MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF

TECHNICAL ANDVOCATIONALEDUCATION





SAMPLE QUESTIONS & WORKED OUT EXAMPLES
FOR

Geol-03011
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY


B.Tech (First Year)



(FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING)






YANGON TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING GEOOGY

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING (EG-05011, 5
th
Semester)
B.Tech. First Year (Civil)

Questions

Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
*1. (a) Discuss the relationship between the Engineering Geologists and Civil Engineers.
(b) Describe the importance of Engineering Geology in Civil Engineering.
**2. Write short notes on any Four of the followings:-
(i) Engineering Geology (ii) Environmental Geology
(iii) Rock mechanics (iv) Geomechanics
(v) Mining Geology and Petroleum Geology


________________________________________________________________________ *
= must know
** = should know
*** = could know



Chapter 3 ELEMENTS OF MINERALLOGY



*1. (a) How can you identify a mineral by the help of their physical and chemical
properties?

(b) Add notes on the following physical characteristics that are useful for the
identification of rocks and minerals.

( i ) Colour (ii ) Streak (iii) Hardness (iv) Form

*2. Write short notes on the following rock forming minerals.

( i ) Quartz (ii) Feldspars (iii) Micas (iv) Calcite or Gypsum




















________________________________________________________________________
* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know







Chapter 4 PETROLOGY

* 1. Discuss thoroughly about the structures of Igneous Rocks. (Illustrate your answer
with neat diagrammatic sketches if you can.)

*2. Discuss what you know the processes of Sedimentation.

*3.With the help of neat diagrammatic sketches, describe briefly on Primary
Sedimentary Structures.

*4. Add notes on any Five of the followings:-

( i ) Granite (ii) Gabbro (iii) Syenite (iv) Sandstones

( v ) Limestones (vi) Shales (vii) Gneiss

(viii) Marble and Calc-silicate rocks


**5. Add notes on any Five of the followings:-

( i ) Diorite (ii) Serpentinite (iii) Schist (iv) Conglomerate and breccia

( v ) Slate and Phyllite (vi) Quartzite (vii) Evaporites (viii) Dolomite













_____________________________________________________________________
* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know







Chapter 5 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

*1. With the help of neat diagrammatic sketches, describe briefly on Faults.

*2. With the help of neat diagrammatic sketches, describe briefly on Folds.

*3. From an Engineering Geological point of view, define Joints.

Discuss thoroughly about the Rock Joint Description in relation to Engineering
Geological investigation of rock materials.

**4. (a) Explain about the Mechanics of Faulting.

(b) Write short notes on the followings:-

(i) Unloading joints (ii) Cooling joints (iii) Dessicational joints

(iv) Joints due to the regional deformation

















_____________________________________________________________________
* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know








Chapter 6 EARTHQUAKES


*1. (a) Define the earthquakes technically.

(b) Write short notes on any Three of the followings:-

( i ) Causes of the Earthquake (ii) Seismic waves

(iii) Earthquake Magnitude and Intensity (iv) Effects of Earthquakes

( v ) Engineering Consideration

**2. Write a short account on Earthquake Belt and Seismic Zoing.

***3. Explain about the Earthquake prediction.


















_____________________________________________________________________
* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know










Chapter 7 FORMATION AND ENGINEERING USE OF SOIL


*1. (a) From an engineering geological view point classify the soil types.

(b) Add notes on any three of the following engineering properties of soil.


( i ) Permeability (ii) Shearing strength (ii) Bearing capacity

(iv) Soil compressibility (v) Void Ratio and Porosity

** 2. Discuss briefly on physical properties of soil.
























_____________________________________________________________________
* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know






Chapter 8 GROUNDWATER

*1. Discuss what you about the Groundwater movements.

*2. With the help of neat diagrammatic sketches, write short notes on the followings:-

( i ) Vadose water (ii) Aquifer (iii) Unconfined aquifer


(iv) Confined aquifer (v) Artesian aquifer (vi) Fresh and salt groundwater

**3. (a) Discuss briefly on groundwater investigation.

(b) Explain about the water in rocks.

***4. Write a short account on Zonal Distribution of Groundwater.




















_____________________________________________________________________
* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know





Chapter 9 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF DAM SITES

*1. Discuss on any Four of the following geological problems that are usually met with at
dam sites.

( i ) Dams on shale (ii) Dams on soluble rocks

(iii) Dams on strata dipping upstream (iv) Dams on strata dipping down stream

(v) Dams built across strike of rocks (vi) Dams on jointed and permeable
rocks

**2. (a) Write a short account on Forces acting on dams.

(b) Explain about the geological problem of Dams on Faults.






















_____________________________________________________________________
* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know






Chapter 10 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF TUNNELS

*1. Describe the following geological structures that influence the tunnel design, stability
and cost.

( i ) Tunnels in Horizontal Strata (ii) Tunnel axis parallel to the dip
direction

(iii) Tunnel axis driven parallel to the strike (iv) Tunnels in folded rocks

* *2. Discuss thoroughly about Geological Investigation of Engineering Problems
connected with Tunnelling.

***3. Describe what you know about the Soft Ground Tunnelling.























_____________________________________________________________________
* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know







Chapter 11 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF ROADS


*1. Write short notes on the following geological investigation which are very important in
the design, stability and economical construction and maintenance of roads:-

( i ) Topography (ii) Lithological character (iii)Groundwater conditions

**2. Discuss briefly on Geological Structures that influence the construction of road.

***3. Add notes on any Three of the following engineering geological problems of the road
construction:-

(i) Roads in Hilly Regions (ii) Roads in Marshy Regions

(iii) Roads in Water Logged Areas (iv) Geological problem after Road Construction



















_____________________________________________________________________
* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know








Chapter 12 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF BRIDGES


*1. Write short notes on any Two of the followings geological characters that need to be
investigated:-

( i ) The depth to the bed rock (ii) The nature of the bed rock

(iii) The structural disposition of rocks




























_____________________________________________________________________
* = must know
** = should know
*** = could know





YANGON TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING GEOOGY

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING (EG-05011, 5
th
Semester)
B.Tech. First Year (Civil)

ANSWERS

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

*1. . (a) Discuss the relationship between the Engineering Geologists and Civil Engineers.
(b) Describe the importance of Engineering Geology in Civil Engineering.
Answers.
(a) The engineering geologist presents geological data and interpretations for use by
the civil engineer. The civil engineers have to deal mostly with soil and rocks, timbers, steel,
and concrete. In a great majority of civil engineering, projects and the designs, involve the
soils and rocks almost directly.
Civil engineering is to construct the structure and facilities for transport, water supply,
hydropower, flood control, environmental protection, sewage and waste disposal, urban
development and more. In above fields, civil engineers construct and maintain waterways,
highways, railway, pipelines, dam and reservoirs and tunnels.
(b) The importance of engineering geology in civil engineering may briefly be
outlined as follows:

1. Engineering geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction material, its
occurrence, composition, durability, and other properties. Examples of such
construction materials are building-stones, road materials, clays, limestone, and
laterite.
2. The knowledge of the geological work of natural agencies such as water, wind, ice
and earthquake helps in planning and carrying out major civil engineering works. For
examples, the knowledge of erosion, transportation, and deposition helps greatly I
solving the expensive problems of river control, coastal and harbour work and soil
conservation.
3. The knowledge about groundwater that occurs in the subsurface rocks and about its
quantity and depth of occurrence is required in connection with water supply
irrigation, excavation and may other civil engineering works.
4. The foundation problems of dams, bridges, and buildings are directly concerned with
the geology of the area where they are to be built. In these works, drilling is
commonly undertaken to explore the ground conditions. Geology helps greatly in
interpreting the drilling data.
5. In tunnelling, constructing roads, canals, and docks and in determining the stability of
cuts and slopes, the knowledge about the nature and structure of rocks is very
necessary.
6. Before starting a major engineering project at a place a detailed geological report,
which is accompanied by geological maps and sections, is prepared. Such a report
helps in planning and constructing the project.
7. The stability of the civil engineering structures is considerably increased if the
geological features like faults, joints, folding, and solution channels etc. in the rock
beds are properly located and suitably treated.
8. In the study of soil mechanics, it is necessary to know how the soil materials are
formed in nature.
9. The cost of engineering works will considerably be reduced if the geological survey
of the area concerned is done before hand.
For a major engineering project, precise geological survey is carried out and results
thus obtained are used in solving engineering problems at hand.









Chapter 3 ELEMENTS OF MINERALLOGY



*1. (a) How can you identify a mineral by the help of their physical and chemical
properties?

(b) Add notes on the following physical characteristics that are useful for the
identification of rocks and minerals.

( i ) Colour (ii ) Streak (iii) Hardness (iv) Form

ANSWER

(a) : A mineral may be defined as an inorganic substance occurring in nature with a
characteristic chemical composition and usually possessing a definite crystalline
structure which is sometimes expressed in external geometrical form known as crystals.
It is clear that (a) many substances of organic origin such as coal, mineral oil,
guano, amber, organic bones and pearl are not minerals; (b) artificial substances such as
laboratory (man made) products; e.g. glass, brick, cement, etc. are not minerals since they are
not natural.

(b) (i) Colour Since the colour of a mineral is its most conspicuous property, it is also
one of the most distinguishing features of minerals. Colours depend upon the absorption of
some and the reflection of others of the coloured rays or vibrations of which compose
ordinary white light.
Some minerals have a distinctive colour, e.g. the green colour of Malachite, the yellow
colour of Sulphur, the blue colour of Azurite and the lead colour of Galena. But, even in the
same species specimens are found having very different colours. The mineral quartz (SiO
2
) is
colourless or white but it is also found with pinkish, yellow, green, brown, and even black
and violet colours.
The different species are found having same colours, e.g., Orthoclase, Gypsum and
Quartz are different chemical composition but they can be found as pink colour.
(ii) Streak The streak of a mineral is the colour of the fine powder of a mineral. Such
powder is readily obtained by rubbing the mineral on a flat surface of unglazed porcelain
known as the streak plate. As a diagnostic feature, streak is better than the colour of a mineral
being more stable, and therefore, more reliable. In many instance the colour of a mineral and
the colour of its streak are the same. Thus, both the colour and streak of graphite are lead. In
magnetite they are both black. In other case they differ materially.
The streak is very useful in distinguishing the various oxides of iron.
e.g. hematite red streak / limonite - brown streak / magnetite grey streak
(iii) Hardness: Hardness of a mineral is generally defined as its resistance to external
mechanical action such as scratching. The usual mineralogical practice is to define the
hardness of a mineral by scratching it with another, i.e. to establish its relative hardness.
Included in the Mohsscale are ten minerals arranged in order of increasing hardness as
follows.
1.Talc Mg (Si
4
O
10
) (OH)
2
6. Orthoclase K (Al Si
3
O
8
)

2.Gypsum Ca SO
4
, 2 H
2
O 7. Quartz SiO
2

3. Calcite Ca CO
3
8. Topaz Al(SiO
4
)(F,OH)
2

4. Fluorite Ca F
2
9. Corundum Al
2
O
3

5. Apatite Ca
5
(PO
4
) F 10. Diamond C
(iv) Form: Mineral assumes various indeterminable form that are not necessarily
dependent on crystal character. These forms are described by the following terms, which
have their customary meaning.
Accicular: in fine needle-like crystals as in stibnite.
Bladed: shaped like a knife-blade, commonly exhibited in wolframite.
Fibrous: consisting of fine thread-like strands, as exhibited by the variety of
gypsum.
Botryoidal: consisting of spheroidal aggregations, some what resembling a bunch of
grapes, as with Hematite, Chalcedony.
Foliate or sheet or Flake: consisting of thin and separable lamellae, with mica and the
micaceous minerals.
Granular: in grains, either coarse or fine, granular aggregates of minerals such as
in olivine.
Tabular: showing broad flat surface, as in feldspar.

*2. Write short notes on the following rock forming minerals.

( i ) Quartz (ii) Feldspars (iii) Micas (iv) Calcite or Gypsum


ANSWER

(i) Quartz

Composition SiO
2
Hardness 7

Sp.Gr. 2.65

Lustre Vitreous

Colour Colourless, white, coloured by impurities

Streak White

Cleavage None

Fracture Conchoidal

Occurrence Acid igneous rocks, many metamorphic rocks, as a veinstone in
sedimentary rocks


(ii) Feldspars- Orthoclase and Plagioclase

Composition (Ortho) K, Al silicate
(Plagio) Na, Ca. Al silicate


Hardness (Ortho) 6
(Plagio) 6

Sp.Gr. (Ortho) 2.56
(Plagio) 2.7

Lustre (Ortho) Vitreous to perarly
(Plagio) Vitreous

Colour (Ortho) White to pink, also greenish grey
(Plagio) White, grey


Streak (both) White

Cleavage (both) Perfect

Fracture (Ortho) Conchoidal to uneven
(Plagio) Uneven
Occurrence (Ortho) Essential constituent of acid igneous rocks, common in
metamorphic rocks,
(Plagio) Metamorphic and igneous rocks


(iii) Micas Biotite and Muscovite

Composition (Biotite) K, Mg, Fe, Al hydroxal silicate
(Musco) K, Al hydroxal silicate


Hardness (Both) 2.5



Sp.Gr. (Biotite) 3
(Musco) 2.85

Lustre (Biotite) Vitreous
(Musco) Vitreous to pearly

Colour (Biotite) Black, dark green, brown
(Musco) Colourless or pale brown, green

Streak (Both) White

Cleavage (Both) Perfect

Fracture -----

Occurrence (Biotite) Igneous rocks of all kind and many metamorphic rocks,
(Musco) Granite, pegmatite, schist and greisen


(iv) Calcite or Gypsum

Calcite

Composition Ca CO
3

Hardness 3

Sp.Gr. 2.71

Lustre Vitreous

Colour Colourless or white, sometimes tinted by impurities

Streak White

Cleavage Perfect

Fracture Conchoidal

Occurrence Common mineral in sediments, altered basic igneous rocks, etc.
stalactites, travertine, etc.

Gypsum

Composition CaSO
4
, 2H
2
O

Hardness 1.5 - 2

Sp.Gr. 2.3

Lustre Vitreous to pearly

Colour Colourless, white, tinted pink

Streak White

Cleavage Perfect

Fracture ------

Occurrence Evaporites, in clays and limestones, associated with sulphur


























Chapter 4 PETROLOGY


*2. Discuss what you know the processes of Sedimentation.

ANSWER








In the process of sedimentation, there are four main geologic works. They are (a) weathering,
(b) transportation, (c) deposition and (d) post depositional changes (diagenesis).
(a) Weathering: The rocks from the earth's surface are eroded and weathered all the time by
the natural forces such as the sun, the water, the rain and the ice etc., There are mainly three
weathering processes: (i) physical weathering, (ii) chemical weathering and (iii) biological
weathering.
(a-i) Physical weathering: This is brought about chiefly by temperature changes, e.g. the
expansion of water on freezing in pores or cracks of the rock; the differential expansion of the
rock or rock minerals when strongly heated by the sun. This latter process tends to cause thin
sheet of rock to split off (exfoliation or onion skin weathering).
(a-ii) Chemical weathering This is mainly brought about by the action of substances
dissolved in rainwater. They are usually acidic in character and leach rock quite actively.
Thus new minerals are formed. There are mainly five kinds of chemical weathering. They are
oxidation, carbonation, solutions, hydration and hydrolysis. Among them the hydrolysis
process is the most important role.
(a-iii) Biological weathering. This is mainly brought about by the action of living organisms
including the tree roots.
Rocks (earths
surface)
Erosion and
weathering
Rock fragments
Transportation
Sediments
Post depositional changes
(diagenisis)
Sedimentary Rocks
(b) Transportation. The detritus and dissolved matter (caused by weathering) are carried by
the water, wind and ice. The chief transportation processes are rolling, leaping, floating,
colliding and dissolving. The rolling, leaping and floating processes are physical
transportation and others are chemical transportation.
(c) Deposition. It has three main processes: -
(i) Deposition of floating sediments become clastic sediments
(ii) Solidification of dissolved matter become chemical sediments
(iii) Deposition the remain of organism become organic sediments
All the sediments are deposited basically in the three classes of sedimentary environments or
depositional environments. They are marine, continental and transitional (mixed)
environments. Among them the most important sedimentation environments are continental
shelf environment (from marine 0 to 600), deltaic environment (from transitional), and
fluvial environment (from continental).

(d) Post depositional changes (diagenesis)
At the beginning, the grains of sediments from sedimentary rocks do not cement each
other. When more and more sediments deposit upon them, the connate water in the sediments
come out of from the sediments and they become harder and more compact. By deposition of
cementing materials among the grains of sediments which have no cementation, these
sediments may be harder and harder; e.g., if calcite deposits in sand grains, they become
sandstone.

**5. Add notes on any Five of the followings:-

( i ) Diorite (ii) Serpentinite (iii) Schist (iv) Conglomerate and
breccia

( v ) Slate and Phyllite (vi) Quartzite (vii) Evaporites (viii) Dolomite


( i ) Diorite

Diorites: Diorites consist of plagioclase, within the oligoclase-andesine of which hornblende,
biotite and hypersthence are common. Sphene, apatite and magnetite may also be present.
Microdiorite and andesite are medium-grained and fine-grained equivalent of diorite.
Diorite occurs as stocks in Yinmabin area of Thazi Township and at the top of
Pyetkhaywe Mountain Range of Myittha Township. Andesite is abundantly found at the
Andes Mountain Range of South America. In Myanmar, it occurs in Popa, Jade Mine and
lower Chindwin area.

(ii) Serpentinite

. Serpentinite: Serpentinites consist essentially of serpentine minerals and so they have green
color. In hand-specimen, sheet and fibrous form are found. Their surfaces are soapy. They
show mesh structure by mixing of white and black veins. Serpentinites are altered from
peridotite. This process is called serpentinization.
They are associated with jade in Jade Mine area. They are also occurred along Naga,
Chin, Rakhine Mountain Range as small intrusive. Ni, Cr ores are found in association with
ultra basic rocks in Northern Chin Hills.

(iii) Schist
These rocks are produced in medium grade metamorphic environments. The most characteristic
feature is their foliation, which is produced by the parallel growth of minerals such as mica chlorite
and hornblende. Roughly, these schist can be divided into three classes; low- grade schist (mica
schist, quartz schist, green schist); medium grade schist (amphibolites schist, and andalusite schist,
garnet schist); high grade schist (staurolite schist, sillimanite schist)
In Myanmar, they are found in Kyaukse Shan Taung Oo (mica schist, garnet schist); East of
Pyawbye, Pyinmana, Kanpalet (green schist and graphite schist); Thabaikkyin (hornblende schist);
Minwon Taung (Kyanite schist); Belin Taung (Silliminite schist)

(iv) Conglomerate and breccia

Conglomerate and Breccia In conglomerate, rounded pebbles contain; mostly three
or four kinds of rock pebbles can be observed. In breccia, angular pebbles contain, only
pebble of one kind of rock fragments, cemented from the running water of that mountain
and then become breccia at the bottom of that mountain.


Type of conglomerate : ( a ) Orthoconglomerate ( b) Paraconglomerate
Mode of occurrence ( 1 ) Interformational conglomerate,
( 2 ) Intraformational conglomerate
( 3 ) Fanglomerate


(v) Slate and Phyllite
Slate & Phyllite: Located in zones of low-grade metamorphism. The rocks are altered from clay,
shale and tuffaceous rocks by regional metamorphism. They show distinct cleavage (e.g. slaty
cleavage). Most slate shows black colour but sometimes they show red and pale green- colour.
In phyllite, the grain sizes (composed of small sheet minerals) are larger than shale. Therefore,
phyllite is brighter than slates. The common colour of phyllite is gray but sometimes, greenish phyllite
can be found.
In Myanmar, they can be found in parts of Shan State (Chaungmagyi Formation, Saedawgyi,
Yeywa); in Taninthayi and Myeik (Balu Kyun); Tatkone; Yinmarbin; Kanpetlet; Mt.Victoria.
(vi) Quartzite
These rocks are altered from siliceous sandstone show granular texture. Most of the quartzite
shows whitish in colour and sometimes they show gray and reddish colour. In Myanmar, they can be
found in Chaungmagyi Formation, Mogok belt; East of Thazi and Tatkone; and Shan Taung Oo.
(vii) Evaporites

(i) Gypsum CaSO
4
.2H
2
O; salinity 3.5 times than present
(ii)Anhydrite CaSO
4
(iii) Halite NaCl ; salinity 10 times than present
-deposit in arid desert and lagoon; impermeable layer; so use as for oil storage
1. Thickness not more than
100' , show unconformity
e.g. Kalaw conglomerate
2. Thin bed, do not show
unconformity, e. g.,
Paungyi conglomerate
3. Found in Uplift Mountain
at the side of it, >100' , e. g.,
Uru boulder conglomerate
-Sipaw (N.S.S)-Pannyo evaporites; greater than 100; Khalain village (18 million tons; in
Pegu group they can be found as thin bed.

(viii) Dolomite

CaCO
3
: MgCO
3
= 1 :1; harder than limestone show granular texture; fossils are rare; react
slowly with HCL; grey to buff colour.
-dolomitization 2CaCO
3
+ Mg
++
CaMg (CO
3
)
2
+ Ca
++

limestone (from sea) (dolomite) (to sea)
-same electrical charge but different in ionic size; found in Napangyi near Ywa
Ngan; Pindaya range (Wunbye formation)
































Chapter 5 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

*3. From an Engineering Geological point of view, define Joints.
Discuss thoroughly about the Rock Joint Description in relation to Engineering
Geological investigation of rock materials.

ANSWER

In rock mechanics and engineering geology, all different types of discontinuity are
generally called joints.

Rock joint description
In engineering geological investigation of rock materials, the system of joints, faulting , etc should be
carefully described.
In addition to the type of jointing, other aspects to be described are:
(1)spatial orientation (dipping) (ii)extent
(iii)spacing (iv)opening
(v)filling (vi)roughness

These aspects will be treated on the following:-
(i)Spatial orientation: The orientation of a rock separation plane (joint) can be measured with a
compass. Different kinds of compasses and different notation systems are used in geology .In
engineering geology, usually the direction of dipping and the dipping angle are measured and
noted. Preferably compasses are used which enable the reading of both values at the same time. The
direction of dipping varies from 0 to 360 from North over East, South and West to North. The dipping
angle varies from 0 for horizontal planes to 90 for vertical planes (for instance; 310/35,010/90,
005/40).

(ii) Extent: Many joints do not strike through completely. The percentage of the plane, which is
developed as a discontinuity is called the extent of a joint. In flat exposures only one direction of a
joint is seen. To determine the extent exactly also a second exposure, perpendicular to the first one
would be necessary. As (Fig.5. 21) shows, the extant different joint sets in an exposure can have
different extent percentages.

A: horizontal= 100%; vertical= 100% A B
B: horizontal=100% vertical= 50%
C: horizontal= 60% vertical= 40%
D: horizontal= 40% vertical= 25% C D
Fig. 5.21 : Illustration of the Extent of rock joint planes (See fig. 5.21 in your lecture
notes)
( iii ) Spacing The spacing of joints refers to the average distance between the individual
joints from a joint set measured in the direction perpendicular to the joint. It is expressed in
cm or m. The reverse value is the degree of jointing which is the number of joints per meter
measured in direction perpendicular to the joints.
( iv ) Opening The opening of a joint is the distance between the rock faces at both sides of
the joint. The opening can vary considerably at different locations along the joint; in that case
it may be preferable to note maximum, minimum, as well as average opening for the
particular joints can be particular influence on the permeability of a rock mass.

( v ) Filling The presence of filling materials can have influence on the frictional
properties of a joint, clay for instance can reduce the frictional resistance considerably. The
secondary permeability of a rock mass depends completely on the type of filling material.
Clay fillings can be so impermeable that they are barriers for any water movement so that the
secondary permeability is lower than the primary permeability. When joints are filled with
coarse, crushed material or when joints are empty the secondary permeability is very high.
For these reason, it is important to mark the observed grain size (distribution) in the field
notes.
(vi) Roughness: The surface roughness of a joint has a great influence on the frictional
properties of the joints. Movement will not so easily take place along rough joints as along
flat joints as small scale (micro roughness over millimetres). Any roughness description
should thus also refer to the scale of roughness which is meant. For practical classification
procedures the following roughness description will be sufficient. (fig. 22). On large scale
(meters): planar, undulating, stepped; on the small scale (millimetres) slickensided, smooth,
rough.



Rough

STEPPED Smooth

Slikensided

Rough

Smooth
UNDULATING
Slickensided

Rough

PLANAR Smooth

Slikensided
Fig. 5.22 (See fig. 5.22 in your lecture notes)














Chapter 6 EARTHQUAKES


*1. (a) Define the earthquakes technically.

(b) Write short notes on any Three of the followings:-

( i ) Causes of the Earthquake (ii) Seismic waves

(iii) Earthquake Magnitude and Intensity (iv) Effects of Earthquakes

( v ) Engineering Consideration

ANSWER

(a) Define the earthquakes technically.

Technically, earthquakes may be defined as:
Vibrations induced in the earths crust due to internal or external causes that virtually
shake up a part of the crust and all the structures and living and non- living things
existing on it.

( i ) Causes of the Earthquake
The causes of earthquakes may be either natural or artificial. The natural causes may be
further grouped into endogenous, which are due to the earth's inner energy (volcanic or
tectonics phenomena) and exogenous, which are due to several external factors (meteorite
falls, collapse of cave roofs, sudden changes in the atmospheric pressure, the attraction of the
Moon or of the Sun). The artificial causes are generated by several human activities that
disturb the equilibrium of the crust (e.g. nuclear energy-blast, quarry explosions, impounding
of water into large reservoirs, intensive water pumping from the underground, etc).
Tectonics earthquake are the principal among natural earthquake. About 95% of the total
numbers of earthquakes recorded are of tectonic origin. They have the largest intensity, affect
extensive areas and are most destructive in effects. These earthquakes are triggered by a
sudden slip or collapse (of a portion in the earth's crust or in the immediately lower layers)
along geologic fault. This occurs when the material of which the layer is composed has
reached the limit of strain accumulation. By slipping or collapsing the potential strain, energy
accumulated changes suddenly into kinetic energy (energy-release) and propagates vertically
through seismic waves to the earth's surfaces. This theory of tectonic earthquake is called the
elastic-rebound theory.


(ii) Seismic waves

The elastic waves, which are generated at the focus, are called seismic waves. Three types of
seismic waves are produced in an earthquake. Two types of wave, which can travel through
the interior of the earth, are collectively termed as body waves and the other that travels along
the outer part of the earth is called surface waves. Body waves are further divided into two
types, primary or P-wave and secondary wave or S-wave. (Fig. 6.1 A & B)
(i) P-wave: Push and pull wave, travels with back and forth vibration. Vibration
of P-wave is parallel to the direction and the fastest wave.
(ii) S-wave: on the other hand, vibrate at right angle to the direction of movement
like a rope does when it tied at one end and shaken form the other end. S-waves travel
slower than P-waves.

(iii) Surface waves or L-waves: These are also called long waves or surface waves
because their journey is confined mainly to the surface layers of the earth. These are observed
only after the arrival of the P and S- waves. In character, the surface waves are of two main
types:
(a) The Rayleigh Waves in which the displacement of the particle is of a complex nature,
partly being in the direction of propagation and partly at right angles to it.
(b) The Love Waves in which the displacement of the particle is practically horizontal, that
is, in the direction of propagation. In term of their effects on solid material of crust of the
earth, the Rayleigh waves tend to distort the horizontal surface into a many zig-zag shape.
The love waves, however, tend to create shearing (breaking) ruptures.


(iii) Earthquake Magnitude and Intensity

The Magnitude Scale (M)
The scale has been devised by Charles F. Richter in 1935, an American seismologist,
and subsequently improved by Gutenberg and Richter. Today, refined Richter scale is used
worldwide to describe the earthquake intensity in magnitude.
As precise terms as understood today, the Richter Magnitude is the logarithm to the
base ten of the maximum seismic wave amplitude recorded on a seismograph at a distance of
hundred kilometres from the epicentre of a particular earthquake.

Richter Scale consists of 10 grades, starting with zero (0) and ending at nine (9). The
highest magnitude ever recorded so far is 8.9. According to observations, the damage starts at
Richter 5. Generally, damage is directly proportionate to the earthquake intensity. However,
other factors such as, the depth of the earthquake, focus, distance between epicentre and town
or city, density of population and nature of bed rock also determine the amount of damage.

The Intensity Scale -The Modified Mercalli Scale (MM)
Mercalli Scale was named after Italy seismologist, Mercalli, and it was modified in
1931 by the other two seismologists, Wood and Neumann. Mercalli Scale is based on the
damages, which develop in various types of structures.
Mercalli Scale is known as earthquake intensity scale. But as its expression is a
comparative value, it cannot represent the absolute value of earthquake intensity. This scale
comprises twelve grades, 1 being the lowest intensity hardly felt by people, and XII the
highest indicating the total damage of all structures. Roughly speaking there is no or
insignificant damage up to IV of Mercalli Scale; a little damage in Mercalli Scale V to VI;
considerable in VII to VIII; much damage in IX to X; catastrophic in XI to XII.(Table 6.1).


(iv) Effects of Earthquakes

Richter classified the effects of earthquakes into two main categories: primary effects and
secondary effects.
Primary effects
The tectonic earthquakes are often responsible for producing many important changes in the
geological structures of an area: creation of slopes or scarps, fissures, warping of strata
emergence, or subsidence of coastlines, changes in the courses of streams, origin of new
springs, and creation of sand dyke in which saturated layers of sand may be forced up into
existing cracks and services. These primary effects cause damage directly.
Secondary effects
If the damages are caused indirectly, they are called secondary effects. They are
observed on construction of all types. Many landslides are triggered mainly due to shaking
vibrations. Due to these vibration buildings, bridges, dams, poles and posts and fences, etc.,
may

be slightly or heavily damaged. Loose objects may be overturned or thrown away.
Telegraphic and electric cables, water and gas pipes may get broken.
Ground movement displaces stoves, breaks gas lines, and loosens electrical wires,
thereby starting fires. Because of breaking water mains, there often is no water available to
put out the fires.
Huge waves may be caused in the sea waters; these are called Tsunamis (seismic sea
waves) and may be as high as 20 m or more.
Liquefaction (the sudden shaking and disturbance of water-saturated sediments and
regolith turning seemingly solid ground into a liquid mass of quicksand) occurs when
vibration causes sediment grains to lose contact with one another, allowing interstitial water
to bubble through. Many of the buildings were not structurally damaged, they simply keeled
over onto their sides.
Flooding is a secondary or tertiary effect of earthquakes usually resulting from ground
subsidence, the rupture of dams or tsunamis.
Loss of life and damage to property are two standard measures for describing the
effects of an earthquake.

( v ) Engineering Consideration


Many engineers emphasize that it is not the earthquakes, which kill people, but the failure of
building that people construct. They maintain that the best approach is not to predict and
contact earthquake, but to erect sound building, bridges, tunnels and dams on relatively safe
sites.
Therefore the tasks of the engineers are:
1. To know the seismic history of the area
2. To assess the magnitude and probable loss or damage in the life period of the structures, in
quality and quantity, due to expected seismic shocks.
3. To introduce suitable factors of safety in the new construction and if possible to safe guard
the existing structures against the expected shocks.
4. Another factors that must be used in structure are to perform the aseismic design, to
construct the quake resistant building (including foundation, body of the structures and roof)
and quite resistant bridge and dams.
Experience throughout the world has shown that much more damage is caused to stimulate by
earthquake shocks when they are founded on soil than they are directly in contact with firm
bedrocks.















Chapter 7 FORMATION AND ENGINEERING USE OF SOIL


*1. (a) From an engineering geological view point classify the soil types.

(b) Add notes on any Three of the following engineering properties of soil.

( i ) Permeability (ii) Shearing strength (ii) Bearing capacity

(iv) Soil compressibility (v) Void Ratio and Porosity

ANSWER

(a) From an engineering geological view point classify the soil types.
Three main soil types can be distinguished: residual soil, transported soil and pedogenic
material. Three possible combinations of residual soil and transported soil layers over
bedrock are shown in figure (Fig. 7.1)
B = Bedrock
R = Residual soil
T = Transported soil, Pebble marker
P = Pedogenic material (may be present,
absent or weakly developed)
(See Fig. 7.1 in your lecture notes)
Fig. Possible combinations of residual and transported soil over bedrock
1.Residual soil: is formed insitu by (decomposition), chemical weathering and disintegration
(physical weathering) of a parent rock. Residual soil generally changes downward into the
fresh parent material from which it was derived.
2. Transported soil: have been transported by a natural medium (ice, water, wind, gravity)
before they were deposited. The medium and speed of transport determine the grain size
distribution (texture).
3. Pedogenic materials are secondary materials concentrated in certain layers after
solution and transport by soil moisture. The type of pedogenic material depends on the
combination of various climatic factors and the original soil composition. The ferricrete,
calcrete and silicrete refer to soils, which are strongly cemented or replaced by iron oxide,
calcium carbonate and silica respectively.


b. ( i ) Permeability
It refers to the capacity of a rock to transmit fluids (water or petroleum) through it. It
is often expressed as Intrinsic Permeability, the unit which is the capacity of a rock of 1
cm length and 1 cm
2
cross sectional area to allow a flow of 1 cm
3
/ sec. at a difference of
1 atmosphere.


b.(ii) Shearing strength

It is defined as the resistance of soils to shearing forces and is regarded as one of the
most important engineering properties of soils. It is the net result of at least three qualitative
characters of the soil, such as (a) the frictional resistance existing between the solid
components of the soil; (b) the degree of cohesion and adhesion between the soil particles; (c)
the textural arrangement of the solid particles such as degree of interlocking etc.
The shear strength of soils is determined in laboratory by direct sheer tests,
unconfined compression tests and triaxial compression tests. A number of methods are also
available for determination of shear strength of soils in the field itself. Among them, the
Vane-shear tester, the penetrometers and the split-spoon sampler are used commonly.

b. (iii) Bearing capacity
Bearing Capacity may be defined as the capacity of a soil to withstand building loads
without undergoing excessive settlement or shear failure. Hence, this forms most important
field property that needs firm evaluation before any construction programme is proposed over
a soil. In practice, ultimate bearing capacity is determined by loading the soils to be tested
through contact (bearing) plates and observations of settlement. From this allowable bearing
capacity is determined for design purpose. Conventionally, for ordinary types of building
construction in a planned residential colony local building codes are prepared and followed in
a general way with respect to bearing capacity. For major construction, such as multistoreyed
buildings and industrial buildings, however, elaborate tests are carried out to arrive at safe
values of allowable bearing capacity. A number of factors have then to be taken into
consideration such as soil compressibility, water table, depth of the soil cover, shape of the
foundations to be given on the soil and so on. The subject has been dealt by different workers
in different ways. For a comprehensive understanding of the subject, reader must refer to
some standard text on Geotechnical Engineering.
b. (iv) Soil compressibility
Many natural soils undergo considerable deformation when loaded from above. This
deformation commonly takes the shape of a decrease in volume in vertical direction which
may be due to (i) expulsion of air and/or water from within the voids; (ii) collapse of solid
particles by closure of voids; (iii) deformation of solid particles. The net result due to this
compression is called consolidation of soils, which takes place at some rate with time, i.e. it is
a time related process.
Granular, cohesionless soils consolidate at a fast rate compared to fine structured
cohesive soils. However, the total consolidation may be much less in the first type of soils,
where it may be completely achieved within a short span compared to in cohesive soils where
this process may keep going on for many years.
Consolidation may lead to settlement of the structures built over the soil and if this settlement
happens to be beyond the allowable limits, collapse or deformation of built-up structures may
follow. As such, the soil engineer is always required to investigate thoroughly the
compressibility related characteristics of the soil by practical methods.


b. (v) Void Ratio and Porosity

The Void ratio is defined as the ratio between the volume of voids and volume of solid
particles in a given soil mass. Numerically, void ratio, e, is given by the relationship:
e = V
v
/ V
s
where V
v
= volume of voids; V
s
= volume of solid
The porosity, n, of the soil mass is, however, ratio between the total volume of
voids and the volume of soil sample:
[ n = V
v
/V x 100] where V = total volume of the sample]
It is expressed in percentage terms.























Chapter 8 GROUNDWATER


*2. With the help of neat diagrammatic sketches, write short notes on the followings:-

( i ) Vadose water (ii) Aquifer (iii) Unconfined aquifer


(iv) Confined aquifer (v) Artesian aquifer (vi) Fresh and salt groundwater


( i ) Vadose water

Vadose water This type of water occurs from surface downwards up to a variable depth and
is in a state of downward movement under the influence of gravity. It movements is
commonly described as INFILTRATION. The thickness of soil and rock through which the
Vadose water infiltration is called zone of aeration. Obviously, in the zone of aeration the
soil and rocks remain unsaturated with water.

The Vadose Zone: This zone can be distinguished into three different types of
environments; soil water, intermediate Vadose water and capillary water.

Z.A= zone of aeration
S.Z= zone of soil water
C.F= capillary fringe
P.S= zone of saturation

(See Fig. 8.1 in your lecture notes)
Fig. : Zones of groundwater

(ii) Aquifer

An aquifer is a rock mass, layer or formation, which is saturated with groundwater and which
by virtue of its properties, is capable of yielding the stored water at economical costs when
tapped.
Gravels, limestone, and sandstones generally form good aquifer when occurring in
suitable geological conditions and geographic situations.


(iii) Unconfined aquifer
It is also called water table aquifer, and is the most common type encountered in the field. In
this type, the upper surface of water or the water-table is under atmospheric pressure which
may be acting through the interstices in the overlying rocks (Fig.8.2) Water occurring in this
type of aquifer is called Free Groundwater. When tapped through a test well, the free water
will rise to a level equivalent to the water table of the area. (See fig. 8.2 from your lecture
notes)

(iv) Confined aquifer

It is a rock formation saturated with water and capable of yielding water when tapped but unlike
unconfined aquifer, has an overlying confining layer (an impermeable rock mass) that separates it
from the influence of atmospheric pressure. Naturally, water held in this type of aquifer is not under
atmospheric pressure but under great pressure due to the confining medium. The upper surface of
water in a confined aquifer is called piezometric surface (Fig 8.4). For establishing a piezometric
surface, level of water in a number of test wells has to be made. (See Fig. 8.4 from your lecture
notes)


(v) Artesian aquifer

It is, in fact, confined aquifer of such a geometry and developed in suitable geological situations so
that the piezometric surface is above the ground level at many places when projected in elevation.
When water is tapped from such a confined aquifer, it rushes up to and even above the surface and
may rise to the heights theoretically equivalent to the projected piezometric surface. Such wells are
called Artesian Wells, or flowing wells and the type of groundwater obtained from them, which often
needs no pumping, as Artesian Wells. (Fig. 8.4 )
AQ= Aquiclude
AF= Aquifer
PS= Piezometric surface
(See fig. 8.4 in your lecture notes)
(8.4) Artesian aquifer

(vi) Fresh and salt groundwater
The neighbourhood of ocean or sea, salt water encroaches on fresh water, and contaminates it and vice
versa. Fresh water may over ride and displaces salt water. (Fig. 8.5)

(See Fig. 8.5 from your lecture notes)
Fig. (8.5) Fresh groundwater floating on salty water.

Chapter 9 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF DAM SITES

*1. Discuss on any Four of the following geological problems that are usually met with at
dam sites.

( i ) Dams on shale (ii) Dams on soluble rocks

(iii) Dams on strata dipping upstream (iv) Dams on strata dipping down stream

(v) Dams built across strike of rocks (vi) Dams on jointed and permeable
rocks

ANSWER
( i ) Dams on shale
Shales are of two types: (i) cementation shale and (ii) compaction shales. The cementation
shales are stronger and do not disintegrate when subjected to wetting and drying. The
compaction shales on the other hand are soft and they slake when subjected to alternate
wetting and drying. Their bearing strength is low and they become plastic when wetted. The
compaction shales have a tendency to flow away from the loaded area and therefore the
structure settles. Swelling and caving may result during the excavation work, which may
cause trouble. If dams have to be built on compaction shales, heavier structures like gravity
dams should be avoided. After excavating the weathered rock either concrete should be
placed immediately without delay or its surface should be coated with asphalt to avoid
swelling and caving.
(ii) Dams on soluble rocks
The soluble rocks include limestone and dolomites and marbles. These rocks are generally
sufficiently strong to support the weight of the dam, they may contain under ground solution
channels and caverns. If such solution channels are present at a dam site, the leakage through
them may be on such a large scale that the reservoir may not hold water for long. The
treatment of such openings is very expensive therefore; they should be carefully looked for in
the soluble rocks before constructing a dam.

(iii) Dams on strata dipping upstream
The dams located on rocks dipping upstream represent ideal foundation conditions. They are
the most capable of supporting the weight of dams and the pressure of the reservoir because
the resultant of these two forces acts nearly at right angles to the bedding planes of rocks.
(Fig. 9.2). Further the upstream dip of rocks does not allow the water in the reservoir to
percolate below the dam. As a result the leakage of water and the development of uplift
pressure will be minimum.
(See Fig. 9.2 in your lecture notes )
Fig.(9.1) Showing forces acting Fig. (9.2). Dam on rocks dipping Fig.(9.3) Dam on strata
on dams upstream dipping downstream

(iv) Dams on strata dipping down stream

The dams constructed on rocks dipping down stream (Fig. 9.3 ) may not be safe due to the
following reasons.
(a) The percolation of water may lubricate the junctions of rock bed, which may
facilitate sliding of dam.
(b) The water percolating through the strata dissolves the cementing materials of
rocks and enlarges the openings by mechanical erosion. This undermines the
strength of the rocks and increases the seepage of water.

(c) The water, which enters into the openings of rocks below the dam, causes the
development of uplift pressure, which tends to decrease the stability of the
structure.
(d) In figure(9.3) R is the resultant of the weight of the dam and pressure of the
reservoir water. In this case, this resultant acts nearly parallel to the bedding
planes and endangers the stability of the dam.

(See Fig. 9.3 from your lecture notes)


(v) Dams built across strike of rocks

The best foundation condition is when only one uniform rock is present along the length of a
dam. If a dam is aligned across the strike of strata, its foundation will be on different rock
types of varying properties. In such a case there are changes of unequal settlement of the
dam. Further, as the bedding planes of the strata lie across the axis of the dam, there is a
possibility of serious leakage of water not only through the porous beds but through bedding
planes also (fig.9.4).


(See Fig. 9.4 in your lecture notes)
Fig. (9.4) Dam aligned across the strike of rocks.

(vi) Dams on jointed and permeable rocks

Where highly fissured, jointed and permeable rocks exist below the dam, they will not only
leakage of water, but also build uplift pressure at the base of the dam. The uplift pressure acts
opposite to the weight of the structure and it may cause sliding such rocks may be
consolidated by grouting.
Chapter 10 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF TUNNELS

*1. Describe the following geological structures that influence the tunnel design, stability
and cost.

( i ) Tunnels in Horizontal Strata (ii) Tunnel axis parallel to the dip
direction

(iii) Tunnel axis driven parallel to the strike (iv) Tunnels in folded rocks


ANSWER

( i ) Tunnels in Horizontal Strata

Horizontal strata : Such a situation is rare in occurrence for long tunnels. When
encountered for small tunnels or for short lengths of long tunnels, horizontally layered rocks
might be considered quite favourable. In massive rocks, that is, when individual layers are
very thick, and the tunnel diameter not very large, the situation is especially favourable
because the layers would overbridge flat excavations by acting as natural beams (Fig. 10.3).
However, when the layers are thin or fractured, they cannot be depended upon as beams; in
such case, either the roof has to be modified to an arch type or has to be protected by giving
a lining (Fig. 10.4).



(See Fig. 10.3 in your lecture notes)

Fig. 10.3 Safe situation Fig. 10.4 Unsafe at the top

(ii) Tunnel axis parallel to the dip direction

When the tunnel axis is parallel to the dip direction (which means it is at right angles to the
strike direction), the layers offer uniformly distributed load on the excavation (fig. 10.5). The
arch action where the rocks at the roof act as natural arch transferring the load on to sides
comes into maximum condition. Even relatively weaker rocks might act as self- supporting in
such cases. It is a favourable condition from this aspect. However, it also implies that the axis
of tunnel has to pass through a number of rocks of the inclined sequence while going through
parallel to dip.


(See Fig. 10.5 in your lecture notes)
(iii) Tunnel axis driven parallel to the strike


When the tunnel is driven parallel to strike of the beds, the pressure distributed to the
exposed layers is asymmetrical along the periphery of the tunnel opening : one half would
be bedding planes opening into the tunnel and hence offer potential planes and conditions
for sliding into opening. The bridge action, though present in part, is weakened due to
discontinuities at the bedding planes running along the arch (Fig. 10.6).


(See fig. 10.6 from your lecture notes)

Fig. 10.5 Tunnelling parallel to the dip of Fig.10.6 Tunnelling
parallel to
layers (against the dip direction) to the strike

(iv) Tunnels in folded rocks

Folded rocks show bends and curvatures and store a lot of stain energy in the rock.Their
influence on design and construction of tunnel is important at the their position of angles.

Considerable variation and uncertainly folded rocks

Folded Rocks with peculiar rock pressure



(See Fig. 10. 9 and 10.10 in your lecture notes)



high pressure low pressure high pressure low pressure high pressure low pressure
Fig. 10.9 Anticline (low pressure in Fig.10.10 Syncline (high pressure in
middle region) middle region)







Chapter 11 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF ROADS


*1. Write short notes on the following geological investigation which are very important in
the design, stability and economical construction and maintenance of roads:-

( i ) Topography (ii) Lithological character (iii)Groundwater conditions

ANSWER

( i ) Topography

Topography or the landform of a region is single most important factor that controls the
selection of the alignment of a road project. Topographic maps would reveal the existence of
various land features like valleys and inflowing streams, the hills and their undulations, the
plateaus and the plains with their entire configuration from place to place. Obviously,
knowledge of all such features is not only important but very essential for a right alignment.
Moreover such knowledge would also be necessary to decide where cuttings would be
required and in which areas it would be filling where necessary or where the slopes could be
left at their natural inclination and where these would have to be flattened protected by
retaining walls and so on.

(ii) Lithological character

Ground may be divided into two types: consolidated, massive hard rock type and soft,
unconsolidated type.
The massive group of rocks include all varieties of igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks which can stand even with vertical slopes. For making roads through
them, however, these rocks require extensive blasting operations. They cannot be simply cut
out or dug out. Once cut, especially if they are free from joints and fractures and
unfavourably inclined bedding planes, these rocks stand erect for years without much
maintenance.
The unconsolidated group presents the engineers many complicated problems.
Thorough soil investigations regarding their mode of origin, texture, structures, porosity,
permeability, degree of compaction, consolidation, characteristics or compressibility etc. all
are required to be known within broad limits to design safe and stable roads over them.
Residual solid are generally homogeneous and properties evaluated from selective bore hole
samples might prove sufficient. In transported type of soils, however, variation in properties
both laterally and vertically might be more complicated nature. Presence of clay seams or
layers at critical places should be investigated as some types of these rocks often swell on
coming in contact with moisture, and create adverse situations for road stability and safety.



(iii)Groundwater conditions

It is always necessary to investigate thoroughly the position of water table of the
area. Not only that, water bearing qualities should also be known along the
proposed route. It is quite likely that water bearing zones (aquifer) might be
intersecting the base or slopes of an alignment. Specific care and design would be
required for these natural water conduits. These are always to be taken as weak
and hazardous zones in the road.
Ground water conditions are very important as they influence on the bearing
capacity of the rocks and soil. Hence when the ground is rich with moisture it
would not bear the design loads. Sometimes free flow of ground-water through the
soil is quite dangerous for the stability of the road surface.


**2. Discuss briefly on Geological Structures that influence the construction of road.

ANSWER

The structural features of rocks include dip and strike, joints, fault planes and shear
zones.

1 Dip and Strike: There may be three possibilities for making a cut in the
inclined beds: it can be made parallel, at right angles or inclined to the dip
directions.
(i) Cut is parallel to the dip direction: In such a case (Fig.11.1 A), the
layers offer a uniform behaviour on either side of the cut and as such the
risk of failure is minimal on this account.
(ii) Cut is made parallel to the strike, that is, at right angles to the dip
direction. In such a case, strata plunge across the cut, offering different
inclinations of the layers on either side of the cut. On the dipping in side of
the cut, there is always likelihood of slips, especially when the planes are
inclined steeply and get lubricated very often due to rainwater, or
groundwater movement (Fig. 11.1 B). In some cases where the layers dip
into the hill rather than in the road, the cut is considered quite stable
(Fig.11.2)

(See Fig. 11.1 in your lecture notes)

Fig.11.1 A: Road cuts parallel to the dip; B. parallel to strike Fig 11.2 Road cut parallel to strike
of inclined layers (beds dip into the hill)
(iii) Cutting inclined to Dip and Strike: In such cases also, the strata will dip
across the cutting and the slope of cutting will be unequal on both sides.
Hence such a condition would give rise to similar difficulties as
encountered in cuts parallel to strike.
2. Joints: These influence the stability of the cuts in the same way as the bedding
planes. When present in great abundance, joints reduce even the hardest rock as a
mass of loosely held up blocks on the side of a cut which could tumble down on
slight vibrations. Further, even if the joints are few, but are continuous and inclined
towards the free side of the cut, these offer potential surfaces for slips during the
presence of moisture.
3. Faults: Faulting generally leads to the crushing of the rock along the fault planes
and shear zones. Such a condition is, of course, very unfavourable for a cut when it
happens to form upper or lower slope or even base of the cut. It should not be left
untreated in any case. These are the worst type of planes of potential failure.































Chapter 12 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF BRIDGES


*1. Write short notes on any Two of the followings geological characters that need to be
investigated:-

( i ) The depth to the bed rock (ii) The nature of the bed rock

(iii) The structural disposition of rocks

ANSWER

( i ) The depth to the bed rock

In alluvial channels the thickness of loose sands and gravels may be so great that it is not
economical to reach the bed rocks for placing the piers. In such case pile foundation is used.
The piles are generally driven through the material to the bed rock. Friction piles are used
where the bed rock is not available up to a great depth.
In most cases, the river bed below the water is covered by varying thickness of
unconsolidated natural deposits of sand, gravels and boulders. Such loose materials are not
safe as foundations for bridge piers for at least two reasons:

Firstly, piers placed directly on them would be unstable;
Secondly, the cover material is liable to be removed due to scouring by river water.
As such, the pier must be placed on a stable foundation, preferably of rock, under a
suitable thickness of cover material so that it is sage from scour by river water.

The height of pier from under the span to the foundation depends on the depth of the
bed rock below the river water.
Such sound bed rocks depend on the local geology which has to be investigated and
understood. To achieve this, drill holes are made all along the centre line of the proposed
bridge, even on the right or left of it, till they reach the sound rock sequence or up to a
reasonable depth. Utmost care is needed not to mistake isolated big boulders buried
underneath the river bed as the bed rock. Boulders are rocks but they are not bed rocks and
cannot be trusted as foundations for bridge piers.


(See Fig. 12.1 in your lecture notes)

Fig. 12.1 Depth of bed rock


(ii) The nature of the bed rock

The very first rock encountered below the bed cover material may not be suitable as a
foundation. It should be kept in mind that three types of loads are to be borne by a bridge pier
foundation:
- the compressive, vertical loads due to the weight of the bridge span and that of pier
material;
- the horizontal loads due to the thrust of the water flowing above as transmitted directly and
through the pier;
- the dynamic, complex load, often inclined and shearing in character, due to heavy traffic
on the bridge.
Consequently, the bedrock selected as foundation for the pier must be strong enough
to bear the sum total of all these loads, not temporarily, but throughout the proposed life of
the bridge.
The nature of the bed rock is commonly determined through study of petrological
characters and engineering properties, especially the strength values, using the core samples
obtained during drilling of test bore holes. In fact complete and very useful geological
profiles could be prepared all along the centre line of the proposed bridge from the study of
such core logs.
Most igneous and massive type of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are quite
strong, stable and durable as foundations for bridge piers and abutments. The group of weak
rocks, which might behave badly in the presence of water includes such types as cavernous
limestones, chalk, friable sandstones especially with clayey cements, shales, clays, slates,
schists and the layers of peat and compressible organic material.



(See Fig. 12.2 in your lecture notes)


Fig. 12.2 Nature of rocks below piers

(iii) The structural disposition of rocks

The horizontal attitude and uniformly massive structure with depth are desirable characters in
the foundation rocks as these offer inherent resistance against failure. However, even inclined
rocks in a confined situation under the bridge piers are considered quite safe if these possess
normal strength values.
Fracturing and jointing is, hover, undesirable at the foundation levels as these might
cause settlement beyond the allowable limits.
When the bridge sites are located in the zones of seismic activity, the foundations are
required to be designed for additional seismic loads as specified in the codes of respective
areas.
If a fault runs across the bridge alignment, this will be a source of many troubles. The
highly crushed and weathered rocks which exist in the fault zones make the foundation
treatment extremely expensive. It is therefore advised that the possibility of avoiding the fault
by shifting the bridge alignment upstream or downstream may seriously be considered.