallucination (Sensation Without a Basis in Reality: Auditory Hallucination/ Visual Hallucination)
Negative Symptoms
Withdrawal from Reality
Bizarre Behavior & disturbance of Speech
Disturbed Sense of Self
Inadequacies of Control
Sub-types of Schizophrenia
Disorganized Schizophrenia (Disintegration of Personality/ Lack of Theme/ Childlike/ Lack of
Control Over Urination/ Drifters/ Prostitutes)
Catatonic Schizophrenia (Hyper Activity/ Two Extremes/ Shake Hands/ Visual Hallucinations/
Bizarre Body Posture/ Psychomotor Disturbance)
Paranoid Schizophrenia (Delusion of Grandeur/ Delusion of Persecution/ Blame Game)
Undifferentiated Schizophrenia
Residual Schizophrenia ( Symptoms in Past)
Causes of Schizophrenia
Role of Heredity (Identical Twins/ Diathesis/ Biochemical & Neural Mechanism)
Role of Environment ( Family Life/ Sexual or Aggressive Impulses/ Both Parents/ Emotional
Climate/ Brain Damage)
Treatment of Schizophrenia (PABF)
Pharmacotherapy (Major Tranquilizer)
Anti-psychotic Medication
Behavior Based Program
Family Psycho Education
Personality Disorder/ Character Disorder
Personality disorders are maladaptive patterns of behavior.
Or
Personality disorders are a heterogeneous group of disorders defined by long-standing, pervasive and
inflexible patterns of behavior or inner experiences that deviate from the expectations of a persons
culture.

Subtypes of Personality/ Character Disorders
Cluster A: Odd Behaviors
Paranoid Personality Disorders (Suspicious/ Hostile)
Schizoid Personality Disorders (Loners/ Pursuing Solitary Interest)
Schizoid Personality Disorder (Bizarre Thought/ Unusual Perceptual Experiences)
Cluster B: Dramatic Emotional Personality
Antisocial Personality Disorder
Borderline Personality Disorder (Impulsive/ Damage Relationships/ Gambling/ Spending/
Substance Abuse/ eating Spree/ Indiscriminate Sexual Behavior/ Fear of Abandonment/
Depression/ Emptiness)
Histrionic Personality Disorder (Over-dramatic/ Attention Seeking/ Emotionally Shallow/ Call
Their Best friends/ Trouble in Remembering/ Attention Seekers/ Baseless Opinions/ Over-
concerned With Attractiveness)
Narcissistic Personality Disorder (Grandiose View of Themselves/ Self Centered/ Fantasize of
Great Success/ Attention Seekers/ Lack of Empathy/ Arrogance/ Feeling of Entitlement/ Change
partners)
Cluster C: Anxious & Fearful Behavior
Avoidant Personality Disorder (Fearful of Criticism, Rejection and Disapproval)
Dependent Personality Disorder (Over-Reliance on Others/ Weak)
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (Perfectionist/ Pre-occupied with Rules and Details/ Serious/
Rigid/ Formal/ Inflexible/ Unable to discard worn-out things and memories)
Causes of Personality Disorders
Biological Mechanism
Psychological Factors
Antisocial Personality
Behaviorism
Cognition














Intelligence Testing
Intelligence is the ability to acquire new ideas and new behavior and adjust to new situations.
Theories of Intelligence
Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence (Charles Spearman)
General Intelligence
Specific Intelligence
Thurstones Theory of Intelligence(Seven Primary Mental Abilities
Verbal Comprehension
Numerical Ability
Spatial Relations
Perceptual Speed
Word Fluency
Memory
Inductive Reasoning
Gardner Theory of Multiple Intelligence (Eight Types of Intelligence)
Linguistic/ Verbal
Logical/ Mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Body Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalistic
Triarchic Theory/ Sternberg Theory of Intelligence
Proposes that intelligence can be divided into three ways of processing information
Analytical Thinking
Creative Thinking
Practical Thinking
Emotional Intelligence
Include four major elements of interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences.










The Development of Intelligence Test
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
Intelligence Quotient
The Wechsler Test
WAIS-R
WISC-III
WPPSI-R
The Use and Measuring of Intelligence Scale
Controversy Over IQ Testing
Cultural Bias
Factors Affecting IQ
Nature vs. Nurture
Family Size & IQ
Aptitude Tests
Achievement Tests
Interest Inventories















Psychotherapy
Psychodynamic Treatment
Freud Therapy (Long Suppressed Conflicts)
Therapy Procedure (FDRTCT)
Free Association (To Probe Unconscious)
Dream Interpretation & Analysis (Repressed Conflicts)
Resistance
Transference (Positive/ Negative)
Catharsis
Termination
Contemporary Alternative Psychoanalysis
Behavior Approach to Treatment
Classical Conditioning Approach (Ivan Pavlov ASB)
Aversive Procedure (Drinking Problem)
Systematic Desensitization (Phobia)
Biofeedback Therapy
Observational Learning & Modeling
Operant Conditioning Approaches (BF Skinner TS)
Token System
Self-control Procedures
Cognitive Behavior Approach
Rational-Emotive Therapy (Albert Allis) ABO
Activating Agent
Belief
Consequence
Techniques of REBT (Cognitive Technique/ Emotive Technique/ Behavioral Technique/ Laughter
Technique)
Humanistic Therapy
Client-Centered Therapy/ Roger Therapy SB-SD-UC
Self-Actualization
Basic Needs
Self-Concept
Discrepancy
Unconditional Regard
Conception of Troubled Behavior
Goals
Procedure (Unconditional Positive Regard/ Empathy/ Congruence)
Gestalt Therapy
Existential Therapy
Psychodrama
Group Therapy
Advantages of Group Therapy
Family Therapy
Self-Help therapy
Couple Therapy
Encounter Therapy
Sensitivity Training
Encounter Groups
Effectiveness of Psychotherapy
Biomedical/ Medical/ Somato Therapies
Shock Therapy
Electro Convulsive Therapy
Insulin Therapy
Psychosurgery (Pre-frontal Lobotomy)
Chemotherapy/ Drug Therapy (Anti-anxiety Drugs: Minor Tranquilizer/ Anti-psychotic Drugs:
Major Tranquilizer/ Anti-Depressant Drugs)
Evaluation of Psychotherapies























Mentally Retarded Children
Mental retardation refers to significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing
concurrently with deficit in adoptive behavior, and manifested during the developmental period.
Classification of Mental Retardation
Physical Behavior
Communication
Social Behavior
Self-care Behavior
Level of Mental Retardation
Mild Mental Retardation (IQ Range 55 to 70: Educable Mental Retardation)
Moderate Mental Retardation (40 to 55: Trainable Mental Retardation)
Severe Mental Retardation (25 to 40)
Profound Mental Retardation (Below 25)
Etiology/ Causes of Mental Retardation
Genetic Factor (Down Syndrome)
Infectious Diseases (HIV/ Rubella/ Herpes)
Environmental Hazards (Lead Poisoning)
Familial Causes
Psychological Causes
Treatment of Mental Retardation
Behavioral Treatment
Cognitive Treatment
Residential Treatment
Mainstreaming
Gifted &Talented Children (IQ above 140)
Identification of Gifted & Talented Children
Education od Gifted & Talented Children (Product/ Process/ Affective)
Forgetting
The inability to retrieve memory from long-term storage is called forgetting
Or
The inability to recognize, recall or reproduce that which was previously learned
Theories of Forgetting (DIC-PC)
Decay Theory
Interference Theory (Proactive Interference: Forward in Time/ Retroactive Interference:
Backward in Time/ Cue-dependent Forgetting)
Cue-dependent Theory
Psychoanalytical Theory (Motivational Aspect)
Consolidation Theory
Forgetting Among the Elderly
Amnesia
Anterograde Amnesia (Loss of Short-Term Memory)
Retrograde Amnesia (Loss of Pre-Existing Memory)
Difference Between Normal Age-Related Forgetfulness & Amnesia
Normal Activities
Describe Incidents
Remember Directions
Hold Conversation
Decision Making Ability
Kinds of Memory
Sensory Memory
Echoic Memory
Iconic memory
Short-Term Memory/ Working Memory
Long-Term Memory
Declarative Memory (Episodic Memory: Where & When/ Semantic Memory: General
knowledge)
Procedural Memory (Knowing How)

Organizational/ Industrial Psychology
Individual Difference
Human Engineering
Human Understanding
Selection & Placement
Selection Procedure
The Application Blank
Interview (Obtaining Information/ GivingInformation/ Motivation)
Advantages
Limitations (Halo Effect/ Stereotyping)
Personnel Tests
Purpose of Personal Tests
Types of Personal Tests (Intelligence Test/ Clerical Ability Test/ Mechanical Ability Test/
Personality Test/ Interest Inventory/ Achievement Test
Morale & Productivity
Morale & Job Satisfaction
Factors Relating to Job Satisfaction
Personal Factors (Sex/ Number of Dependents/ Age/ Time on Job/ Intelligence/ Education/
Personality)
Working Environment
Physical Factors/ Improving Efficiency in Work (Rest Pause/ Tea Break/ Boredom)
Psychological Factors (Security/ Pay or Wages/ Opportunity for Advancement/ Working
Conditions/ Company & management/ Intrinsic Aspect of the Job/ Communication/ Benefits/
Supervision/ Responsibility/ Downward Flow of Information/ Co-workers)
Accident & Safety
Environmental Causes (Heating/ Pollution/ Unsuitable Working Tools)
Personal Causes (Age & Experience/ Health/ Absenteeism/ Fatigue)
Psychological Factors (Low Intelligence/ Boredom/ Poor Morale/ Depression)
Accident Reduction (Cause Analysis of Accident/ Elimination of Unsafe Acts/ Elimination of
Unsafe Conditions/ Safety Training Program)
Psychology in Marketing Advertising
Marketing & AdvertisingResearch (Product Analysis/ Consumer Research/ Distribution
Research)
Factors of Advertisement (Color/ Size/ Illustrations
Headlines
Newspaper
Magazine
Radio & Television
Salesmanship
Relationship of Labor & Management
Employer or Management
Administration
Accounts Department
Purchase Department
Production Department
Sales Department
Welfare Department
Steps taken by Management To Achieve Its Objectives (Job Evaluation/ Set Production Targets/
Critical Analysis/ Communication/ Welfare Program/ Pocket Union)
Labor or Employs
Labor Unions
Consumers





Fatigue
Types of Fatigue
Physical Fatigue
Mental Fatigue (Boredom / Depression)
Psychological Fatigue
Causes of Fatigue
Nature of Work
Severe Weather
Lack of Skill
Lack of Energy
Lactic Acid
Lack of Fresh Air
Congested Spaces
Lack of Health
Prevention of Accidents & Fatigue
Supervision
Safe Working Conditions
Specialists/ Right Man For the Right Job
Training
Technical Knowledge of Machines
________________________________________________SHOAIB SATTAR (23-12-2012)