DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(A Constituent College of Manipal University)
MANIPAL 576104, KARNATAKA, INDIA

Report of Industrial Training
At
BSNL, Mangalore
Submitted by
Anil R Kamath
100907121
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING






1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to all those who gave me the
possibility to complete this report.
I am highly indebted to Mr V.G.Naik, SDE, BSNL Mangalore for his guidance and constant
supervision as well as for providing necessary information regarding the training and also for
his support in completing the training session.
I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents & members of BSNL for their kind
co-operation and encouragement which help me in completion of this training.
I would like to express my special gratitude and thanks to industry persons for giving me
such attention and time.
My thanks and appreciations also go to my colleagues who have willingly helped me out with
their abilities.
















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CONTENTS
(i) Certificate
(ii) Acknowledgement
Chapter 1. Introduction to Optical Fibre Communication
1.1 Advantages of Fibre Optics
1.2 Fibre Optic System
1.3 Principle of Operation
Chapter 2. Fibre Characteristics
2.1 Geometry of Fibre
2.2 Fibre Types
2.3 Optical Fibre Parameters
2.4 Cable Construction
Chapter 3. OF Transmission Systems and their Features
3.1 Introduction to PDH Systems
3.2 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) and its features
3.3 Network Elements of SDH
Chapter 4. Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
4.1 Introduction
4.2 DWDM System Functions and Components
4.3 Advantages of DWDM
Chapter 5. GSM Architecture
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Components in GSM Architecture
5.3 Call Processing
5.4 Call and Mobility Management
5.5 Handover Management
Chapter 6. NGN: Next Generation Network
6.1 Why NGN?
6.2 NGN Characteristics
3

6.3 The NGN Architecture
6.4 Evolution of present networks to NGN: Related Issues


PROJECT HIGHLIGHTS
(iii) About the Company
(iv) References




















4

1. INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION
The use and demand for optical fibre has grown tremendously and optical-fibre applications
are numerous. Telecommunication applications are widespread, ranging from global
networks to desktop computers. These involve the transmission of voice, data, or video over
distances of less than a meter to hundreds of kilometers, using one of a few standard fibre
designs in one of several cable designs.
Carriers use optical fibre to carry plain old telephone service (POTS) across their nationwide
networks. Local exchange carriers (LECs) use fibre to carry this same service between central
office switches at local levels, and sometimes as far as the neighborhood or individual home
(fibre to the home [FTTH]).
Optical fibre is also used extensively for transmission of data.
Cable television companies also use fibre for delivery of digital video and data services. The
high bandwidth provided by fibre makes it the perfect choice for transmitting broadband
signals, such as high-definition television (HDTV) telecasts.

1.1 ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTICS:
Fibre Optics has the following advantages:
SPEED: Fibre optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the gigabits
BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity
DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be "refreshed" or
strengthened.
RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radios, motors or other
nearby cables.
MAINTENANCE: Fibre optic cables costs much less to maintain.
1.2 FIBRE OPTIC SYSTEM:
Optical Fibre is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video) is transmitted
through a glass or plastic fibre, in the form of light, following the transmission sequence give
below:
Information is encoded into Electrical Signals.
Electrical Signals are converted into light Signals.
5

Light Travels down the Fibre.
A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.
Electrical Signals are decoded into Information.
- Inexpensive light sources available.
- Repeater spacing increases along with operating speeds because low loss fibres
are used at high data rates.


1.3 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Total Internal Reflection - The reflection that occurs when a light ray travelling in one
material hits a different material and reflects back into the original material without any loss
of light.

6

Propagation Of Light Through Fibre
The optical fibre has two concentric layers called the core and the cladding. The inner core is
the light carrying part. The surrounding cladding provides the difference refractive index that
allows total internal reflection of light through the core. The index of the cladding is less than
1%, lower than that of the core. Typical values for example are a core refractive index of 1.47
and a cladding index of 1.46. Fibre manufacturers control this difference to obtain desired
optical fibre characteristics. Most fibres have an additional coating around the cladding. This
buffer coating is a shock absorber and has no optical properties affecting the propagation of
light within the fibre. Figure shows the idea of light travelling through a fibre. Light injected
into the fibre and striking core to cladding interface at greater than the critical angle, reflects
back into core, since the angle of incidence and reflection are equal, the reflected light will
again be reflected. The light will continue zigzagging down the length of the fibre. Light
striking the interface at less than the critical angle passes into the cladding, where it is lost
over distance. The cladding is usually inefficient as a light carrier, and light in the cladding
becomes attenuated fairly. Propagation of light through fibre is governed by the indices of the
core and cladding by Snell's law.
The specific characteristics of light propagation through a fibre depends on many factors,
including
The size of the fibre.
The composition of the fibre.
The light injected into the fibre.


Jacket
Cladding
Core
Cladding
Angle of
reflection
Angle of
incidence
Light at less than
critical angle is
absorbed in jacket
Jacket
Light is propagated by
total internal reflection
Jacket
Cladding
Core
(n
2)
(n
2)
Fig. Total Internal Reflection in an optical Fibre
7

2. FIBRE CHARACTERISTIC
2.1 GEOMETRY OF FIBRE
A hair-thin fibre consist of two concentric layers of high-purity silica glass the core and the
cladding, which are enclosed by a protective sheath as shown in Fig. Light rays modulated
into digital pulses with a laser or a light-emitting diode moves along the core without
penetrating the cladding.

Geometry of fibre
The light stays confined to the core because the cladding has a lower refractive indexa
measure of its ability to bend light. Refinements in optical fibres, along with the development
of new lasers and diodes, may one day allow commercial fibre-optic networks to carry
trillions of bits of data per second.
The diameters of the core and cladding are as follows.


Core (m) Cladding ( m)
8 125
50 125
62.5 125
100 140


8

2.2 FIBRE TYPES
The refractive Index profile describes the relation between the indices of the core and
cladding. Two main relationships exist:
1. Step Index
2. Graded Index
The step index fibre has a core with uniform index throughout. The profile shows a sharp step
at the junction of the core and cladding. In contrast, the graded index has a non-uniform core.
The Index is highest at the center and gradually decreases until it matches with that of the
cladding. There is no sharp break in indices between the core and the cladding.
By this classification there are three types of fibres:
1. Multimode Step Index fibre (Step Index fibre)
2. Multimode graded Index fibre (Graded Index fibre)
3. Single- Mode Step Index fibre (Single Mode Fibre)
Step-Index Multimode Fibre has a large core, up to 100 microns in diameter. As a result,
some of the light rays that make up the digital pulse may travel a direct route, whereas others
zigzag as they bounce off the cladding. These alternative pathways cause the different
groupings of light rays, referred to as modes, to arrive separately at a receiving point. The
pulse, an aggregate of different modes, begins to spread out, losing its well-defined shape.
The need to leave spacing between pulses to prevent overlapping limits bandwidth that is, the
amount of information that can be sent. Consequently, this type of fibre is best suited for
transmission over short distances, in an endoscope, for instance.

Graded-Index Multimode Fibre contains a core in which the refractive index diminishes
gradually from the center axis out toward the cladding. The higher refractive index at the
center makes the light rays moving down the axis advance more slowly than those near the
cladding.

9

Also, rather than zigzagging off the cladding, light in the core curves helically because of the
graded index, reducing its travel distance. The shortened path and the higher speed allow
light at the periphery to arrive at a receiver at about the same time as the slow but straight
rays in the core axis. The result: a digital pulse suffers less dispersion.
Single-Mode Fibre has a narrow core (eight microns or less), and the index of refraction
between the core and the cladding changes less than it does for multimode fibres. Light thus
travels parallel to the axis, creating little pulse dispersion. Telephone and cable television
networks install millions of kilometers of this fibre every year.

2.3 OPTICAL FIBRE PARAMETERS
Optical fibre systems have the following parameters.
Wavelength.
Frequency.
Window.
Attenuation.
Dispersion.
Bandwidth.
Wavelength
It is a characteristic of light that is emitted from the light source and is measures in
nanometers (nm). In the visible spectrum, wavelength can be described as the colour of the
light.
For example, Red Light has longer wavelength than Blue Light, Typical wavelength for fibre
use are 850nm, 1300nm and 1550nm all of which are invisible.
Frequency
It is number of pulse per second emitted from a light source. Frequency is measured in units
of hertz (Hz). In terms of optical pulse 1Hz = 1 pulse/ sec.


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Attenuation
Attenuation is defined as the loss of optical power over a set distance, a fibre with lower
attenuation will allow more power to reach a receiver than fibre with higher attenuation.
Attenuation may be categorized as intrinsic or extrinsic.
Intrinsic Attenuation
It is loss due to inherent or within the fibre. Intrinsic attenuation may occur as
Absorption - Natural Impurities in the glass absorb light energy.



Absorption of Light
Scattering - Light Rays Travelling in the Core Reflect from small Imperfections into
a New Pathway that may be Lost through the cladding.

Scattering

Extrinsic Attenuation
It is loss due to external sources. Extrinsic attenuation may occur as
(I) Macro bending - The fibre is sharply bent so that the light travelling down the
fibre cannot make the turn & is lost in the cladding.
Light
Ray
Light is lost
11


Micro and Macro bending
(II) Micro bending - Micro bending or small bends in the fibre caused by crushing
contraction etc. These bends may not be visible with the naked eye.
Attenuation is measured in decibels (dB). A dB represents the comparison between the
transmitted and received power in a system.
Bandwidth
It is defined as the amount of information that a system can carry such that each pulse of light
is distinguishable by the receiver.
System bandwidth is measured in MHz or GHz. In general, when we say that a system has
bandwidth of 20 MHz, means that 20 million pulses of light per second will travel down the
fibre and each will be distinguishable by the receiver.
Optical Windows
Attenuation of fibre for optical power varies with the wavelengths of light. Windows are low-
loss regions, where fibre carries light with little attenuation. The first generation of optical
fibre operated in the first window around 820 to 850 nm. The second window is the zero-
dispersion region of 1300 nm and the third window is the 1550 nm.
A narrow window is defined as the range of wavelengths at which a fibre best operates.
Typical windows are given below:
Window Operational Wavelength
800nm - 900nm 850nm
Micro bend
Micro bend
Fig. Loss and Bends
Micro bend

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1250nm - 1350nm 1300nm
1500nm - 1600nm 1550nm



2.4 CABLE CONSTRUCTION
There are two basic cable designs are:
1. Tight Buffer Tub e Cable
2. Loose Buffer Tube Cable
Loose-tube cable, used in the majority of outside-plant installations and tight-buffered
cable, primarily used inside buildings.
Tight-Buffered Cable
With tight-buffered cable designs, the buffering material is in direct contact with the fibre.
This design is suited for "jumper cables" which connect outside plant cables to terminal
equipment, and also for linking various devices in a premises network.
Loose-Tube Cable
The modular design of loose-tube cables typically holds 6, 12, 24, 48, 96 or even more than
400 fibres per cable. Loose-tube cables can be all-dielectric or optionally armored. The loose-
tube design also helps in the identification and administration of fibres in the system.
13

In a loose-tube cable design, color-coded plastic buffer tubes house and protect optical fibres.
A gel filling compound impedes water penetration. Excess fibre length (relative to buffer tube
length) insulates fibres from stresses of installation and environmental loading. Loose-tube
cables typically are used for outside-plant installation in aerial, duct and direct-buried
applications.


Tight Buffer Tube Cable

Loose Tube Cable






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3. OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS & THEIR FEATURES
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO PDH SYSTEMS
With the introduction of PCM technology in the 1960s, communications networks were
gradually converted to digital technology over the next few years. To cope with the demand
for ever higher bit rates, a multiplex hierarchy called the plesiochronous digital hierarchy
(PDH) evolved. The term Digital Hierarchy has been created when developing digital
transmission systems. It was laid down by multiplexing a certain number of PCM primary
multiplexers and combined to form digital multiplexers of higher order.

Encoded FDM (Master Group) USA & Canada

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The main problems of PDH systems are:
1. Homogeneity of equipment
2. Problem of Channel segregation
3. The problem cross connection of channels
4. Inability to identify individual channels in a higher-order bit stream.
5. Insufficient capacity for network management;
6. Most PDH network management is proprietary.
7. Theres no standardized definition of PDH bit rates greater than 140 Mb/s.
3.2 SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY (SDH) AND ITS FEATURES
In 1988 SDH standard introduced with three major goals:
o Avoid the problems of PDH
o Achieve higher bit rates (Gbit/s)
o Better means for Operation, Administration, and Maintenance (OA&M)
SDH is an ITU-T standard for a high capacity telecom network. SDH is a synchronous
digital transport system, aim to provide a simple, economical and flexible telecom
infrastructure. The basis of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) is synchronous
multiplexing - data from multiple tributary sources is byte interleaved.
SDH brings the following advantages to network providers:
High transmission rates
Transmission rates of up to 40 Gbit/s can be achieved in modern SDH systems. SDH is
therefore the most suitable technology for backbones, which can be considered as being the
super highways in today's telecommunications networks.
Simplified add & drop function
Compared with the older PDH system, it is much easier to extract and insert low-bit rate
channels from or into the high-speed bit streams in SDH. It is no longer necessary to
demultiplex and then remultiplex the plesiochronous structure.
High availability and capacity matching
With SDH, network providers can react quickly and easily to the requirements of their
customers. For example, leased lines can be switched in a matter of minutes. The network
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provider can use standardized network elements that can be controlled and monitored from a
central location by means of a telecommunications network management (TMN) system.
Reliability
Modern SDH networks include various automatic back-up and repair mechanisms to cope
with system faults. Failure of a link or a network element does not lead to failure of the entire
network which could be a financial disaster for the network provider. These back-up circuits
are also monitored by a management system.
Future-proof platform for new services
Right now, SDH is the ideal platform for services ranging from POTS, ISDN and mobile
radio through to data communications (LAN, WAN, etc.), and it is able to handle the very
latest services, such as video on demand and digital video broadcasting via ATM that are
gradually becoming established.
Interconnection
SDH makes it much easier to set up gateways between different network providers and to
SONET systems. The SDH interfaces are globally standardized, making it possible to
combine network elements from different manufacturers into a network. The result is a
reduction in equipment costs as compared with PDH.

3.3 NETWORK ELEMENTS OF SDH


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The above figure is a schematic diagram of a SDH ring structure with various tributaries.
Current SDH networks are basically made up from four different types of network element.
The topology (i.e. ring or mesh structure) is governed by the requirements of the network
provider.
Terminal Multiplexer (TM)
Terminal multiplexers are used to combine plesiochronous and synchronous input signals
into higher bit rate STM-N signals
Add/drop Multiplexers (ADM)
Plesiochronous and lower bit rate synchronous signals can be extracted from or inserted into
high speed SDH bit streams by means of ADMs. This feature makes it possible to set up ring
structures, which have the advantage that automatic back-up path switching is possible using
elements in the ring in the event of a fault.
Digital Cross-connect (DXC)
It allows mapping of PDH tributary signals into virtual containers as well as switching of
various containers.
4. DENSE WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The revolution in high bandwidth applications and the explosive growth of the Internet,
however, have created capacity demands that exceed traditional TDM limits. To meet
growing demands for bandwidth, a technology called Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (DWDM) has been developed that multiplies the capacity of a single fibre.
DWDM systems being deployed today can increase a single fibres capacity sixteen fold, to a
throughput of 40 Gb/s.
The existing SONET/SDH network architecture is best suited for voice traffic rather than
todays high-speed data traffic. To upgrade the system to handle this kind of traffic is very
expensive and hence the need for the development of an intelligent all-optical network. Such
a network will bring intelligence and scalability to the optical domain by combining the
intelligence and functional capability of SONET/SDH, the tremendous bandwidth of DWDM
and innovative networking software to spawn a variety of optical transport, switching and
management related products.
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4.2 DWDM SYSTEM FUNCTIONS AND COMPONENTS
DWDM stands for Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing, an optical technology used to
increase Band width over existing fibre optic backbones. Dense wavelength division
multiplexing systems allow many discrete transports channels by combining and transmitting
multiple signals simultaneously at different wavelengths on the same fibre. In effect, one
fibre is transformed into multiple virtual fibres.
A key advantage to DWDM is that it's protocol and bit rate-independent. DWDM-based
networks can transmit data in SDH, IP, ATM and Ethernet etc. Therefore, DWDM-based
networks can carry different types of traffic at different speeds over an optical channel.

DWDM SYSTEM COMPONENTS
1. Transmitter (transmit transponder):
- Changes electrical bits to optical pulses
- Is frequency specific
- Uses a narrowband laser to generate the optical pulse

2. Multiplexer/ demultiplexer:
- Combines/separates discrete wavelengths
3. Amplifier:
- Pre-amplifier boosts signal pulses at the receive side
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- Post-amplifier boosts signal pulses at the transmit side (post amplifier) and on the receive
side (preamplifier)
- In line amplifiers (ILA) are placed at different distances from the source to provide recovery
of the signal before it is degraded by loss.
- EDFA (Erbium Doped Fibre Amplifier) is the most popular amplifier.
4. Optical fibre (media):
- Transmission media to carry optical pulses
- Many different kinds of fibre are used
5. Receiver (receive transponder)
- Changes optical pulses back to electrical bits
- Uses wideband laser to provide the optical pulse


4.3 ADVANTAGES OF DWDM
Increases bandwidth (speed and distance)
Does not require replacement or upgrade their existing legacy systems
Provides "next generation" technologies to meet growing data needs
Less costly in the long run because increased fibre capacity is automatically available; don't
have to upgrade all the time.
5. GSM ARCHITECTURE
5.1 INTRODUCTION
A GSM system is basically designed as a combination of three major subsystems: the
network subsystem, the radio subsystem, and the operation support subsystem. In order to
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ensure that network operators will have several sources of cellular infrastructure equipment,
GSM decided to specify not only the air interface, but also the main interfaces that identify
different parts. In the GSM system, the network is divided into the following partitioned
areas.
GSM service area;
PLMN service area;
MSC service area;
Location area;
Cells.
The GSM service is the total area served by the combination of all member countries where a
mobile can be serviced. The next level is the PLMN service area. There can be several within
a country, based on its size. Call connections between PLMNs, or to fixed networks, must be
routed through certain designated MSCs called a gateway MSC. The gateway MSC contains
the interworking functions to make these connections. They also route incoming calls to the
proper MSC within the network. The next level of division is the MSC/VLR service area. In
one PLMN there can be several MSC/VLR service areas. MSC/VLR is a role controller of
calls within its jurisdiction. The mobile location can be uniquely identified since the MS is
registered in a VLR, which is generally associated with an MSC. The next division level is
that of the LAs within a MSC/VLR combination. There are several LAs within one
MSC/VLR combination. An LA is a part of the MSC/VLR service area in which a MS may
move freely without updating location information to the MSC/VLR exchange that control
the LA. Within a LA a paging message is broadcast in order to find the called mobile
subscriber. The LA can be identified by the system using the Location Area Identity (LAI).
The LA is used by the GSM system to search for a subscriber in an active state. Lastly, a LA
is divided into many cells. A cell is an identity served by one BTS. The MS distinguishes
between cells using the Base Station Identification code (BSIC) that the cell site broadcast
over the air.
5.2 COMPONENTS IN A GSM ARCHITECTURE
Mobile Station
The MS includes radio equipment and the man machine interface (MMI) that a subscribe
needs in order to access the services provided by the GSM PLMN. MS can be installed in
vehicles or can be portable or handheld stations. The MS may include provisions for data
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communication as well as voice. A mobile transmits and receives message to and from the
GSM system over the air interface to establish and continue connections through the system.
Different type of MSs can provide different type of data interfaces. To provide a common
model for describing these different MS configuration, reference configuration for MS,
similar to those defined for ISDN land stations, has been defined. Each MS is identified by an
IMEI that is permanently stored in the mobile unit. Upon request, the MS sends this number
over the signaling channel to the MSC. The IMEI can be used to identify mobile units that are
reported stolen or operating incorrectly. Different subscriber identities are used in different
phases of call setup. The Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN) is the number that the
calling party dials in order to reach the subscriber. It is used by the land network to route calls
toward an appropriate MSC. The international mobile subscribe identity (IMSI) is the
primary function of the subscriber within the mobile network and is permanently assigned to
him. The GSM system can also assign a Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) to
identity a mobile. This number can be periodically changed by the system and protect the
subscriber from being identified by those attempting to monitor the radio channel.
Functions of MS
The primary functions of MS are to transmit and receive voice and data over the air interface
of the GSM system. MS performs the signal processing function of digitizing, encoding, error
protecting, encrypting, and modulating the transmitted signals. It also performs the inverse
functions on the received signals from the BS.
SIM Card
The SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) contains an integrated circuit chip with a
microprocessor, random access memory (RAM), and read only memory (ROM). It is inserted
in the MS unit by the subscriber when he or she wants to use the MS to make or receive a
call. A SIM also comes in a modular from that can be mounted in the subscribers equipment.
Base Station Subsystem
The base station subsystem (BSS) is the section which is responsible for handling traffic and
signaling between a mobile phone and the network switching subsystem. The BSS carries out
transcoding of speech channels, allocation of radio channels to mobile phones, paging,
transmission and reception over the air interface and many other tasks related to the radio
network.
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Base Transceiver Station
The base transceiver station, or BTS, contains the equipment for transmitting and receiving
radio signals (transceivers), antennas, and equipment for encrypting and decrypting
communications with the base station controller (BSC). Typically a BTS will have several
transceivers (TRXs) which allow it to serve several different frequencies and different sectors
of the cell. A BTS is controlled by a parent BSC via the "base station control function"
(BCF). The BCF is implemented as a discrete unit or even incorporated in a TRX in compact
base stations. The BCF provides an operations and maintenance (O&M) connection to the
network management system (NMS), and manages operational states of each TRX, as well as
software handling and alarm collection.
Mobile Switching Center
The mobile switching center (MSC) is the primary service delivery node for GSM/CDMA,
responsible for routing voice calls and SMS as well as other services (such as conference
calls, FAX and circuit switched data). The MSC sets up and releases the end-to-end
connection, handles mobility and hand-over requirements during the call and takes care of
charging and real time pre-paid account monitoring. There are various different names for
MSCs in different contexts which reflect their complex role in the network; all of these terms
though could refer to the same MSC, but doing different things at different times.
The Gateway MSC (G-MSC) is the MSC that determines which visited MSC the subscriber
who is being called is currently located at. It also interfaces with the PSTN. All mobile to
mobile calls and PSTN to mobile calls are routed through a G-MSC.
The visited MSC (V-MSC) is the MSC where a customer is currently located. The VLR
associated with this MSC will have the subscriber's data in it.
The anchor MSC is the MSC from which a handover has been initiated. The target MSC is
the MSC toward which a Handover should take place
Home Location Register
The home location register (HLR) is a central database that contains details of each mobile
phone subscriber that is authorized to use the GSM core network. There can be several
23

logical, and physical, HLRs per public land mobile network (PLMN), though one
international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI)/MSISDN pair can be associated with only one
logical HLR (which can span several physical nodes) at a time.
The HLRs store details of every SIM card issued by the mobile phone operator. Each SIM
has a unique identifier called an IMSI which is the primary key to each HLR record.
Authentication Center (AuC)
The authentication centre (AuC) is a function to authenticate each SIM card that attempts to
connect to the GSM core network (typically when the phone is powered on). Once the
authentication is successful, the HLR is allowed to manage the SIM and services described
above. An encryption key is also generated that is subsequently used to encrypt all wireless
communications (voice, SMS, etc.) between the mobile phone and the GSM core network.
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
The visitor location is a database of the subscribers who have roamed into the jurisdiction of
the MSC (Mobile Switching Center) which it serves. Each main base station in the network is
served by exactly one VLR; hence a subscriber cannot be present in more than one VLR at a
time. The data stored in the VLR has either been received from the HLR, or collected from
the MS (Mobile station). In practice, for performance reasons, most vendors integrate the
VLR directly to the V-MSC and, where this is not done, the VLR is very tightly linked with
the MSC via a proprietary interface.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
The equipment identity register is often integrated to the HLR. The EIR keeps a list of
mobile phones (identified by their IMEI) which are to be banned from the network or
monitored. This is designed to allow tracking of stolen mobile phones.
5.3 CALL PROCESSING
RF channel overview: RF channel play important role in call processing case. These are
basically three types of RF control channel.

24

1. Broadcast control channel: The broadcast channels are points to multi-point channel,
which are defined only for down-link direction (BTS to mobile station). They are divided
into:
BCCH (Broadcast Control Channel): BCCH acts as a beacon. It informs the mobile about
system configuration parameters. Using this information MS choose the best cell to attach to.
BCCH is always transmitted on full power and it is never frequency hopped.
FCCHC (Frequency Correction Channel): MS must tune to FCCH to listen to BCCH.
FCCH transmits a constant frequency shift of the radio carrier that is used by the MS for
frequency correction.
SCH (Synchronization Channel): SCH is used to synchronize the MS in time .SCH carries
TDMA frame number and BSIC (Base Station Identity Code)
2. Common control channels: Common control channels are specified as point to multi-
point, which operate only in one direction either in up-link or down-link direction.
PCH (Paging Channel): PCH is used in down-link direction for sending paging message to
MS whenever there is incoming call.
RACH (Random Access Channel): RACH is used by the MS to request allocation of a
specific dedicated control channel (SDCCH) either in response to a paging message or for
call origination /registration from the MS. this is an up-link channel and operates in point to
point mode.
AGCH (Access Grant Channel): AGCH is a logical control channel which is used to
allocate a specific dedicated control channel (SDCCH) to MS when MS request for a channel
over RACH. AGCH is used in downlink direction.
3. Dedicated Control Channel: dedicated control channel are full duplex, point to point
channel. They are used for signaling between the BTS and certain MS. They are divided
into:
SACCH (Slow Associated Control Channel): the SACCH is a duplex channel,
which is always allocated to TCH or SDCCH. The SACCH is used for
Radio link supervision measurements.
Power control.
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Timing advance information.
FACCH (Fast Associated Control Channel): FACCH is requested in case the
requirement of signaling is urgent and signaling requirement cannot be met by
SACCH. This is the case when hand-over is required during conversation phase.
During the call FACCH data is transmitted over allocated TCH instead of traffic data.
This is marked by a flag known as stealing flag.
SDCCH (Stand Alone Dedicated Control Channel): The SDCCH is a duplex, point
to point channel which is used for signaling in higher layer. It carries all the signaling
between BTS & MS when no TCH is allocated to MS. The SDCCH is used for
service request, location updates, subscriber authentication, ciphering. Equipment
validation and assignment of a TCH.
5.4 CALL AND MOBILITY MANAGEMENT
Mobility management entails the GSM system keeping track of the mobile while on the
move. Mobility management (MM) is present in layer 3 of the protocol stack at MS and
MSC. The functions performed by the mobility management are:
Subscribe Data management at MSC/VLR-
Subscriber data from HLR are retrieved by MM at the time of first location updating of the
subscriber. Dynamic data change for a subscribe are also managed by the MM.
Services provided to upper layers-
MM provides basic means of transportation of upper CM sub-layer messages between MS
and the network. Handover procedures ensure smooth transition from one radio network to
another.
Subscriber Authentication and confidentiality Management
MM procedures ensure data confidentiality of a subscriber at radio interface.
5.5 HANDOVER MANAGEMENT.
The main aim of handover is to avoid losing a call is progress when MS leaves the radio
coverage of the call in charge.
The hand-over process may be thought of as consisting of three phases-
Recognition that handover is required.
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Decision of a target cell.
Execution of the handover.
Types of Handover
Intra cell - Intra BSC handover
The smallest of the handovers is the intra cell handover where the subscriber is handed over
to another traffic channel (generally in another frequency) within the same cell. In this case
the BSC controlling the cell makes the decision to perform handover
Inter cell - Intra BSC handover
In this case the handover process is controlled by BSC. The traffic connection with first cell
is released when the connection with next cell is set up successfully.
Inter cell - Inter BSC handover
The subscriber moves from one cell to another, which is served by another BSC. In this case
the handover process is carried out by the MSC, but, the decision to make the handover is
still done by the first BSC. The connection with the first BSC (and BTS) is released when the
connection with the new BSC (and BTS) is set up successfully.
Inter MSC handover
The subscriber moves from a cell controlled by one MSC/VLR to a cell in the domain of
another MSC/VLR. This case is a bit more complicated. Considering that the first MSC/VLR
is connected to the GMSC via a link that passes through PSTN lines, it is evident that the
second MSC/VLR cannot take over the first one just like that. The MSC/VLR currently
serving the subscriber (also known as the anchor MSC), contacts the target MSC/VLR and
the traffic connection is transferred to the target MSC/VLR. As both MSCs are part of the
same network, the connection is established smoothly. It is important to notice, however, that
the target MSC and the source MSC are two telephone exchanges. The call can be transferred
between two exchanges only if there is a telephone number identifying the target MSC.

6. NGN: NEXT GENERATION NETWORK
The current generation telecom network used for voice communication, popularly known as
PSTN is mainly circuit switching based network. It is organized into a hierarchical
architecture viz. Level I TAX exchanges, then Level-II exchanges and then tandem/local
exchanges. The PSTN network is mainly optimized for voice calls and not much suited for
data services. We have a separate network for data services. The use of data services is
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increasing day-by-day manifolds. Today the world over trend is for a single converged
network used for all type of services viz. voice, data, video which is called Next Generation
Network (NGN) and is a packet switching based network.
6.1 WHY NGN?
The NGN concept takes into consideration new realities in the telecommunication industry
characterised by factors such as: the need to converge and optimise the operating networks
and the extraordinary expansion of digital traffic i.e., increasing demand for new multimedia
services, increasing demand for mobility, etc. Therefore there is a need for a network which
has a capability to develop services and able to extend it to the end user independent of the
other part of the network. This is achieved through the concept of NGN.
The other reasons why we should evolve our existing network to NGN are that the existing
circuit switched networks have following problems:
Slow to develop new features and capabilities.
Expensive upgrades and operating expenses.
Proprietary vendor troubles
Large power and cooling requirements.
Limited migration strategy to new tech.
Model obsolescence.
ITUs Definition of NGN: A Next Generation Network (NGN) is a packet-based network
able to provide Telecommunication Services to users and able to make use of multiple
broadband, QoS-enabled transport technologies and in which service-related functions are
independent of the underlying transport-related technologies. It enables unfettered access for
users to networks and to competing service providers and services of their choice. It supports
generalised mobility which will allow consistent and ubiquitous provision of services to users.
6.2 NGN CHARACTERISTICS
The NGN is characterised by the following fundamental aspects:
Packet-based transfer
Separation of control functions among bearer capabilities, call/session, and
application/service
Decoupling of service provision from transport, and provision of open interfaces
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Support for a wide range of services, applications and mechanisms based on service
building blocks (including real time/streaming/non-real time services and multi-
media)
Broadband capabilities with end-to-end QoS and transparency
Interworking with legacy networks via open interfaces
Generalised mobility
Unfettered access by users to different service providers
A variety of identification schemes which can be resolved to IP addresses for the
purposes of routing in IP networks
Unified service characteristics for the same service as perceived by the user
Converged services between Fixed and Mobile networks
Independence of service-related functions from underlying transport technologies
Support of multiple last mile technologies
Compliant with all Regulatory requirements, for example concerning emergency
communications and security/privacy, etc.
6.3 THE NGN ARCHITECTURE
The NGN Architecture consists of several basic components The Soft Switch, Application
Servers, Media Servers, Network Gateways and Access Gateways with the IP-MPLS Packet
Router Network providing the transport layer.


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The Soft Switch is shown at the centre. The SIP Signaling server provides signaling interface
to IP End points in a Broadband environment. The Application and Media servers work in
conjunction with the Soft Switch to deliver the specific application and the media related
functions (such as an IVRS module) to the customer. The NGN network is interconnected to
the PSTN network through Media Gateways, which are controlled by the Soft Switch. The
capability to interconnect the soft switches with other soft switches either in ones own
network or in any other Service Providers network is done through Network Gateways.

6.4 EVOLUTION OF PRESENT NETWORKS TO NGN: RELATED ISSUES

The evolution of networks to NGNs must allow for the continuation of, and interoperability
with, existing networks while in parallel enabling the implementation of new capabilities.
Since the realisation and deployment of the NGN will be an evolutionary process, and not all
networks will start from the same point, it is necessary to describe a variety of approaches.

The high capital investment in the PSTN (public switched telephone network) means it must
be one of the main work areas for studying evolution to the NGN. The resulting outputs
describe possible ways of evolving the PSTN to become an NGN. These outputs provide
steps for evolution of transport, management, signaling and control parts of the PSTN to the
NGN. Other starting points, notably existing public land mobile networks (PLMNs), and
associated transition scenarios are also under study.
QoS (Quality of Service)
The basic criterion for QoS evolution is subjective user satisfaction, e.g. speed, accuracy,
reliability, and security. This involves identification of parameters that can be directly
observed and measured at the point at which the service is accessed by users and network
providers. Flexibility within the global end-to-end NGN architecture is essential to allow for
each recognised operating agencys different regulatory environment, service offerings,
geographic span, and network infrastructure. These factors need to be taken into account
when agreeing on parameters for, and levels of, QoS for NGN.



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Interoperability
Considering that the NGN will involve a broad series of protocols (including various profiles)
at both service and network levels, it is essential to ensure interoperability between different
systems and networks.
Security
Security is as crucial to the NGN as it is in todays network environment. The very wide
scope of this topic, combined with the number of SDOs (standards development
organisations) already involved, underlines the strategic importance of this subject. Within
the NGN, security issues interrelate with architecture, QoS, network management, mobility,
charging and payment.

Security studies in NGN are addressing:
o a comprehensive security architecture for NGNs
o the preparation of NGN operational security policy and guidelines
o NGN security protocols and APIs (application programming interface)
Generalized Mobility
NGN will give users and devices the ability to communicate and to access services
irrespective of change of location or technical environment. The degree of service availability
may depend on several factors, including access network capabilities, service level
agreements between the user's home network and visited networks, etc. It includes the ability
to communicate from various locations using a variety of terminal equipment, with or without
service continuity while in transit or while changing access means. This includes recognition
of the need to converge the previously distinct worlds of fixed and mobile
telecommunications into a coherent whole.
Service Capabilities and Architecture
Work in this area will continue to:
Address the telecommunication service capabilities that the NGN should provide,
maintaining separation between services and the networks they run on; and
Develop a suitable service architecture focused on the interfaces to support different
business models and seamless communication in different environments.
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Backward compatibility with and the evolution from existing services and systems will be
studied in order to meet the needs of end users and service providers.























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ABOUT THE COMPANY
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. was incorporated on 15th September 2000. It took over the
business of providing of telecom services and network management from the erstwhile
Central Government Departments of Telecom Services (DTS) and Telecom Operations
(DTO), with effect from 1st October 2000 on going concern basis. It is one of the largest &
leading public sector units providing comprehensive range of telecom services in India.

BSNL has installed Quality Telecom Network in the country & now focusing on improving
it, expanding the network, introducing new telecom services with ICT applications in villages
& winning customer's confidence. Today, it has about 43.74 million line basic telephone
capacity, 8.83 million WLL capacity, 72.60 million GSM capacity, 37,885 fixed exchanges,
68,162 GSM BTSs, 12,071 CDMA Towers, 197 Satellite Stations, 6,86,644 Km. of OFC,
50,430 Km. of microwave network connecting 623 districts, 7330 cities/towns & 5.8 lakhs
villages .
BSNL is the only service provider, making focused efforts & planned initiatives to bridge the
rural-urban digital divide in ICT sector. In fact there is no telecom operator in the country to
beat its reach with its wide network giving services in every nook & corner of the country &
operates across India except New Delhi & Mumbai. Whether it is inaccessible areas of
Siachen glacier or North-Eastern regions of the country, BSNL serves its customers with a
wide bouquet of telecom services namely wired, CDMA mobile, GSM mobile, Internet,
Broadband, Carrier service, MPLS-VPN, VSAT, VoIP, IN Services, FTTH, etc.
BSNL is numero uno of India in all services in its license area. The company offers wide
ranging & most transparent tariff schemes designed to suit every customer. BSNL has 90.09
million cellular & 5.06 million WLL customers as on 31.07.2011. 3G Facility has been given
to all 2G connections of BSNL. In basic services, BSNL is miles ahead of its rivals, with
24.58 million wired phone subscribers i.e. 71.93% share of the wired subscriber base.
BSNL has set up a world class multi-gigabit, multi-protocol convergent IP infrastructure that
provides convergent services like voice, data & video through the same Backbone &
Broadband Access Network. At present there are 8.09 million broadband customers.