Types of sentences according to the aim of communication.

The sentence is a minimal unit of communication. From the viewpoint of their role
in the process of communication sentences are divided into 4 types: declarative,
interrogative, imperative, exclamatory. These types differ in the aim of
communication and express statements, questions, commands and exclamations
respectively. Dickens was born in 1812. Come up and sit down. What a quiet
evening! A declarative sentence contains a statement which gives the reader or the
listener some information about various events, activities or attitudes, thoughts and
feelings. A statement may be positive affirmative! or negative, as in: I have just
come back rom a business trip. I haven!t seen m" sister "et. "nterrogative
sentences contain questions. Their communicative function consists in as#ing for
information. They belong to the sphere of conversation and only occasionally occur
in monological speech. All varieties of questions may be structurally reduced to two
main types, general questions also called $yes%no$ questions! and pronominal
questions otherwise called $special$ or $wh$%questions!. "n general questions
the spea#er is interested to #now whether some event or phenomenon as#ed about
exists or does not exist. A general question opens with a verb operator, that is, an
auxiliary, modal or lin# verb followed by the sub&ect. Is that gir# a riend o "ours$
Can "ou speak %rench$ A tag question is a short $yes%no$ question added to a
statement. "t consists only of an operator prompted by the predicate verb of the
statement and a pronoun prompted by the sub&ect. &eorge is a ootba## an' isn!t
he$ (ou know %rench' don!t "ou$ An alternative question implies a choice
between two or more alternative answers. The con&unction or lin#s either two
homogeneous parts of the sentence or two coordinate clauses. Wi## "ou go to the
opera or to the concert to)night$ Which do "ou preer' tea or coee$ 'uggestive
questions declarative! #eep the word order of statement but serve as questions
owing to the rising tone in spea#ing: (ou sti## don!t be#ieve me' sir$ *o "ou knew
about it beore$ Pronominal questions open with an interrogative pronoun or a
pronominal adverb, the function of which is to get more detailed and exact
information about some event or phenomenon #nown to the spea#er and listener.
The interrogative pronouns and adverbs: what' which' who' whom' whose' where'
when' wh"' how+ Whose team has won the match$ Which stor" did "ou #ike best$
Who came irst$ A rhetorical question contains a statement disguised as a
question, which is usually positive hiding a negative statement. (o answer is
expected. What e#se cou#d I do$ Do we a#wa"s act as we ought to$ "mperative
sentences express commands which convey the desire of the spea#er to ma#e
someone, generally the listener, perform an action. )esides they may express
prohibition, a request, an invitation, a warning, persuasion, depending on the
situation, context or intonation. *tand up! *it down. ,pen "our te-tbooks. .e
quick! *xclamatory sentence. *ach of the communicative sentence types, besides
performing their main communicative function, may serve as exclamations. (ou do
#ook a picture o hea#th! /statement0 1urr" up! /command0. An exclamation as a
sentence type opens with one of the pronominal words what and how. What refers
to a noun, how to an ad&ective or an adverb. What a terrib#e noise! What a unn"
stor" she to#d us!
Indefinite Article
The article is a form%word which functions as a noun determiner. There are +
articles in *nglish: indefinite and definite. There are two variants of this article: $a$
before consonants!,$an$ before vowels!. )y origin the "A is a numeral in the
meaning $one$. That,s why it occurs only before nouns in the singular. "t has -
functions: 1. .lassifying, in which it means $one of the li#e!$,1en23 is a student.
4" ather was sti## a busv man. 2. /eneralising, in which it means $any$. 5 tiger is
a dangerous anima#. 6 5n" tiger is a dangerous anima#. 3. (umerical, in which it
means $one$ this is its original meaning!. Wait a minute. .e back in a second.
1ave a word with 7eo. The "A is used only in the singular. "n the plural such nouns
are used without any article: There were boo#s on the shelves. "n *nglish the
nouns 8advice' inormation' un' #uck' news' weather8 are never used with the "A.
"n speech the "A most often introduces the referent of its noun into the situation of
speech for the first time: 5 nurse was coming rom the irst tent. 9mi#" shouts rom
the house that I have a visitor. IA is used: 1. 0hen the referent of the noun is
mentioned for the first time: %rom a hi## he saw the cit". 2. )efore predicative class
nouns without any specification!: (ou are a ine chi#d. It is an 5merican coin. 3. "n
the generali1ing meaning here in its meaning the article is near to the pronoun
$,any$!: 5 sentence is a #anguage unit. 5 horse with a broken #eg cannot run. 4.
0ith abstract or material nouns preceded by descriptive attributes denoting special
aspects or concrete instances of the notion or special #inds of the referents denoted
by material nouns: It was a co#d autumn. It was a ver" rare book.. "n its original
numerical meaning of $one2: I:## wait a minute. !. with singular class nouns in
exclamatory sentences beginning with $what$: What a #ove#" picture it is! ". with
personal names: when a person is one of the family, clan: he was a .urton beore
his marriage3 when the name is preceded by the ad&ective 4certain2 or if the
referent is indefinite: 5 certain 4rs. *mith rang me up toda". *he was a 4iss
Craword
#efinite article.
The article is a form%word which functions as a noun determiner. There are +
articles in *nglish: indefinite and definite. )y origin this article is a demonstrative
pronoun with the meaning $that$. 'ometimes it occurs in a demonstrative meaning%
even at present: I had no idea what the uture he#d and at the time I did not care.
"t has + functions: 1. "ndividuali1ing meaning $this definite!, in which it shows a
noun whose referent is #nown or definite in the situation of speech: ;he person I
saw toda" was an o#d riend. ,ur apartment was on the irst #oor. 2. /eneric
meaning $the whole class of!, in which it is used before a singular noun indicating
the whole class of ob&ects, denoted by this noun: ;he #ion is a wi#d anima# rom
5rica. The 5A is used in the individuali1ing function before nouns whose referents
are definite. They are made definite by: 1. a restrictive $limiting% attri&ute or a
restrictive attri&utive clause. We arrived at the house in which I #ived. Where is
the book I bought this morning. 2. the preceding conte't: ,#iver opened the
door and #ooked around' but cou#d not see a big bo". 8Do "ou know who I am$8
asked the bo". 8<o' sir8' rep#ied ,#iver. 3. the situation of speech: 4ar" sprang
up and rushed to the door /o the room where 4ar" was0. 4. the meaning of the
noun which ta#es place only in the case with nouns denoting unique ob&ects!: ;he
sun rises in the West. ;he 9arth is a p#anet. = h > 4oon and *i-pence. DA is used+
6. 0hen the person, thing, event, etc. referent! is already mentioned in the given
situation of speech: (esterda" he wrote a #etter. 5 gir# entered the room. +. 0hen
any noun is modified by a restrictive attribute or a restrictive attributive clause: I:##
never orget the town in which I was born. -. 0hen the situation of speech itself
ma#es the referent definite: &o to the b#ackboard /in the c#assroom0. 4. before the
names of unique referents: the sun' the moon' the sk"' the wor#d' the universe'
the earth. 7. with nouns preceded by ad&ectives in the superlative degree, the
pronoun $same$, the ad&ectives 4proper$, $right$. $wrong2: It was the happiest da"
in his #ie. 1e had taken the wrong tone. 8. 0ith personal names: with personal
names in the plural, denoting a whole family: ;he Davidsons #ived in the ne-t
house. 9. with the names of historical events: the ?enaissance. :. (ames of
buildings, hotels, restaurants+ the ;ower' ;he 1ermitage' the @rem#in. ;. (ames of
ships, newspapers, clubs, organi1ations: the ;itanic' the Anited <ations' the ;imes.
6<. with geographical names: a! names of four cardinal points: the east, west,
south, north3 b! groups of islands, deserts, mountain chains, names of rivers,
la#es, seas, oceans, channels: ;he .a#tic *ea' ;he 5t#antic ,cean' the ;hames' the
5#ps' the 9ng#ish Channe#. c! (ames of some countries and provinces: the Crimea'
the <ether#ands' the 5rgentine.
A&sence of the article
The most typical cases of the absence of articles are: 1. )efore plural nouns if
the corresponding singular noun is used with the "A: Bohn is a student. ) Bohn
and 4ar" are students. 5 dog barks. ) Dogs bark. The bare plural form
corresponds to the classifying and generali1ing uses of the "A and to the generic
use of the 5A: 5 man who has nothing to sa" has no words. ) 4en who have
nothing to sa" have no words. ;he tiger #ives in the jung#e. ) ;igers #ive in the
jung#e. 2. )efore non%count abstract and mass material! nouns used in the most
general sense: We wa#ked orward in si#ence. 7ie isn!t a## un. 1e has such huge
pride. 7ight trave#s much aster than sound. )esides, the nouns $man$ and
$woman$ are used without any article in the generic meaning: =an is a hunter:
woman is his game. (sed: 1. with the names of some diseases: appendicitis'
ever' ma#aria' t"phoid.2. 0ith nouns denoting titles, ran#, dignity, relationship
and used as appositions: 7ord ."ron' *ir Wa#ter *cott' 5unt 4o##"' 4iss &arnet.
3. 0ith personal names preceded by the ad&ectives "oung' o#d' #itt#e' poor'
dear' honest which have emotional coloring and are parts of the proper names:
,#d Bo#"on goes to the opera. 7itt#e %rancie' as she was usua##" ca##ed' was an
important personage. 4. 0ith predicative and appositive nouns denoting unique
positions, posts: >i is rector o 4oscow Aniversa#. 5cademician 4archuk is
Cresident o the 5cadem" o sciences. . 0ith nouns denoting dignity, title,
post, when they follow the head%nouns in appositive of%phrase: 1e was awarded
the tit#e o hero. 1e occupied the post o 4inister o education. !. 0ith
predicative nouns introduced by the con&unction $as$, e.g. 4r. Davidsont wi## act
as reeree. ". )efore nouns followed by the adverb $enoughD+ Ceter began to
ear that he was not man enough to get and ho#d a job. ). 0ith the nouns
schoo#' co##ege' bed' prison' jai#' hospita#' church' when they lose their concrete
meanings and express the purpose for which their referents serve: 1e:s in
hospita#. *he was the best at co##ege. ;he" ma" send me to prison or that. ;he"
go to church ever" week.*. 0ith the names of towns and cities the only
exception is $the >ague$!, a ma&ority of countries, peninsulas, separate islands,
mountain pea#s: 7ondon' %rance' &erman"' %#orida' 4adagascar' 9#brus.
+on,unctive- .elative, Interrogative- /one0.
Interrogative pronouns. These pronouns are 1ho- 1hose- 1hat- 1hich.
2ho is a noun%pronoun, 1hose is an ad&ective%pronoun, 1hat and 1hich are
both noun% and ad&ective%pronouns. 2ho has the grammatical category of case
nominative and ob&ective!. )esides, strange as it may seem, we occasionally
encounter 1ho3s for 1hose: ;he prosecutor made a detai#ed ana#"sis o the
disturbanceE who hit whom' who stepped on who:s oot. Thus, the pronoun
1ho is a single pronoun which has three case forms. 2ho- 1hom- and 1hose
as# questions about persons. 2ho is used when the question word is the
sub&ect of the verb. Who:s coming to "our part"$ a number of guests!. There is
a strong tendency to replace 1hom by 1ho. The difference between 1ho and
what and 1hich is that 1hich presupposes choice while the others commonly
do not: Which is the better o those two$ +on,unctive pronouns . They are the
same pronouns as interrogative but used to introduce sub&ect, predicate, ob&ect
and appositive clauses: What she was araid o was not eas" to e-p#ain. 5sk
him which he wants. .on&unctive pronouns have the same grammatical
categories as the interrogative ones. .elative pronouns . They are that- 1ho-
1hose- 1hich- as- used to introduce attributive relative clauses: .ut the ew
"ears that separated us were wider than an ocean. ;hat:s the man whose
house was burned down. As correlates with the pronouns same and such in the
main clause: Dead there on the s#ope on such a da" as this is. ?nly who
changes: has the category of case. The prop41ord 5one0. "t is used to avoid
the repetition of a noun already mentioned. "t has the grammatical category @f
number: 5re those "our books$ I want to borrow a good oneFsome good ones
on gardening. ?ne can be preceded by the definite article, nouns,
demonstratives, ad&ectives, ordinal numerals: this woo# suit is a good one. (ou
sit in that chair and I:## sit in this one. ?n the other hand, the prop%word one
cannot be preceded by a noun in possessive case, cardinal numerals, the
indefinite pronouns some, A n B , the ad&ectives several and ,own,.
Pronouns .eciprocal, Possessive, #emonstrative- .efle'ive, Personal
Are notional words which indicate ob&ects and their properties without
indicating them, 1e rose. 4an" have come. *ome did not do it, where the
sub&ects are not named. There are several classifications of *nglish pronouns.
The present one was suggested by Crof. )lo#h. According to it *nglish pronouns
fall into several classes: 6. Cersonal, +. Cossessive, -. 5emonstrative, 4.
Deflexive, 7. Deciprocal, 8. "ndefinite, 9. "nterrogative, :. .on&unctive, ;.
Delative, 6<. The prop%word $one$. Personal pronouns have a single purely
grammatical category %% case. The cases are nominative and ob&ective. The
case forms are: nominative E ", he, she, "t, we, you, they!, ob&ective E me,
him, her, it, us. vou, them respectively!. Cersonal pronouns are noun%
pronouns, they occupy the position of nouns: Bohn did it G 1e did it' I saw Bohn
G I saw him. (ominative case forms are usual here if they are followed by
attributive clauses+ %or once it was she who #owered her e"es. According to =.
0est,s statement, nominative case forms are inevitable in such cases. )ut
ob&ective case forms are quite possible here too: It:s me he:s interested in.
Possessive pronouns have no purely grammatical categories. There are two
#inds of their forms: con&oint, which are used, as ad&ective%pronouns my, his,
her, its, our, your, their! and absolute, which are noun%pronouns mine, his,
hers, its, ours, yours, theirs!: 1e #et his hand on mine. Where:s "our book$ Is
this hat "ours$ #emonstrative pronouns are this, that, same, such. This and
that have the category of number, which can be called grammatical with
reservation. 'ing. this, that C". these, those. This these!, that those! and
same are both noun% and ad&ective%pronouns: ?ead this. ;hat:s just it /n.)p.0.
;hat train never does arrive on time /adj.)p.0. .efle'ive pronouns self%
pronouns! . They are noun pronouns: myself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves,
yourselves, themselves, oneself. They have no purely grammatical categories
only yourselves is built up purely grammatically: yourself%yourselves!.
/anshina and Fasilevs#aya divide self%pronouns into two separate classes:
reflexive and emphatic. )ut Crof. )lo#h, points out an emphatic meaning of
reflexive pronouns in some cases of their use: I had m"se# seen a charming
picture quite to me taste. .eciprocal pronouns. They are composites, two in
number: each other and one another. They function only as noun%pronouns
and have the grammatical category of case common, possessive, genitive!:
common%;he three gent#emen #ooked at one another3 possessive case%we dine
in one another:s houses. 'ome people li#e to say each other about + people or
things, and one another about more than +, but this is not a fixed rule.
Predicate. 6imple ver&al.
The predicate is the second principal main! part of the sentence and its
organi1ing centre, as the ob&ect and nearly all adverbial modifiers are connected
with and dependent on it. The predicate may be considered from the semantic or
from the structural point of view. According to the meaning of its components,
the predicate may denote an action, a state, a quality, or an attitude to some
action or state ascribed to the sub&ect. From the structural point of view there
are two main types of predicate: simp#e and compound. )oth these types may
be either nominal or verbal, which gives four sub%groups: simple verba#' simp#e
nomina#' compound verba#' compound nomina#.
The simple verbal predicate is expressed by: 1. A verb in a synthetic or analytical
form. Gohn runs quic#ly. " was sent in to get my tea. Don!t come too late. 2. A
verbal phrase a phraseological equivalent of a verb denoting one action!. a%
Chrases denoting momentaneous actions: to have a loo#, to have a tal#, to give
a loo#, to ma#e a move, to ma#e a remar#, to pay a visit, etc. Did "ou have a
s#eep!$ It!s time we were making a move. &% Chrases denoting various #inds of
actions. "n most cases they comprise an abstract noun used with no article: to
change one,s mind, to get rid of!, to ma#e fun of!, to ma#e up one,s mind, to
ta#e care of!, to ta#e part in!. " have never taken much interest in /erman
songs.
Pronouns Indefinite
>ave an inner classification of their own. They are subdivided into: 6! indefinite
proper, +! distributive, -! negative 4! quantitative. Indefinite proper are some,
somebody, someone, something, any, anybody, anyone, anything and one in the
meaning $some$: I saw her one da". ,ne Bohn came to see "ou. 'ome and any are
both noun% and ad&ective%pronouns, one is only an ad&ective%pronoun. The
compounds with them are only noun%pronouns. Those with %body and %one have
the category of case common, possessive, genitive!. .ommonly some and
compounds with it occur in affirmative sentences. )ut their use is possible in
interrogative sentences, firstly, when the question does not refer to the pronouns,
that is, when the sentence expresses rather an offer or request: Wou#d "ou #ike to
have some coee$ Can I have some o those nuts$, secondly when the pronouns
imply previous #nowledge: Do "ou know something$ Can I ask "ou something$
#istri&utive are: all, every, everybody, everyone every one! everything, each
one!, both, either, another, other. The pronouns all, each, both, either, another,
other are both noun% and ad&ective%pronouns, every is only an ad&ective%pronoun,
the compounds with every and each are only noun%pronouns. Another has the
grammatical category of case common, possessive, genitive!. ?ther has the
grammatical categories of number and case: *he:s c#everer than an" o the others.
The main difference between everybody! and each one! is that the former occurs
when the members of a group have something in common, whereas the latter
denoting the same draws attention to some point of difference between them: ,n
each side o him wa#ked a beautiu# gir#. 9ach one ta#ked to his neighbor. .oth
implies two persons or things. "t functions both as a noun%pronoun and as
ad&ective%pronoun: )oth are well. 0e can do both this things. )oth doesnHt occur in
negative sentences. 9ither also implies two persons or things, but unli#e both, is
followed by a singular noun and verb: I doubt i either o them is coming. ;he"
wa#ked on either side o the gir#. 7egative are no, nobody, no one, none, nothing,
neither. (either, li#e either, is both a noun% and ad&ective%pronoun, applied to two
persons and things only and is normally followed by a singular noun or verb:
<either o these cars is what I want. <either picture is satisactor". (one is a noun%
pronoun only, it is applied to more than two persons or things or to a complete
absence of them: <one o m" prob#ems are so#ved. <one o them were present at
the meeting. (o is an ad&ective%pronoun only, nobody, nothing and no one are
noun%pronouns. (obody and no one have the grammatical category of case
common, genitive or possessive!: nobod":s oo#. 8uantitative are many, much,
a! few, a! little. All of them are both noun% and ad&ective%pronouns. =any and a!
few are used with counts and much and a! little with uncounts. "n common with
ad&ectives quantitative pronouns have the grammatical category of comparison. For
this reason some grammarians do not include them in pronouns.
+ategory of num&er
*nglish nouns that are inflected for number have singular and plural forms. '.
denotes one, plural denotes more than one. =ost count nouns are variable and can
occur with either singular or plural number. The plural form is mar#ed by the
inflexion ) /e0 s. .egular plurals: 6. (. ending in vowels and voiced consonants
have the plural ending pronounced as I1J: bee % bees, dog % dogs. +. (. ending in
voiceless consonants have a voiceless ending: boo# % boo#s. -. (. ending in %s, %sh,
%ss, %ch, %x, %1 have the ending Ii1J: actress %actresses, bush % bushes, watch %
watches, box % boxes. 4. (. ending in %o have the ending I1J: hero %heroes, potato
E potatoes. The regular plural inflexion of nouns in %o has two spellings3 %os occurs
in the following cases: a! after a vowel K bamboos' embr"os' o#ios' kangaroos'
radios' studios' HoosE b! in proper names % ?omeos' 9skimos' %i#ipinosE c! in
abbreviations, ki#os, photos3 "n other cases the spelling is %oes: tomatoes'
dominoes' heroes' potatoes.7. The letter %y after a consonant usually changes into
%i: sk" G skies )ut the letter %y remains unchanged %ys: a! after vowels: da"s. b! in
proper names: the two &erman"s. I. Thirteen nouns ending%in %f e! form their
plural changing %f e! into %v e!: the ending in this case is pronounced 1J:calf E
calves, life % lives, thief % thieves, elf % elves, loaf%loaves, wife E wives, half E
halves, self % selves, wolf % wolves, #nife E #nives, sheaf % sheaves LM@NO!, leaf E
leaves, shelf E shelves. ?ther nouns ending in %fe! have the plural inflexion %s in
the regular wa"+ proo )proos' chie) chies' sae % saes' c#i) c#is. J. The plural
of nouns ending in 4th2 E the plural ending in this case is E s: month G months'
heart G hearts. Irregular plurals. 6. 'even nouns distinguish plural from singular
by vowel change: man)men' woman)women' #ouse)#ice' tooth)teeth' oot)eet'
goose)geese' mouse)mice. +. two nouns have Een to mar# the plural: o-)o-en'
chi#d)chi#dren. -. with some nouns the plural is identical with the singular form: a!
sheep)sheep' swine)swine' deer)deer. There are some animal names that have +
plurals: ish)ish/es0' carp)carp/s0' sa#mon)sa#mon/s0. b! identical singular and
plural forms are also typical of nationality nouns in Eese, %ss: Chinese' *wiss'
Bapanese. c! names, indicating number: pair' coup#e' doHen' score' stone' head.
+ategory of case.
.ase is a grammatical category which shows relation of the noun with other words
in a sentence. "t is expressed by the form of the noun. *nglish nouns have two
cases: the common case and the genitive case. >owever, not all *nglish nouns
possess the category of case3 there are certain nouns, mainly nouns denoting
inanimate ob&ects, which cannot be used in the genitive case. The common case is
unmar#ed, it has no inflexion 1ero! and its meaning is very general. The genitive
case is mar#ed by the apostrophe s /!s0. "n writing there are two forms of the
genitive: for most nouns:Ps mother,s! and for nouns ending in %s and regular plural
nouns only the apostrophe mothers,!. "n speech there are four ways of
pronunciation of the genitive case: 6. I1J after vowels and voiced consonants
<egro!s. Dog:s. +. IsQ after voiceless consonants: student!s. -. Ii1K after sibilants
prince:s. 4. Rero endings: gir#s!' bo"s!. The 1ST @ form is used: a! with regular
plural nouns: students!' drivers!' doctors!. b! 'ome diseases: meas#es' mumps. c!
some games E billiards, bowls, dominoes, draught. d! 'ome proper nouns: 5thens'
4arsei##es' .russe#s' Wa#es. e! nouns ending in Eics: phonetics' ph"sics' po#itics'
statistics' g"mnastics.
6entence
A sentence is a unit of speech which grammatical structure conforms to the laws of
the language and which serves as the chief means of conveying a more or less
complete thought. 'tructure of simple '.: t1o4mem&er $has two principal parts: a
sub and pred. "t can be complete%has a sub and pred: the sun is shining3
incomplete%one or both principal parts are missing: where were you yesterdayU At
the cinema% one4mem&er $has only one principal part which is neither the sub nor
the pred. "t can be nominal%the principal part is expressed by a noun: 5usty water3
verbal Eprincipal parts are expressed by verbals: living at the mercy of a woman%
e'tended $she is a student% and une'pended $=ary is always happy with you%
semi4composite sentence: semi%compound has homogeneous sub or pred: a
blac# and a white cat sat on the roof! and semi%complex complicated by
predicative constructions: the brea#fast being over, the children went to school!.
6u&,ect
"s one of the main parts of two%member sentence denoting the thing on the
broadest sense of the word whose action, state, property are characteri1ed by the
pred. "t is independent of any other part of sentence: according to the structure
simple- phrasal- comple'9 according to the way of expressing notional- formal
$by introductory it, there%9 according to the way of expressing and grammatical
meaning simple subs are personal $definite: The unbelievable happened3 " shall do
the best " can3 (othing can be done about it3 'even cannot be divided into two3 To
understand is to forgive3 Tal#ing mends no holes3 >is 4>ow do you doV never
sounds cordial enough. indefinite: They say this is a terribly difficult place to wor#
in. generali1ed: ?ne has oneHs dignity%- impersonal $it only%. It as a su&: 1.
7otional definite personal su&: >e didnHt even hear the doorbell till it had been
ringing for some time. +. 7otional definite personal demonstrative su&:
'omebody #noc#ed at the door. It was Tom. -. :ormal impersonal su&: .aptain
loo#ed at his watch, it was five to three. 4. :ormal introductory: "t must ta#e a
lot to annoy you. 7. :ormal emphatic: "t was Goe =ennan who filled her mind.
+omple' su&: 1. The nominative 1ith the infinitive: Alice did not seem to have
heard me. +. :oe4to4infinitive construction: "t is important for you to #now it. -.
Participial construction: The problem is considered solved. 4. ;erundial
construction: "t is absurd our hardly #nowing each other.
<&,ect
"s the secondary part of sentence completing the meaning of the part of the
sentence expressed by a verb, an ad&ective or a stative: simple and complex:
direct $denotes a direct receiver or product of the action denoted by a transitive
verb. "f in a sentence there is only one non%prepositional ob&ect it is always
direct%" believe you%3 the indirect (denotes a person towards whom the action
of the verb is directed. it is always used with a direct or prepositional ob&ect ,it
can be non%prepositional when it follows the verb directly and precedes the direct
ob&ect%Adrian handed him his card3 prepositional, when it follows the direct
ob&ect%'he handed the note to )art3 with preposition for, to in the meaning of
person for whose benefit the action is done%>e found a seat for /eorge) the
cognate ( follows an intransitive verb and of the same root as the verb%" want
to live an ordinary life! the prepositional certain verbs and ad&ectives govern
their ob&ects by means of prepositions%what do you want from meU! comple'
o&,ects: infinitive construction " should li#e him to be free!3 for%to%infinitive
construction *mily waited for Gac#son call on her!3 participial construction " will
not have him worried!3 gerundial construction he minded their #nowing!3
ob&ectWob&ect predicative " found him a bore!X. Formal ob&ect expressed by it
correlating with a notional ob&ect%>e found it impossible to utter the next word!.
Adver&ial clause
may classify the whole main clause, the verbal predicate, or any verbal part: of
place or direction (where, wherever, anywhere%he was standing where he
always had stood); of time characteri1es the action in the clause from the
temporal point of view .?(G: as, as soon as, when, after, until, since, before,
C>DA'*Y .?(G: the time, next time, directly, once%whenever there was a pause,
he gently as#ed again.! of manner modifies the action as, the way % " am sorry
" tal#ed the way " did at lunch! of comparison .?(G: as, li#e, as if, as though,
than, asXas, soXas, as. as if % They didnHt have long intervals li#e they do at
other theatres.! condition % contains some condition, either real or unreal which
ma#es the action in the main clause possible .?(G: unless, if, in case, provided
that, admitting, seeing % "f anything troubles you youHd better tell me! of
concession .?(G: AYT>?Z/>, T>?Z/>, *F*( "F, T>?Z/> yet3
.?(G.CD?([A5F*D)' whoever, whatever, whichever, whenever3 .?(G.
C>DA'*: for all that, "n spite of the factX%Although the weather was bad he went
for a wal#!of purpose contains a planed action which is to be achieved by the
action in the main clause.?(G: that, so that, so as, in order that%" tell all this so
that you may understand me perfectly! of cause express the reason cause and
motivation of the action in the main clause .?(G: as, because, seeing that,
considering that3 .?(G. C>DA'*': for the reason that, in view of the fact that,
by reason of%'ince there is no help let us try and bear it as best we can!
result.?(G: so that, that%Yight fell on her there so that 'oams could see her
face!.
=er&
"s a word that characteristically is the grammatical center of a predicate and
expresses an act, occurrence, or mode of being. Tense is a distinction of form in
a verb to express distinctions of time or duration of the action or state it denotes.
=ood is a distinction of verb to express whether the action or state it denotes is
conceived as fact command, possibility, or wish. 6. The Indicative represents
the denoted act or state as an ob&ective fact. +. The Imperative expresses the
will to influence the behavior of another. -. The 6u&,unctive represents a
denoted act or state not as fact but as contingent or possible or viewed
emotionally as with doubt or desire!. "t is used mainly in subordinate clauses.
0hen used in main clauses, it expresses a slight command, insistence or
invitation. The voice indicates the relation of the sub&ect of the verb to the
action which the verb expresses. 6. The Active voice asserts that the person or
thing represented by the grammatical sub&ect performs the action represented
by the verb3 +. The Cassive voice asserts that the grammatical sub&ect of a verb
is sub&ected to or affected by the action represented by that verb: 6. The
"nfinitive performs some functions of a noun and at the same time displays some
characteristics of a verb li#e tense present, future and perfect! and voice and
may have an ob&ect. +. The Carticiple! is a word having the characteristics of
both ad&ective and verb. -. The /erund is a verbal noun that expresses
generali1ed or uncompleted action. "t is a neuter verbal noun of "" declension,
used in 'ingular only, without (ominative form.
+omposite sentence.
"t is a sentence consisting of two or more clauses. "n its structure a clause is
similar to a simpe sentence, but unli#e a s.s. it forms part of a bigger syntactical
unit. The 2 main types of connection of clauses in a composite sentence are
subordination and coordination. )y coordination clauses are arranged as units of
syntactically equal ran#, i.e. equipotently. The leading clause and a sequential
clause >e came and we had coffee. 0e had coffee and he came!. )y
subordination they are arranged as units of unequal ran#, one being categorically
dominated by the other. )esides the classical types of coordination and
subordination of clauses - we find another case of construction of a composite
sentence. 0hen the connection between the clauses combined in a
polypredicative unit is extremely loose, placing the sequential clause in a
syntactically detached position. "n this loosely connected composite sentence the
information expressed by the sequential clause is presented as an afterthought,
an idea that comes to the spea#erHs mind after the completion of the foregoing
utterance. This #ind of connection is called cumulation. "ts formal sign is the tone
of completion. "n writing it is a semifinal mar#, such as a semicolon, a dash,
sometimes a series of periods. .ontinuative cumulation: >e did his &ob in the
office without any fuss3 he answered questions in the >ouse: he made a couple
of speeches. Carenthetical cumulation: \our story, you #now, showed such
breadth and depth of thought.
Predicate +ompound nominal.
"s the second primary part of the sentence that denotes an action, state or
property of the thing in the broadest sense expressed by the sub&ect of the
sentence. The compound nominal predicate consists of a link-verb and a
nominal element called predicative. The predicative expresses a state, property
or the class of thing denoted by the sub&ect: "t,s so #ove#" here. ?h] Friendship is
a great thing. According to their meaning lin#%verbs are classified into: a! the
lin#%verb of &eing3, the $pure$ lin#%verb $be$!: I!m a student. b! of perception
feel, loo#, smell, taste!: 'he #ooks happ". The ca#e tastes de#icious. c! of
&ecoming become, turn, grow, get, fall!: "t,s getting #ate. >e grew o#d. d! of
remaining remain, stay, #eep, continue!. I sta"ed ca#m. 1e remained si#ent. e!
of seeming or appearing: seem, appear! *he seemed sh". 1e appeared a
good #istener. A particular place is occupied by the lin#%verbs 4prove2 and 4turn
out2: ;he part" turned out a success. The simple predicative is expressed by:
6! nouns in both cases: ;he choice was hers. %riendship is a great thing. +! by
ad&ectives: It:s so #ove#" here3 -! by pronouns: ;he" were the" and 4arcus and
I were we. 4! by numerals: *he was eighteenE 7! by statives: 1e was aware a##
the time o her presence. .ut I!m araid I can!t keep the man. 8! by infinitives:
;o decide is to act. 9! by gerunds: 1is aim was entering the Aniversit". :! by
participles ", which are generally ad&ectivi1ed+ It is ver" destressing to me' sir'
to give this inormation. ;! by Carticiples "": It was a## gone. The compound
nominal dou&le predicate combines the features of two different types of
predicate. "t has the features of the simple verbal predicate and those of the
compound nominal predicate. "t consists of two parts, both of which are
notional. The first one is verbal and is expressed by a notional verb denoting an
action or process performed by the person[non%person expressed by the sub&ect.
From this point of view it resembles the simple verbal predicate. )ut at the same
time the verbal part of this predicate performs a lin#ing function, as it lin#s its
second part which is a predicative! to the sub&ect. The second part of the
compound nominal double predicate is expressed by a noun or an ad&ective
which denotes the properties of the sub&ect in the same way as the predicative
of the compound nominal predicate proper does. ;he moon was shining co#d and
bright. The predicate here denotes two separate notions: 6! The moon was
shining, and at the same time +! The moon was cold and bright. There are a
number of verbs that most often occur in this type of predicate, performing the
double function of denoting a process and serving as lin# verb at the same time.
They are: to die' to #eave' to #ie' to marr"' to return' to rise' to sit' to stand' to
shine.
7<>I7A? +?A(6@6
All nominal clauses have a function approximating to that of a noun or a nominal
phrase. They may fulfill the function of a basic part of the main clause: a sub&ect
clause functions as sub&ect of the main clause which has no sub&ect of its own, a
predicative clause functions as predicative to the lin# verb within the main clause.
An ob&ect clause refers to verbs in different forms and functions, to ad&ectives,
statives and occasionally to nouns, and may be obligatory or optional. Another type
of nominal clause K the appositive clause, refers to a noun with a very general
meaning and is therefore essential to the meaning of the sentence. 'ince nominal
clauses function as essential structural parts of the sentence, their relations to the
main clause are confined to such purely grammatical sentential relations as
subjective' predicative' objective and appositive. A subject c#ause may be
introduced by con&unctions /that' if, whether' because' the wa"0E correlatives
/either... or' whether... or0 it there is more than one sub&ect clause, or connectives.
The latter may be either con&unctive pronouns /who' whoever' what' whatever'
which0 or con&unctive adverbs /where' wherever' when' whenever' how' wh"0.
.omplex sentences with sub&ect clauses may be of two patterns: ". 0ith a sub&ect
clause preceding the predicate of the main clause. What I need is a piece of good
advice. Whether I ta#ked or not made little difference. 1ow the book wi## se##
depends on its plot and the author. "". 0ith a sub&ect clause in final position, the
usual place of the sub&ect being occupied by formal it. "t seemed unfair to him that
he shou#d suer more than his wie. "t is understood that modern science a##ows
such e-periments. A predicative c#ause may be introduced by con&unctions /that'
whether' as' as i' as though' because' #est' the wa"0' correlatives /either... or'
whether... or0' or connectives. The latter may be con&unctive pronouns /who'
whoever' what' whatever' which0 or con&unctive adverbs /where' wherever' when'
whenever' how' wh"0. The fact was that he had orgotten about it. The only reason
for my coming is because I hoped to see "ou again. That,s what he wants "ou to
think. An object c#ause may be introduced by con&unctions /that i' whether' #est0'
correlatives /either... or' whether... or0' or connectives. The latter may be
con&unctive pronouns /who' whoever' what' whatever which0' or con&unctive
adverbs /where' wherever' when' whenever' wh"' how0. " don,t #now wh" I tike
"ou so much. >e was terrified that she wou#d orget about it soon. Yi#e ob&ects in a
simple sentence, ob&ect clauses may vary in their relation to the principal clause
and in the way they are attached to the word they refer to or depend on. I. An
ob&ect clause may directly follow the word it refers to a non%prepositional ob&ect
clause!. Gon wondered if he had oended her. " #now when I am wasting time. "".
An ob&ect clause may be &oined to the main clause by the preposi tions ater' about'
beore' be"ond' or' near' o' as to' e-cept. "f a preposition is very closely attached
to the preceding verb or ad&ective /to agree upon' to ca## or' to comment upon' to
depend on' to hear o' to insist on! it generally precedes the ob&ect clause. " am not
certain o what he did. " want to be paid or what I do.
Appositive and attri&utive clauses.
An appositive clause may be introduced by con&unctions that, if, whether, as if,
as though!, con&unctive pronouns and adverbs what, how!. Znli#e an apposition
in a simple sentence, which usually gives another name to the person or thing
designated by the antecedent, appositive clause discloses the meaning of a noun
with a very general meaning: thing' reason' point' comment' remark' probabi#it"'
idea' act' consequence' eature. The question whether it was he or his enem"
was hotly discussed. The question how and wh" those peop#e got the inormation
still worried him. 5ttributive clauses function as modifiers to a word of nominal
character, which is generally called the antecedent. Zsually an attributive clause
immediately follows its antecedent, although some types may occasionally be
distant. An attributive clause may be introduced by connectives E relative
pronouns who, whose, whom, what, which, that, as! or relative adverbs when,
where, wherein!. The choice of relative word depends on the categorical meaning
of the antecedent. a! "f the antecedent denotes a living being the relative word
who' whom' whose' or that is used. 5 man whose voice seemed ami#iar to me
gave commands. b! "f the antecedent denotes a thing or notion, the relative word
which, whose or that is used. ;here was something in his #ow' #anguid voice that
was abso#ute#" ascinating. C#"de bowed and then took the coo# hand that 4"ra
e-tended to him. c! "f the antecedent is expressed by a## denoting a living being
the pronoun who or that is used3 if it denotes a thing or notion only the pronoun
that is generally used. 5## that remained was to enter his name and send o the
high entrance ees or the e-amination. d! "f the antecedent is expressed by
ever"thing' something' an"thing or nothing the relative pronoun that is generally
used. ;here was nothing in his ace that spoke o his character. 9ver"thing that
"ou ma" want is in the wardrobe. e! "f the antecedent is modified by the ad&ective
on#"' the pronoun an"' or by an ad&ective in the superlative degree, the
attributive clause is introduced by the pronoun that. ;his is the on#" chance that
we have. F! if the antecedent is modified by the demonstrative pronoun such, the
relative pronoun as is used. *he was p#a"ing the piano with such ee#ing as
cou#dn:t be e-pected rom a gir# o her age.
+ompound ver&al predicate.
The predicate is the second principal main! part of the sentence and its organi1ing
centre, as the ob&ect and nearly all adverbial modifiers are connected with and
dependent on it. According to the meaning of its components, the predicate may
denote an action, a state, a quality, or an attitude to some action or state ascribed
to the sub&ect. From the structural point of view there are two main types of
predicate: simp#e and compound. )oth these types may be either nominal or
verbal, which gives four sub%groups: simple verba#' simp#e nomina#' compound
verba#' compound nomina#. "s of two #inds: modal and aspective. The +ompound
=er&al >odal. This #ind of predicate consists of a verb in one of its finite forms
expressing a certain modal meaning and an infinitive. The predicate may consist
of the following components: 1. a modal verb and an infinitive: " can:t read. 'he
must go to him. The enemy sha## not pass. +. the verbs be and have in modal
meaning, also have got in the meaning of necessity and an infinitive: They were
to marr" in the autumn. 0hy did he have to #eave herU "!ve got to e-press my li#es
and disli#es. -. an equivalent of a modal verb 8to be /un0ab#e8' 8to be capab#e8' 8to
be a##owed8' 8to be permitted8' 8to be ob#iged8' 8to be compe##ed8' 8to be wi##ing8'
8to be an-ious8' 8to be eager and an infinitive: >e was only an-ious to orget. And
children were always wi##ing to p#a" cric#et with him. 4. a notional verb with a
modal meaning and an infinitive. >ere belong the verbs 8to hope8' 8to want8' 8to
desire8' 8to wish8' 8to #ongD' to e-pect' to intend' to attempt' to tr". " long to see
her. >e almost expected to hear a price. 7. the combination 8to be going to
denoting intention and an infinitive: >e is going to bu" her some shoes. 8. the
phraseological units 8had better /best08' 8had rather8' wou#d rather /sooner0 and an
infinitive: 1adn!t we better ca## himU 'he said she wou#d rather have a flowered
summer froc#. The compound ver&al aspect$ive%. This #ind of predicate consists
of two components. The first is a inite verb denoting: a0 beginning' b0 duration' c0
repetition' d0 cessation' or end o an action. The second component is an ininitive
or gerund. To the verbs of the four mentioned groups belong in particular: 6.
beginning o an action+ begin' start' commence' which are followed by both an
infinitive and a gerund3 come' grow' which are combined only with an infinitive: >e
began to sing. The .ubans started ta#king in *panish. +. Duration o an action+
keep /on0' gL on' which are followed only by a gerund: continue' which is followed
by both an infinitive and a gerund: >is mother continued to swa". 5aniel continued
eating. -. ?epetition o an act ion+ used to and wou#d followed by an infinitive only:
0here did he use to hang out! (ow and then the old man wou#d correct her
pronunciation and she would repeat word. 4. cessation' or end o an action' stop,
give up, leave off, finish, which are followed only by a gerund, cease, which
combines both with an infinitive and a gerund: >e ceased' however, to take out and
rep#ace the letter. 'he had given up ca##ing him sir. 'he hadn!t stopped ta#king.
Attri&ute
"s a secondary part of the sentence which characteri1es person or non%person
expressed by the headword ether qualitatively, quantitatively, or from the
point of view of situation. They may refer to nouns and other words of nominal
nature, such as pronouns and substitute words: It was a #etter rom his
devoted riend. Attributes may be divided into non%detached close! and
detached loose!. (on%detached attributes form one sense group with their
headword. Attributes with identical reference /crimson #owers' white #owers'
and "e##ow #owers M crimson' white' and "e##ow #owers0 are usually
interchangeable /"e##ow' white' and crimson #owers0 and are set off by
commas /crimson' white' "e##ow #owers0 or &oined by a con&unction. Attributes
may form a string with different reference, that is, those of them which are
closer to the noun form a composite idea with subsequent words: her usual
good temper!3 a clever young man! compare with crimson' white' "e##ow
#owers0!' a large blac# and white hunting dog!. "n the word%group a #arge
b#ack and white hunting dog the ad&ective #arge refers to b#ack and white
hunting dog' b#ack and white refers to hunting dog' and hunting refers to dog.
This relation of attributes embedded inside a string of them requires a fixed
order and no comma is used to separate them. A detached attribute is only
loosely connected with its headword and is often optional from the point of
view of structure, although very important semantically. "t forms a separate
sense group in speech and is accordingly separated by commas in writing. A
detached attribute may be placed in preposition, post%position, or at some
distance from the headword. Znli#e non%detached attributes, a detached
attribute may modify personal and relative pronoun. .arrie loo#ed about her,
ver" much disturbed and quite sure that she did not want to wor# here. 5
daughter o poor but honest parents' " have no reason to be ashamed of my
origins. Fery often a detached attribute refers not only to the headword, but
also to another part of the sentence, thus forming a double connection. And
for a moment " hesitated, unab#e to start ta#king as " was unable to start
tal#ing!. %ami#iar with these detai#s' =ichael paid them little attention be%
cause he was familiar with these details!. <ot in a hurr" to get home' he dined
in town as he was not in a hurry to get home!.
Adver&ial modifier.
"s a secondary part of the sentence which modifies another part of the sentence
expressed either by a verb in a non!%finite form!, an ad&ective, a stative or an
adverb. 'emantically adverbials denote p#ace where, how far Ihere, thereJ!,
time when, how often, how long!, manner how, in what way Iso, thus, li#e,
that, li#e thisJ!, cause)reason why, for what reason IthereforeJ!, purpose what
for!, resu#t too, enough, soXas!!, condition in what case, on what condition
Ithis[that case, but for, except for, withoutJ!, concession in spite of what
Inevertheless, in spite of this[that, though, with allJ!, attendant circumstances'
comparison than, as, as if, as though, li#e!, degree how much!, measure
length, time, weight, money, temperature!, e-ception but, except, apart from!.
'tructural: it can be simple, phrasal, complex, and clausal. We started ear#". We
started at ive in the morning. Bohn sat with his e#bows on the tab#e and his
hands c#asped. When the cat is awa"' the mice wi## p#a".