INTRODUCTION TO POLLUTION CONTROL

Has a regulatory agency announced regulations in your industry or declared

your workplace unhealthy? Do your neighbors complain about odors? Do you face the
dilemma of balancing company profitability with the demand to meet environmental
requirements?
This quick guide will explain all the basics of pollution control. It will help
you understand the technologies and prepare you to make informed knowledgeable
decisions. !ll defined terms can be found in the Definitions section. "e sure to visit
the #verview of $mission %ontrol Technologies page once you are comfortable with
the introduction found here.
The first concept to recogni&e is that many distinctly different industries
have similar pollution problems and solutions. #nce you understand the basics then
we can help you begin to decide which is the best for you. !lways contact an !nguil
representative to discuss particular applications and solutions. 'or now all that you
need to know is that ha&ardous air pollutants (H!)s* and +olatile #rganic
%ompounds (+#%s* are in fact harmful to you and the environment. There are
hundreds of science ,ournals and $)! documents that can explain why toluene
ethanol and other organic compounds are bad for your health.

1
BLOCK DIAGRAM
"lock Diagram- Intelligent pollution control system- !uto ignition cut off for
automotives by detecting %arbon .onoxide level at vehicle/s silencer with audio
visual alert
2
Power supply to all sections
Step
down
T/F
Bridge
Rectifier
Filter
Circuit
Regulator
Music generator
for symbolic
representation
of e!icle
ignition
"C input
for
ignition
"C motor for symbolic
representation of e!icle
ignition
Carbon
Mono#ide
Sensor
Sensitiity
control ad$ust
Transistor
drier
circuit
Relay
drier
circuit
%udio
bu&&er
alert
'gnition
control
relay
()"
ignition
indicator
WORKING PROCEDURE
POWER SUPPLY:
The power supply from socket is connected to the step down transformer in
order to step down the voltage from 012v to 30 or 34v and the output of step down
transformer is 30v 2r 34v ac is connected to rectifier to convert it to pulsating dc from
rectifier we will get 30v 2r 34v pulsating dc. The rectifier output is connected to
capacitive filter of 322 micro farads it will blocks D% and allows total ac
ripples5contents to ground from that we will get pure D% and is given to voltage
regulator to get constant output voltage of 6v*
PROJECT WORKING:
1. Initially the car engine is in on condition i.e. it is default driving which is indicated
by a D% motor running and a continuous on and off of an 7$D array.
2. The prototype makes use of alcohol sensor to detect the presence of alcohol or
carbon monoxide gas present in the car.
3. 8henever the driver or the person driving the car consumes alcohol the sensor
senses it and gives a signal to the bu&&er for indicating the presence.
4. This indication is also given to the relay which makes the engine of the car to stop.
5. 8hen the car is stopped the 7$D indication also gets stopped.
6. The sensing and detection of the alcohol present in the car goes on continuously by
the indication of bu&&er until and unless the alcohol present gets vanished.
7. #nce the alcohol gets vanished the bu&&er comes in the initial position i.e it gets
stopped.
8. "y using this simple and efficient prototype for the alcohol detection a much
important and costlier life can be saved by avoiding the occurrence of accidents.

+
ARDWARE E!PLANATION
RESISTOR:
9esistors :9esist: the flow of electrical current. The higher the value of
resistance (measured in ohms* the lower the current will be. 9esistance is the property
of a component which restricts the flow of electric current. $nergy is used up as the
voltage across the component drives the current through it and this energy appears as
heat in the component.

C"#"$% &"'()* :
,
CAPACITOR:
%apacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors
in timing circuits because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are
used to smooth varying D% supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also
used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass !% (changing* signals but they
block D% (constant* signals
C(%&$(+ ,-./"#:
$lectrolytic capacitors are polari&ed and they must be connected the correct
way round at least one of their leads will be marked 0 or ;.
E12.3#4,:

DIODES:

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit
symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical
version of a valve and early diodes were actually called valves.
C(%&$(+ ,-./"#:
-

Diodes must be connected the correct way round the diagram may be
labeled 2 or 0 for anode and 5 or 6 for cathode (yes it really is k not c for cathode<*.
The cathode is marked by a line painted on the body. Diodes are labeled with their
code in small print= you may need a magnifying glass to read this on small signal
diodes.
E12.3#4:


LIGT6EMITTING DIODE 7LED8:
The longer lead is the anode (>* and the shorter lead is the cathode (?minus*. In the
schematic symbol for an 7$D (bottom* the anode is on the left and the
cathode is on the right. 7ight emitting diodes are elements for light
signali&ation in electronics.
.
They are manufactured in different shapes colors and si&es. 'or their low
price low consumption and simple use they have almost completely pushed aside
other light sources; bulbs at first place.
It is important to know that each diode will be immediately destroyed unless
its current is limited. This means that a conductor must be connected in parallel to a
diode. In order to correctly determine value of this conductor it is necessary to know
diode/s voltage drop in forward direction which depends on what material a diode is
made of and what colors it is. +alues typical for the most frequently used diodes are
shown in table below- !s seen there are three main types of 7$Ds. @tandard ones get
full brightness at current of 02m!. 7ow %urrent diodes get full brightness at ten
time/s lower current while @uper "right diodes produce more intensive light than
@tandard ones.
@ince the 4260 microcontrollers can provide only low input current and since
their pins are configured as outputs when voltage level on them is equal to 2 direct
confectioning to 7$Ds is carried out as it is shown on figure (7ow current 7$D
cathode is connected to output pin*.
SWITCES AND PUSBUTTONS:
! push button switch is used to either close or open an electrical circuit
depending on the application. )ush button switches are used in various applications
such as industrial equipment control handles outdoor controls mobile
communication terminals and medical equipment and etc. )ush button switches
generally include a push button disposed within housing. The push button may be
depressed to cause movement of the push button relative to the housing for directly or
indirectly changing the state of an electrical contact to open or close the contact. !lso
included in a pushbutton switch may be an actuator driver or plunger of some type
that is situated within a switch housing having at least two contacts in communication
with an electrical circuit within which the switch is incorporated.
/
Typical actuators used for contact switches include spring loaded force cap
actuators that reciprocate within a sleeve disposed within the canister. The actuator is
typically coupled to the movement of the cap assembly such that the actuator
translates in a direction that is parallel with the cap. ! push button switch for a data
input unit for a mobile communication device such as a cellular phone a key board
for a personal computer or the like is generally constructed by mounting a cover
member directly on a circuit board. )rinted circuit board ()%"* mounted pushbutton
switches are an inexpensive means of providing an operator interface on industrial
control products. In such push button switches a substrate which includes a plurality
of movable sections is formed of a rubber elastomeric. The key top is formed on a top
surface thereof with a figure a character or the like by printing to thereby provide a
cover member. )ush button switches incorporating lighted displays have been used in
a variety of applications. @uch switches are typically comprised of a pushbutton an
opaque legend plate and a back light to illuminate the legend plate.

0
DESCRIPTION O9 BLOCK DIAGRAM
BLOCK DIAGRAM 9OR REGULATED POWER SUPPLY 7RPS8:
9(*$%4: P":4% S$33#-
TRANS9ORMER:
! transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another through inductively coupled conductorsAthe transformerBs coils. ! varying
current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformerBs core and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding.
This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force ($.'* or :voltage:
in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.
9(*$%4: T%2),;"%.4% S-./"#
7O%8
Transformer is a device that converts the one form energy to another form of
energy like a transducer.
1
9(*$%4: T%2),;"%.4%
BASIC PRINCIPLE:
! transformer makes use of 'aradayBs law and the ferromagnetic properties of
an iron core to efficiently raise or lower !% voltages. It of course cannot increase
power so that if the voltage is raised the current is proportionally lowered and vice
versa.
9(*$%4: B2,(& P%()&(3#4
TRANS9ORMER WORKING:
! transformer consists of two coils (often called BwindingsB* linked by an iron
core as shown in figure below. There is no electrical connection between the coils=
instead they are linked by a magnetic field created in the core.
12
9(*$%4: B2,(& T%2),;"%.4%
Transformers are used to convert electricity from one voltage to another with
minimal loss of power. They only work with !% (alternating current* because they
require a changing magnetic field to be created in their core. Transformers can
increase voltage (step;up* as well as reduce voltage (step;down*.
!lternating current flowing in the primary (input* coil creates a continually
changing magnetic field in the iron core. This field also passes through the secondary
(output* coil and the changing strength of the magnetic field induces an alternating
voltage in the secondary coil. If the secondary coil is connected to a load the induced
voltage will make an induced current flow. The correct term for the induced voltage is
Binduced electromotive forceB which is usually abbreviated to induced e.m.f.
The iron core is laminated to prevent Beddy currentsB flowing in the core. These
are currents produced by the alternating magnetic field inducing a small voltage in the
core ,ust like that induced in the secondary coil. $ddy currents waste power by
needlessly heating up the core but they are reduced to a negligible amount by
laminating the iron because this increases the electrical resistance of the core without
affecting its magnetic properties.
T%2),;"%.4%, <2=4 +:" *%42+ 2'=2)+2*4, "=4% "+<4% .4+<"', "; &<2)*()*
="#+2*4:
3. They provide total electrical isolation between the input and output so they
can be safely used to reduce the high voltage of the mains supply.
0. !lmost no power is wasted in a transformer. They have a high efficiency
(power out 5 power in* of C6D or more.
11
CLASSI9ICATION O9 TRANS9ORMER:
@tep;Down Transformer
@tep;Ep Transformer
S+436'":) +%2),;"%.4%:
@tep down transformers are designed to reduce electrical voltage. Their
primary voltage is greater than their secondary voltage. This kind of transformer
:steps down: the voltage applied to it. 'or instance a step down transformer is needed
to use a 332v product in a country with a 002v supply.
@tep down transformers convert electrical voltage from one level or phase
configuration usually down to a lower level. They can include features for electrical
isolation power distribution and control and instrumentation applications. @tep down
transformers typically rely on the principle of magnetic induction between coils to
convert voltage and5or current levels.
@tep down transformers are made from two or more coils of insulated wire
wound around a core made of iron. 8hen voltage is applied to one coil (frequently
called the primary or input* it magneti&es the iron core which induces a voltage in the
other coil (frequently called the secondary or output*. The turn/s ratio of the two sets
of windings determines the amount of voltage transformation.
9(*$%4: S+436D":) T%2),;"%.4%
!n example of this would be- 322 turns on the primary and 62 turns on the secondary
a ratio of 0 to 3.
12
S+43 '":) +%2),;"%.4%, &2) /4 &"),('4%4' )"+<()* ."%4 +<2) 2 ="#+2*4 %2+("
'4=(&4.
8ith step down transformers the voltage ratio between primary and secondary
will mirror the :turn/s ratio: (except for single phase smaller than 3kva which have
compensated secondary*. ! practical application of this 0 to 3 turn/s ratio would be a
F42 to 0F2 voltage step down. Gote that if the input were FF2 volts then the output
would be 002 volts. The ratio between input and output voltage will stay constant.
Transformers should not be operated at voltages higher than the nameplate rating but
may be operated at lower voltages than rated. "ecause of this it is possible to do some
non;standard applications using standard transformers.
@ingle phase step down transformers 3kva and larger may also be reverse
connected to step;down or step;up voltages. (Gote- single phase step up or step down
transformers si&ed less than 3 H+! should not be reverse connected because the
secondary windings have additional turns to overcome a voltage drop when the load is
applied. If reverse connected the output voltage will be less than desired.*
S+436U3 T%2),;"%.4%:
! step up transformer has more turns of wire on the secondary coil which
makes a larger induced voltage in the secondary coil. It is called a step up transformer
because the voltage output is larger than the voltage input.
@tep;up transformer 332v 002v design is one whose secondary voltage is
greater than its primary voltage. This kind of transformer :steps up: the voltage
applied to it. 'or instance a step up transformer is needed to use a 002v product in a
country with a 332v supply.
% step up transformer 1123 222 conerts alternating current
4%C5 from one oltage to anot!er oltage* 't !as no moing parts
and wor6s on a magnetic induction principle7 it can be designed to
8step9up8 or 8step9down8 oltage* So a step up transformer
increases t!e oltage and a step down transformer decreases t!e
oltage*
1+
T!e primary components for oltage transformation are t!e
step up transformer core and coil* T!e insulation is placed between
t!e turns of wire to preent s!orting to one anot!er or to ground*
T!is is typically comprised of Mylar3 nome#3 :raft paper3 arnis!3 or
ot!er materials* %s a transformer !as no moing parts3 it will typically
!ae a life e#pectancy between 22 and 2- years*
9(*$%4: S+436U3 T%2),;"%.4%
APPLICATIONS:
Ienerally these @tep;Ep Transformers are used in industries applications
only.
TYPES O9 TRANS9ORMER:
M2(), T%2),;"%.4%,:
.ains transformers are the most common type. They are designed to reduce
the !% mains supply voltage (012;0F2+ in the EH or 336;302+ in some countries*
to a safer low voltage. The standard mains supply voltages are officially 336+ and
012+ but 302+ and 0F2+ are the values usually quoted and the difference is of no
significance in most cases.
9(*$%4: M2() T%2),;"%.4%
1,

To allow for the two supply voltages mains transformers usually have two
separate primary coils (windings* labeled 2;302+ and 2;302+. The two coils are
connected in series for 0F2+ (figure 0a* and in parallel for 302+ (figure 0b*. They
must be wired the correct way round as shown in the diagrams because the coils must
be connected in the correct sense (direction*-
.ost mains transformers have two separate secondary coils (e.g. labeled 2;
C+ 2;C+* which may be used separately to give two independent supplies or
connected in series to create a center;tapped coil (see below* or one coil with double
the voltage.
@ome mains transformers have a centre;tap halfway through the secondary
coil and they are labeled C;2;C+ for example. They can be used to produce full;wave
rectified D% with ,ust two diodes unlike a standard secondary coil which requires
four diodes to produce full;wave rectified D%.
A .2(), +%2),;"%.4% (, ,34&(;(4' /-:
3. Its secondary (output* voltages +
s
.
0. Its maximum power )
max
which the transformer can pass quoted in +! (volt;
amp*. This determines the maximum output (secondary* current I
max
...
1-
8here +
s
is the secondary voltage. If there are two secondary coils the maximum
power should be halved to give the maximum for each coil.
1. Its construction ; it may be )%";mounting chassis mounting (with solder
tag connections* or steroidal (a high quality design*.
A$'(" T%2),;"%.4%,:
!udio transformers are used to convert the moderate voltage low current
output of an audio amplifier to the low voltage high current required by a
loudspeaker. This use is called Bimpedance matchingB because it is matching the high
impedance output of the amplifier to the low impedance of the loudspeaker.
9(*$%4: A$'(" +%2),;"%.4%
R2'(" T%2),;"%.4%,:
9adio transformers are used in tuning circuits. They are smaller than mains
and audio transformers and they have ad,ustable ferrite cores made of iron dust. The
ferrite cores can be ad,usted with a non;magnetic plastic tool like a small screwdriver.
The whole transformer is enclosed in an aluminum can which acts as a shield
preventing the transformer radiating too much electrical noise to other parts of the
circuit.
9(*$%4: R2'(" T%2),;"%.4%
T$%), R2+(" 2)' >"#+2*4:

The ratio of the number of turns on the primary and secondary coils
determines the ratio of the voltages...
1.
...where +
p
is the primary (input* voltage +
s
is the secondary (output* voltage G
p
is
the number of turns on the primary coil and G
s
is the number of turns on the
secondary coil.
RECTI9IER:
The purpose of a rectifier is to convert an !% waveform into a D% waveform
(#9* 9ectifier converts !% current or voltages into D% current or voltage. There are
two different rectification circuits known as ?<2#;6:2=4? and ?;$##6:2=4? %4&+(;(4%,.
"oth use components called '("'4, to convert AC ()+" DC.
T<4 2#;6:2=4 R4&+(;(4%:
The half;wave rectifier is the simplest type of rectifier since it only uses one
diode as shown in figure.
9(*$%4: 2#; W2=4 R4&+(;(4%
'igure 0 shows the !% input waveform to this circuit and the resulting output.
!s you can see when the !% input is positive the diode is forward;biased and lets
the current through. 8hen the !% input is negative the diode is reverse;biased and
the diode does not let any current through meaning the output is 2+. "ecause there is
a 2.J+ voltage loss across the diode the peak output voltage will be 2.J+ less than
+s.
9(*$%4: 2#;6W2=4 R4&+(;(&2+(")
1/
8hile the output of the half;wave rectifier is D% (it is all positive* it would
not be suitable as a power supply for a circuit. 'irstly the output voltage continually
varies between 2+ and +s;2.J+ and secondly for half the time there is no output at
all.
T<4 9$##6:2=4 R4&+(;(4%:
The circuit in figure 1 addresses the second of these problems since at no time
is the output voltage 2+. This time four diodes are arranged so that both the positive
and negative parts of the !% waveform are converted to D%. The resulting waveform
is shown in figure F.
9(*$%4: 9$##6W2=4 R4&+(;(4%
9(*$%4: 9$##6W2=4 R4&+(;(&2+(")
8hen the !% input is positive diodes ! and " are forward;biased while
diodes % and D are reverse;biased. 8hen the !% input is negative the opposite is
true ; diodes % and D are forward;biased while diodes ! and " are reverse;biased.
8hile the full;wave rectifier is an improvement on the half;wave rectifier its
output still isnBt suitable as a power supply for most circuits since the output voltage
10
still varies between 2+ and +s;3.F+. @o if you put 30+ !% in you will 32.K+ D%
out
CAPACITOR 9ILTER:
The &232&(+"%6()3$+ ;(#+4% also called :)i: filter due to its shape that looks
like the Ireek letter pi is a type of electronic filter. 'ilter circuits are used to remove
unwanted or undesired frequencies from a signal.
9(*$%4: C232&(+"% 9(#+4%
! typical capacitor input filter consists of a filter capacitor %3 connected
across the rectifier output an inductor 7 in series and another filter capacitor
connected across the load.
1* The capacitor %3 offers low reactance to the !% component of the rectifier
output while it offers infinite reactance to the D% component. !s a result the capacitor
shunts an appreciable amount of the !% component while the D% component
continues its ,ourney to the inductor 7
2* The inductor 7 offers high reactance to the !% component but it offers almost
&ero reactance to the D% component. !s a result the D% component flows through the
inductor while the !% component is blocked.
1. The capacitor %0 bypasses the !% component which the inductor had failed to
block. !s a result only the D% component appears across the load 97.
11
9(*$%4: C4)+4%4' T2334' 9$##6W2=4 R4&+(;(4% :(+< 2 C232&(+"% 9(#+4%
>OLTAGE REGULATOR:
! voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically
maintain a constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism or
passive or active electronic components. Depending on the design it may be used to
regulate one or more !% or D% voltages. There are two types of regulator are they.
)ositive +oltage @eries (J4xx* and
Gegative +oltage @eries (JCxx*
7811:
/J4/ indicate the positive series and Lxx/ indicates the voltage rating. @uppose
J426 produces the maximum 6+./26/indicates the regulator output is 6+.
7@11:
/J4/ indicate the negative series and Lxx/ indicates the voltage rating. @uppose
JC26 produces the maximum ;6+./26/indicates the regulator output is ;6+.
These regulators consists the three pins there are
P()1: It is used for input pin.
P()2: This is ground pin for regulator
P()3: It is used for output pin. Through this pin we get the output.
9(*$%4: R4*$#2+"%
RELAYS:
! relay is an electrically controllable switch widely used in industrial controls
automobiles and appliances.
22
The relay allows the isolation of two separate sections of a system with two
different voltage sources i.e. a small amount of voltage5current on one side can
handle a large amount of voltage5current on the other side but there is no chance that
these two voltages mix up.
I)'$&+"%

9(*: C(%&$(+ ,-./"# "; 2 %4#2-
OPERATION:
8hen a current flow through the coil a magnetic field is created around the
coil i.e. the coil is energi&ed. This causes the armature to be attracted to the coil. The
armature/s contact acts like a switch and closes or opens the circuit. 8hen the coil is
not energi&ed a spring pulls the armature to its normal state of open or closed. There
are all types of relays for all kinds of applications.
9(*: R4#2- O34%2+(") 2)' $,4 "; 3%"+4&+(") '("'4,
Transistors and I%s must be protected from the brief high voltage BspikeB
produced when the relay coil is switched off. The above diagram shows how a signal
diode (eg 3GF3F4* is connected across the relay coil to provide this protection. The
diode is connected BbackwardsB so that it will normally not conduct. %onduction
occurs only when the relay coil is switched off at this moment the current tries to
flow continuously through the coil and it is safely diverted through the diode. 8ithout
the diode no current could flow and the coil would produce a damaging high voltage
BspikeB in its attempt to keep the current flowing.
21
In choosing a relay the following characteristics need to be considered-
3. The contacts can be normally open (G#* or normally closed (G%*. In the G% type
the contacts are closed when the coil is not energi&ed. In the G# type the contacts are
closed when the coil is energi&ed.
0. There can be one or more contacts. i.e. different types like @)@T (single pole
single throw* @)DT (single pole double throw* and D)DT (double pole double
throw* relay.
1. The voltage and current required to energi&e the coil. The voltage can vary from a
few volts to 62 volts while the current can be from a few milliamps to 02milliamps.
The relay has a minimum voltage below which the coil will not be energi&ed. This
minimum voltage is called the Mpull;inN voltage.
F. The minimum D%5!% voltage and current that can be handled by the contacts. This
is in the range of a few volts to hundreds of volts while the current can be from a few
amps to F2! or more depending on the relay.
! relay is used to isolate one electrical circuit from another. It allows a low
current control circuit to make or break an electrically isolated high current circuit
path. The basic relay consists of a coil and a set of contacts. The most common relay
coil is a length of magnet wire wrapped around a metal core. 8hen voltage is applied
to the coil current passes through the wire and creates a magnetic field. This magnetic
field pulls the contacts together and holds them there until the current flow in the coil
has stopped. The diagram below shows the parts of a simple relay.
9(*$%4: R4#2-
O34%2+("):
8hen a current flows through the coil the resulting magnetic field attracts an
armature that is mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement either makes
or breaks a connection with a fixed contact. 8hen the current is switched off the
armature is usually returned by a spring to its resting position shown in figure K.K(b*.
22
7atching relays exist that require operation of a second coil to reset the contact
position.
"y analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device a solid;state
relay operates a thyristor or other solid;state switching device with a transformer or
light;emitting diode to trigger it.
POLE AND TROW:
SPST
@)@T relay stands for @ingle )ole @ingle Throw relay. %urrent will only flow
through the contacts when the relay coil is energi&ed.
9(*$%4: SPST R4#2-
SPDT R4#2-
@)DT 9elay stands for @ingle )ole Double Throw relay. %urrent will flow
between the movable contact and one fixed contact when the coil is De;energi&ed and
between the movable contact and the alternate fixed contact when the relay coil is
energi&ed. The most commonly used relay in car audio the "osch relay is a @)DT
relay.
9(*$%4: SPDT R4#2-
DPST R4#2-
D)@T relay stands for Double )ole @ingle Throw relay. 8hen the relay coil is
energi&ed two separate and electrically isolated sets of contacts are pulled down to
make contact with their stationary counterparts. There is no complete circuit path
when the relay is De;energi&ed.
9(*$%4: DPST R4#2-
2+
DPDT R4#2-
D)DT relay stands for Double )ole Double Throw relay. It operates like the
@)DT relay but has twice as many contacts. There are two completely isolated sets of
contacts.
9(*$%4: DPDT R4#2-
This is a F )ole Double Throw relay. It operates like the @)DT relay but it has F sets
of isolated contacts.
9(*$%4: 4 P"#4 D"$/#4 T<%": %4#2-
TYPES O9 RELAY-
3. 7atching 9elay
0. 9eed 9elay
1. .ercury 8etted 9elay
F. .achine Tool 9elay
6. @olid @tate 9elay (@@9*
L2+&<()* %4#2-:
7atching relay dust cover removed showing pawl and ratchet mechanism.
The ratchet operates a cam which raises and lowers the moving contact arm seen
edge;on ,ust below it. The moving and fixed contacts are visible at the left side of the
image.
! #2+&<()* %4#2- has two relaxed states (bi;stable*. These are also called
:impulse: :keep: or :stay: relays. 8hen the current is switched off the relay
remains in its last state. This is achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam
mechanism or by having two opposing coils with an over;center spring or permanent
magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position while the coil is relaxed or with
2,
a remnant core. In the ratchet and cam example the first pulse to the coil turns the
relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil example a pulse to one coil
turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type of relay
has the advantage that it consumes power only for an instant while it is being
switched and it retains its last setting across a power outage. ! remnant core latching
relay requires a current pulse of opposite polarity to make it change state.
9(*$%4: L2+&<()* %4#2-
R44' %4#2-:
! reed relay has a set of contacts inside a vacuum or inert gas filled glass tube
which protects the contacts against atmospheric corrosion. The contacts are closed by
a magnetic field generated when current passes through a coil around the glass tube.
9eed relays are capable of faster switching speeds than larger types of relays but
have low switch current and voltage ratings.
M4%&$%-6:4++4' R4#2-:
! .4%&$%-6:4++4' %44' %4#2- is a form of reed relay in which the contacts
are wetted with mercury. @uch relays are used to switch low;voltage signals (one volt
or less* because of their low contact resistance or for high;speed counting and timing
applications where the mercury eliminates contact bounce. .ercury wetted relays are
position;sensitive and must be mounted vertically to work properly. "ecause of the
toxicity and expense of liquid mercury these relays are rarely specified for new
equipment. @ee also mercury switch.
M2&<()4 +""# %4#2-:
! .2&<()4 +""# %4#2- is a type standardi&ed for industrial control of machine
tools transfer machines and other sequential control. They are characteri&ed by a
2-
large number of contacts (sometimes extendable in the field* which are easily
converted from normally;open to normally;closed status easily replaceable coils and
a form factor that allows compactly installing many relays in a control panel.
!lthough such relays once were the backbone of automation in such industries as
automobile assembly the programmable logic controller ()7%* mostly displaced the
machine tool relay from sequential control applications.
S"#('6,+2+4 %4#2-:
! solid state relay (@@9* is a solid state electronic component that provides a
similar function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving
components increasing long;term reliability. 8ith early @@9Bs the tradeoff came
from the fact that every transistor has a small voltage drop across it. This voltage drop
limited the amount of current a given @@9 could handle. !s transistors improved
higher current @@9Bs able to handle 322 to 3022 !mperes have become
commercially available. %ompared to electromagnetic relays they may be falsely
triggered by transients.
9(*$%4: S"#(' %4#2-A :<(&< <2, )" ."=()* 32%+,
SPECI9ICATION:
Gumber and type of contacts O normally open normally closed (double;
throw*
%ontact sequence O :.ake before "reak: or :"reak before .ake:. 'or
example the old style telephone exchanges required .ake;before;break so
that the connection didnBt get dropped while dialing the number.
9ating of contacts O small relays switch a few amperes large contactors are
rated for up to 1222 amperes alternating or direct current
+oltage rating of contacts O typical control relays rated 122 +!% or K22 +!%
automotive types to 62 +D% special high;voltage relays to about 36 222 +
2.
%oil voltage O machine;tool relays usually 0F +!% 302 or 062 +!% relays
for switchgear may have 306 + or 062 +D% coils :sensitive: relays operate
on a few milli;amperes
APPLICATIONS-
R4#2-, 2%4 $,4'-
To control a high;voltage circuit with a low;voltage signal as in some types of
modems
To control a high;current circuit with a low;current signal as in the starter
solenoid of an automobile
To detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening
and closing circuit breakers (protection relays*
To isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are
at different potentials for example when controlling a mains;powered device
from a low;voltage switch. The latter is often applied to control office lighting
as the low voltage wires are easily installed in partitions which may be often
moved as needs change. They may also be controlled by room occupancy
detectors in an effort to conserve energy
To perform logic functions. 'or example the "oolean !GD function is
reali&ed by connecting relay contacts in series the #9 function by connecting
contacts in parallel. Due to the failure modes of a relay compared with a
semiconductor they are widely used in safety critical logic such as the control
panels of radioactive waste handling machinery.
!s oscillators also called vibrators. The coil is wired in series with the
normally closed contacts. 8hen a current is passed through the relay coil the
relay operates and opens the contacts that carry the supply current. This stops
the current and causes the contacts to close again. The cycle repeats
continuously causing the relay to open and close rapidly. +ibrators are used to
generate pulsed current.
To generate sound. ! vibrator described above creates a bu&&ing sound
because of the rapid oscillation of the armature. This is the basis of the electric
2/
bell which consists of a vibrator with a hammer attached to the armature so it
can repeatedly strike a bell.
To perform time delay functions. 9elays can be used to act as an mechanical
time delay device by controlling the release time by using the effect of
residual magnetism by means of a inserting copper disk between the armature
and moving blade assembly.
BUBBER:
!n electric coil is wound on a plastic bobbin the latter having a central sleeve
within which a magnetic core is slide ably positioned. #ne end of the sleeve is closed
and pro,ects beyond the coil. !n inverted
cup;shaped housing surrounds the
coil and bobbin and has a central opening
through which the closed end of the sleeve
pro,ects. The core pro,ects into the closed
end of the sleeve beyond the margin of the opening in the housing to augment the
magnetic coupling between the housing and the core. The open end of the housing is
attached to a support bracket of magnetic material there being a spring between the
bracket and bobbin normally urging the core toward the closed end of the sleeve.
'or a self; drive bu&&er (D%5 circuit; built* either pi&eo or magnetic ,ust apply
the rated current and voltage. 'or the external;drive bu&&er it depends on
3. 8e should give magnetic bu&&er 350 square wave and provide it at least 1 times the
amount of the rated consumptive current.
0. #therwise we give square wave to the pei&o bu&&er instead of 350 square wave
because the half wave might cause the bu&&er does not work.
Therefore voltage control is an important factor for a pei&o bu&&er which is driven by
the voltage.
DC GEARED MOTOR
DC MOTOR
! D% motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (D%* electricity.
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DC MOTOR CONNECTIONS:
'igure shows schematically the different methods of connecting the field and
armature circuits in a D% .otor. The circular symbol represents the armature circuit
and the squares at the side of the circle represent the brush commutator system. The
direction of the arrows indicates the direction of the magnetic fields.
BRUSED:
The brushed D% motor generates torque directly from D% power supplied to
the motor by using internal commutation stationary permanent magnets and rotating
electrical magnets. It works on the principle of 7orent& force which states that any
current carrying conductor placed within an external magnetic field experiences a
torque or force known as 7orent& force. !dvantages of a brushed D% motor include
low initial cost high reliability and simple control of motor speed. Disadvantages are
high maintenance and low life;span for high intensity uses. .aintenance involves
regularly replacing the brushes and springs which carry the electric current as well as
cleaning or replacing the commutator. These components are necessary for
21
transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the spinning wire windings of
the rotor inside the motor "rushed D% motor
BRUSLESS:
"rushless D% motors use a rotating permanent magnet in the rotor and
stationary electrical magnets on the motor housing. ! motor controller converts D% to
!%. This design is simpler than that of brushed motors because it eliminates the
complication of transferring power from outside the motor to the spinning rotor.
!dvantages of brushless motors include long life span little or no maintenance and
high efficiency. Disadvantages include high initial cost and more complicated motor
speed controllers.
TORQUE AND SPEED OF A DC MOTOR:
The torque of an electric motor is independent of speed. It is rather a
function of flux and armature current.
CARACTERISTICS O9 DC MOTORS:
D% motors respond to load changes in different ways depending on the
arrangement of the windings*
SUNT WOUND MOTOR:
! shunt wound motor has a high;resistance field winding connected in parallel
with the armature. It responds to increased load by trying to maintain its speed and
this leads to an increase in armature current. This makes it unsuitable for widely;
varying loads which may lead to overheating.
SERIES WOUND MOTOR:
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! series wound motor has a low;resistance field winding connected in series
with the armature. It responds to increased load by slowing down and this reduces the
armature current and minimi&es the risk of overheating. @eries wound motors were
widely used as traction motors in rail transport of every kind but are being phased out
in favor of !% induction motors supplied through solid state inverters. The counter;
emf aids the armature resistance to limit the current through the armature. 8hen
power is first applied to a motor the armature does not rotate. !t that instant the
counter;emf is &ero and the only factor limiting the armature current is the armature
resistance. Esually the armature resistance of a motor is less than 3 P= therefore the
current through the armature would be very large when the power is applied.
Therefore the need arises for an additional resistance in series with the armature to
limit the current until the motor rotation can build up the counter;emf. !s the motor
rotation builds up the resistance is gradually cut out.
PERMANENT MAGNET MOTOR:
! permanent magnet D% motor is characteri&ed by its locked rotor (stall*
torque and its no;load angular velocity (speed*.
P%()&(3#4, "; "34%2+("):
In any electric motor operation is based on simple electromagnetism. !
current;carrying conductor generates a magnetic field= when this is then placed in an
external magnetic field it will experience a force proportional to the current in the
conductor and to the strength of the external magnetic field. !s you are well aware of
from playing with magnets as a kid opposite (Gorth and @outh* polarities attract
while like polarities (Gorth and Gorth @outh and @outh* repel. The internal
configuration of a D% motor is designed to harness the magnetic interaction between
a current;carrying conductor and an external magnetic field to generate rotational
motion.
7etBs start by looking at a simple 0;pole D% electric motor (here red represents
a magnet or winding with a :Gorth: polari&ation while green represents a magnet or
winding with a :@outh: polari&ation*.
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$very D% motor has six basic parts ;; axle rotor (a.k.a. armature* stator
commutator field magnet(s* and brushes. In most common D% motors (and all that
"eamers will see* the external magnetic field is produced by high;strength permanent
magnets. The stator is the stationary part of the motor ;; this includes the motor
casing as well as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with
the axle and attached commutator* rotates with respect to the stator. The rotor consists
of windings (generally on a core* the windings being electrically connected to the
commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor layout ;; with the rotor
inside the stator (field* magnets.
The geometry of the brushes commutator contacts and rotor windings are
such that when power is applied the polarities of the energi&ed winding and the stator
magnet(s* are misaligned and the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the
statorBs field magnets. !s the rotor reaches alignment the brushes move to the next
commutator contacts and energi&e the next winding. Iiven our example two;pole
motor the rotation reverses the direction of current through the rotor winding leading
to a :flip: of the rotorBs magnetic field driving it to continue rotating.
In real life though D% motors will always have more than two poles (three is
a very common number*. In particular this avoids :dead spots: in the commutator.
Qou can imagine how with our example two;pole motor if the rotor is exactly at the
middle of its rotation (perfectly aligned with the field magnets* it will get :stuck:
there. .eanwhile with a two;pole motor there is a moment where the commutator
shorts out the power supply (i.e. both brushes touch both commutator contacts
simultaneously*. This would be bad for the power supply waste energy and damage
motor components as well. Qet another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it
would exhibit a high amount of torque :ripple: (the amount of torque it could produce
is cyclic with the position of the rotor*.
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@o since most small D% motors are of a three;pole design letBs tinker with the
workings of one via an interactive animation.
QouBll notice a few things from this ;; namely one pole is fully energi&ed at a
time (but two others are :partially: energi&ed*. !s each brush transitions from one
commutator contact to the next one coilBs field will rapidly collapse as the next coilBs
field will rapidly charge up (this occurs within a few microsecond*. 8eBll see more
about the effects of this later but in the meantime you can see that this is a direct
result of the coil windingsB series wiring-
The use of an iron core armature (as in the .abuchi above* is quite common
and has a number of advantages. 'irst off the iron core provides a strong rigid
support for the windings ;; a particularly important consideration for high;torque
motors. The core also conducts heat away from the rotor windings allowing the
motor to be driven harder than might otherwise be the case. Iron core construction is
also relatively inexpensive compared with other construction types.
"ut iron core construction also has several disadvantages. The iron armature
has a relatively high inertia which limits motor acceleration. This construction also
results in high winding inductances which limit brush and commutator life.
In small motors an alternative design is often used which features a BcorelessB
armature winding. This design depends upon the coil wire itself for structural
integrity. !s a result the armature is hollow and the permanent magnet can be
mounted inside the rotor coil. %oreless D% motors have much lower armature
inductance than iron;core motors of comparable si&e extending brush and
commutator life.
++
DC ."+"% /4<2=("%:
It gives High;speed output.This is the simplest trait to understand and treat ;;
most D% motors run at very high output speeds (generally thousands or tens of
thousands of 9).*. 8hile this is fine for some "$!. bots (say photo poppers or
solar rollers* many "$!. bots (walkers heads* require lower speeds ;; you must put
gears on your D% motorBs output for these applications.
B2&5 EM9:
Rust as putting voltage across a wire in a magnetic field can generate
motion moving a wire through a magnetic field can generate voltage. This means that
as a D% motorBs rotor spins it generates voltage ;; the output voltage is known as
back $.'. "ecause of back $.' a spark is created at the commutator as a motorBs
brushes switch from contact to contact. .eanwhile back $.' can damage sensitive
circuits when a motor is stopped suddenly.
N"(,4 7%(33#48 ") 3":4% #()4,:
! number of things will cause a D% motor to put noise on its power lines-
commutation noise (a function of brush 5 commutator design ? construction*
roughness in bearings (via back $.'* and gearing roughness (via back $.' if the
motor is part of a gearmotor* are three big contributors.
$ven without these avoidable factors any electric motor will put noise on
its power lines by virtue of the fact that its current draw is not constant throughout its
motion. Ioing back to our example two;pole motor its current draw will be a
function of the angle between its rotor coil and field magnets-
@ince most small D% motors have 1 coils the coilsB current curves will overlay each
other-
+,
!dded together this ideal motorBs current will then look something like this-
9eality is a bit more complex than this as even a high;quality motor will
display a current transient at each commutation transition. @ince each coil has
inductance (by definition* and some capacitance there will be a surge of current as
the commutatorBs brushes first touch a coilBs contact and another as the brushes leave
the contact (here thereBs a slight spark as the coilBs magnetic field collapses*.
!s a good example consider an oscilloscope trace of the current through a
.abuchi '';212)G motor supplied with 0 + (3ms per hori&ontal division 2.26m!
per vertical division*-
In this case the peak;to;peak current ripple is approximately 2.0Cm! while
the average motor current is ,ust under 13m!. @o under these conditions the motor
puts about less than 3D of current ripple onto its power lines (and as you can see from
the :clean: traces it outputs essentially no high;frequency current noise*. Gote that
since this is a 1;pole motor and each coil is energi&ed in both directions over the
course of a rotor rotation one revolution of the rotor will correspond to six of the
above curves (here K x 0.F ms S 2.23FF sec corresponding to a motor rotation rate of
,ust fewer than F022 9).*.
.otor power ripple can wreak havoc in Gv nets by destabili&ing them
inadvertently. 'ortunately this can be mitigated by putting a small capacitor across
the motorBs power lines (youBll only be able to filter out :spiky: transients this way
though ;; youBll always see curves like the ones above being imposed on your power*.
#n the flip side of this coin motor power ripple can be put to good use ;; as was
shown above ripple frequency can be used to measure motor speed and its
destabili&ing tendencies can be used to reverse a motor without the need for discrete
:back;up: sensors

+-
APPLICATIONS
!utomobiles.
Industrial and mining applications.
%arbon monoxide monitoring and leakage detection.

+.
AD>ANTAGES
%ontent of )ollution in environment can be reduced.
Due to the implementation of this pro,ect we can maintain the co level in
atmosphere which can reduce adverse effects on environment and on human
life.
+ehicle can work smoothly and no need to pay challans to pollution control
board
%heck and repair exhaust system leaks.
7ong life and low cost
$ase of operation
Highly sensitive
'it and 'orget system
7ow cost
@imple and 9eliable circuits
+/
CONCLUSION
The pro,ect MIGT$77II$GT )#77ETI#G %#GT9#7 @Q@T$. Mis
implemented successfully for automotives and industrial application for reducing and
maintaining %# level which is harmful for ecosystem and which is affordable from
small to large scale industries for maintaining pollution norms. The pro,ect is
implemented through a D% motor for symbolic representation of vehicle and user get
alert through a beep sound and if the content of co is more automatically vehicle gets
stopped with flash lights.

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RE9ERENCE
3. 8ikipedia
0. $mbedded systems by 9a,kamal
1. .aga&ines
F. $lectronics for you
6. $lectrikindia
K. www.$lectronic pro,ects.com
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