Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter you should be able to do the following:

1. List six different property classifications of
materials that determine their
applicability.
2. Cite the four components that are involved in
the design, production, and utilization of
materials, and briefly describe the interrelation-
ships between these components.
3. Cite three criteria that are important in the
materials selection process.
4. a! List the three primary classifications of solid
materials, and then cite the distinctive
chemical feature of each.
b! "ote the four types of advanced materials
and, for each, its distinctive features!.
5. a! #riefly define $smart material%system.&
b! #riefly explain the concept of $nanotech-
nology& as it applies to materials.
1.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
'aterials are probably more deep seated in our culture than most of us realize.
(ransportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation, and food production)
virtually every segment of our everyday lives is influenced to one degree or another by
materials. *istorically, the development and advancement of societies have been inti-
mately tied to the members+ ability to produce and manipulate materials to fill their
needs. ,n fact, early civilizations have been designated by the level of their materials
development -tone Age, #ronze Age, ,ron Age!.
.
(he earliest humans had access to only a very limited number of materials, those
that occur naturally: stone, wood, clay, s/ins, and so on. 0ith time they discovered
techni1ues for producing materials that had properties superior to those of the natural
ones2 these new materials included pottery and various metals. 3urthermore, it was
discovered that the properties of a material could be altered by heat treatments and by
the addition of other substances. At this point, materials utilization was totally a selection
process that involved deciding from a given, rather limited set of materials the one best
suited for an application by virtue of its characteristics. ,t was not until relatively recent
times that scientists came to understand the relationships between the structural elements
of materials and their prop- erties. (his /nowledge, ac1uired over approximately the
past .44 years, has empowered them to fashion, to a large degree, the characteristics of
materials. (hus, tens of thousands of different materials have evolved with rather
specialized characteristics that meet the needs of our modern and complex society2 these
include metals, plastics, glasses, and fibers.
(he development of many technologies that ma/e our existence so comfortable
has been intimately associated with the accessibility of suitable materials. An ad-
vancement in the understanding of a material type is often the forerunner to the step-
wise progression of a technology. 3or example, automobiles would not have been
possible without the availability of inexpensive steel or some other comparable sub-
stitute. ,n the contemporary era, sophisticated electronic devices rely on components
that are made from what are called semiconducting materials.
1.2 ATERIALS SCIE!CE A!" E!#I!EERI!#
-ometimes it is useful to subdivide the discipline of materials science and engineering
into materials science and materials engineering subdisciplines. -trictly spea/ing, materi-
als science involves investigating the relationships that exist between the structures and
.
(he approximate dates for the beginnings of the -tone, #ronze, and ,ron Ages are 5.6 million #C, 7644 #C, and
.444 #C, respectively.
2 $
1.2 ateria%s Science an& Engineering $ 3
properties of materials. ,n contrast, materials engineering involves, on the basis of these
structure8property correlations, designing or engineering the structure of a material to
produce a predetermined set of properties.
5
3rom a functional perspective, the role of a
materials scientist is to develop or synthesize new materials, whereas a materials engi-
neer is called upon to create new products or systems using existing materials and%or to
develop techni1ues for processing materials. 'ost graduates in materials programs are
trained to be both materials scientists and materials engineers.
Structure is at this point a nebulous term that deserves some explanation. ,n brief,
the structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal components.
-ubatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions with
their nuclei. 9n an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms or
molecules relative to one another. (he next larger structural realm, which contains large
groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated together, is termed microscopic, mean-
ing that which is sub:ect to direct observation using some type of microscope. 3inally,
structural elements that can be viewed with the na/ed eye are termed macroscopic.
(he notion of property deserves elaboration. 0hile in service use, all materials
are exposed to external stimuli that evo/e some type of response. 3or example, a
specimen sub:ected to forces will experience deformation, or a polished metal surface
will reflect light. A property is a material trait in terms of the /ind and magnitude of
response to a specific imposed stimulus. ;enerally, definitions of properties are made
independent of material shape and size.
<irtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six differ-
ent categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative. 3or
each there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of provo/ing different responses.
'echanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force2 examples include
elastic modulus stiffness!, strength, and toughness. 3or electrical properties, such as
electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the stimulus is an electric field. (he ther-
mal behavior of solids can be represented in terms of heat capacity and thermal conduc-
tivity. 'agnetic properties demonstrate the response of a material to the application of
a magnetic field. 3or optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic or light
radiation2 index of refraction and reflectivity are representative optical properties.
3inally, deteri- orative characteristics relate to the chemical reactivity of materials.
(he chapters that follow discuss properties that fall within each of these six
classifications.
,n addition to structure and properties, two other important components are
involved in the science and engineering of materials)namely, processing and
performance. 0ith regard to the relationships of these four components, the structure
of a material will depend on how it is processed. 3urthermore, a material+s
performance will be a function of its properties. (hus, the interrelationship between
processing, structure, properties, and performance is as depicted in the schematic
illustration shown in 3igure .... (hroughout this text we draw attention to the
relationships among these four components in terms of the design, production, and
utilization of materials.
0e present an example of these processing-structure-properties-performance prin-
ciples in 3igure ..5, a photograph showing three thin-dis/ specimens placed over some
printed matter. ,t is obvious that the optical properties i.e., the light transmittance! of
=rocessing -tructure =roperties =erformance
'ig(re 1.1 (he four components of the discipline of materials science and
engineering and their interrelationship.
5
(hroughout this text we draw attention to the relationships between material properties and structural elements.
'ig(re 1.2 (hree thin-dis/ specimens of
aluminum oxide that have been placed over a
printed page in order to demonstrate their
differences in light-transmittance characteristics.
(he dis/ on the left is transparent i.e., virtually
all light that is reflected from the page passes
through it!, whereas the one in the center is
translucent meaning that some of this reflected
light is transmitted through the dis/!. (he dis/
on the right is opa1ue)that is, none of the light
passes through it. (hese differences in optical
properties are a conse1uence of differences in
structure of these materials, which have resulted
from the way the materials were processed.
-pecimen preparation, =. A. Lessing2 photography by
-. (anner.!
each of the three materials are different2 the one on the left is transparent i.e., virtually
all of the reflected light passes through it!, whereas the dis/s in the center and on the
right are, respectively, translucent and opa1ue. All of these specimens are of the
same material, aluminum oxide, but the leftmost one is what we call a single crystal)
that is, has a high degree of perfection)which gives rise to its transparency. (he center
one is composed of numerous and very small single crystals that are all connected2 the
bound- aries between these small crystals scatter a portion of the light reflected from the
printed page, which ma/es this material optically translucent. 3inally, the specimen on
the right is composed not only of many small, interconnected crystals, but also of a
large number of very small pores or void spaces. (hese pores also effectively scatter the
reflected light and render this material opa1ue.
(hus, the structures of these three specimens are different in terms of crystal bound-
aries and pores, which affect the optical transmittance properties. 3urthermore, each
ma- terial was produced using a different processing techni1ue. ,f optical transmittance
is an important parameter relative to the ultimate in-service application, the
performance of each material will be different.
1.3 )H* ST+"* ATERIALS SCIE!CE A!" E!#I!EERI!#,
0hy do we study materials> 'any an applied scientist or engineer, whether mechanical,
civil, chemical, or electrical, will at one time or another be exposed to a design problem
involving materials. ?xamples might include a transmission gear, the superstructure for
a building, an oil refinery component, or an integrated circuit chip. 9f course, materials
scientists and engineers are specialists who are totally involved in the investigation and
design of materials.
'any times, a materials problem is one of selecting the right material from the
thou- sands that are available. (he final decision is normally based on several criteria.
3irst of all, the in-service conditions must be characterized, for these will dictate the
properties re1uired of the material. 9n only rare occasions does a material possess the
maximum or ideal combination of properties. (hus, it may be necessary to trade one
characteristic for another. (he classic example involves strength and ductility2 normally, a
material having a high strength will have only a limited ductility. ,n such cases a
reasonable compromise between two or more properties may be necessary.
A second selection consideration is any deterioration of material properties that
may occur during service operation. 3or example, significant reductions in mechanical
strength may result from exposure to elevated temperatures or corrosive environments.
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3inally, probably the overriding consideration is that of economics: 0hat will the
fini- shed product cost> A material may be found that has the ideal set of properties but
is pro- hibitively expensive. *ere again, some compromise is inevitable. (he cost of a
finished piece also includes any expense incurred during fabrication to produce the
desired shape.
(he more familiar an engineer or scientist is with the various characteristics and
structure8property relationships, as well as processing techni1ues of materials, the more
proficient and confident he or she will be in ma/ing :udicious materials choices based on
these criteria.
1.4 CLASSI'ICATIO! O' ATERIALS
-olid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic categories: metals,
ceramics, and polymers. (his scheme is based primarily on chemical ma/eup and atomic
structure, and most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another. ,n addition,
there are the composites, which are engineered combinations of two or more different
materi- als. A brief explanation of these material classifications and representative
characteristics is offered next. Another category is advanced materials)those used in
high-technology applications, such as semiconductors, biomaterials, smart materials, and
nanoengineered materials2 these are discussed in -ection ..6.
eta%s
'aterials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements e.g., iron,
aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, and nic/el!, and often also nonmetallic elements
e.g., carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen! in relatively small amounts.
7
Atoms in metals and their
alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner as discussed in Chapter 7! and are
relatively dense in comparison to the ceramics and polymers 3igure ..7!. 0ith regard to
mechani- cal characteristics, these materials are relatively stiff 3igure ..@! and strong
3igure ..6!, yet are ductile i.e., capable of large amounts of deformation without
fracture! and are resistant to fracture 3igure ..A!, which accounts for their widespread
use in structural applications. 'etallic materials have large numbers of nonlocalized
electrons2 that is, these electrons are not bound to particular atoms. 'any properties of
metals are directly
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elements.
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attributable to these electrons. 3or example, metals are extremely good conductors of
electricity 3igure ..F! and heat and are not transparent to visible light2 a polished metal
surface has a lustrous appearance. ,n addition, some of the metals i.e., 3e, Co, and "i!
have desirable magnetic properties.
3igure ..B shows several common and familiar ob:ects that are made of metallic
materials. 3urthermore, the types and applications of metals and their alloys are
discussed in Chapter .7.
Cera2ics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements2 they are most fre-
1uently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. 3or example, common ceramic materials include
aluminum oxide or alumina, Al
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ceramics)those composed of clay minerals i.e., porcelain!, as well as cement and
glass. 0ith regard to mechanical behavior, ceramic materials are relatively stiff and
strong) stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to those of the metals 3igures ..@
and ..6!. ,n addition, they are typically very hard. *istorically, ceramics have
exhibited extreme
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values for various
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brittleness lac/ of ductility! and are highly susceptible to fracture 3igure ..A!. *owever,
newer ceramics are being engineered to have improved resistance to fracture2 these
mate- rials are used for coo/ware, cutlery, and even automobile engine parts.
3urthermore, ceramic materials are typically insulative to the passage of heat and
electricity i.e., have low electrical conductivities2 3igure ..F! and are more resistant to
high temperatures and harsh environments than are metals and polymers. 0ith regard to
optical characteristics, ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or opa1ue 3igure ..5!,
and some of the oxide ceramics e.g., 3e
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! exhibit magnetic behavior.
-everal common ceramic ob:ects are shown in 3igure ..K. (he characteristics, types,
and applications of this class of materials are also discussed in Chapter .7.
P0%42ers
=olymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. 'any of them are organic
compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic
elements
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'ig(re 1.6 3amiliar ob:ects that are made
of metals and metal alloys from left to right!:
silverware for/ and /nife!, scissors, coins, a
gear, a wedding ring, and a nut and bolt.
i.e., 9, ", and -i!. 3urthermore, they have very large molecular structures, often
chain- li/e in nature, that often have a bac/bone of carbon atoms. -ome common and
familiar polymers are polyethylene =?!, nylon, polyvinyl chloride! =<C!,
polycarbonate =C!, polystyrene =-!, and silicone rubber. (hese materials typically
have low densities 3igure ..7!, whereas their mechanical characteristics are generally
dissimilar to those of the metallic and ceramic materials)they are not as stiff or strong
as these other mate- rial types 3igures ..@ and ..6!. *owever, on the basis of their low
densities, many times their stiffnesses and strengths on a per-mass basis are comparable
to those of the metals and ceramics. ,n addition, many of the polymers are extremely
ductile and pliable i.e., plastic!, which means they are easily formed into complex
shapes. ,n general, they are relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large number
of environments. 9ne ma:or drawbac/ to the polymers is their tendency to soften and%or
decompose at modest tem- peratures, which, in some instances, limits their use.
3urthermore, they have low electrical conductivities 3igure ..F! and are nonmagnetic.
3igure ...4 shows several articles made of polymers that are familiar to the reader.
Chapters @, .7, and .@ are devoted to discussions of the structures, properties, applica-
tions, and processing of polymeric materials.
'ig(re 1.7 Common ob:ects that are made
of ceramic materials: scissors, a china teacup,
a building bric/, a floor tile, and a glass vase.
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'ig(re 1.18 -everal common ob:ects
that are made of polymeric materials: plastic
tableware spoon, for/, and /nife!, billiard
balls, a bicycle helmet, two dice, a lawn
mower wheel plastic hub and rubber tire!,
and a plastic mil/ carton.
A T E R I A L S O ' I P O R T A ! C E
Carbonated Beerage Containers
ne common item that presents some interesting
material property re1uirements is the container
for carbonated beverages. (he material used for this
application must satisfy the following constraints: .!
provide a barrier to the passage of carbon dioxide,
which is under pressure in the container2 5! be non-
toxic, unreactive with the beverage, and, preferably,
recyclable2 7! be relatively strong and capable of
surviving a drop from a height of several feet when
containing the beverage2 @! be inexpensive,
including the cost to fabricate the final shape2 6! if
optically transparent, retain its optical clarity2 and A!
be capable of being produced in different colors
and%or adorned with decorative labels.
All three of the basic material types)metal
aluminum!, ceramic glass!, and polymer polyester
plastic!)are used for carbonated beverage contain-
ers per the chapter-opening photographs for this
chapter!. All of these materials are nontoxic and
unreactive with beverages. ,n addition, each material
has its pros and cons. 3or example, the aluminum
alloy is relatively strong but easily dented!, is a very
good barrier to the diffusion of carbon dioxide, is easily
recycled, cools beverages rapidly, and allows labels to
be painted onto its surface. 9n the other hand, the
cans are optically opa1ue and relatively expensive to
produce. ;lass is impervious to the passage of carbon
dioxide, is a relatively inexpensive material, and may
be recycled, but it crac/s and fractures easily, and
glass bottles are relatively heavy. 0hereas plastic is
relatively strong, may be made optically transparent,
is inexpensive and lightweight, and is recyclable, it is
not as impervious to the passage of carbon dioxide
as aluminum and glass. 3or example, you may have
noticed that beverages in aluminum and glass con-
tainers retain their carbonization i.e., $fizz&! for
several years, whereas those in two-liter plastic
bottles $go flat& within a few months.
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C02.0sites
A composite is composed of two or more! individual materials, which come from the
categories previously discussed)metals, ceramics, and polymers. (he design goal of a
composite is to achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by any single
material and also to incorporate the best characteristics of each of the component
materials. A large number of composite types are represented by different combina-
tions of metals, ceramics, and polymers. 3urthermore, some naturally occurring
materials are composites)for example, wood and bone. *owever, most of those we
consider in our discussions are synthetic or human-made! composites.
9ne of the most common and familiar composites is fiberglass, in which small glass
fibers are embedded within a polymeric material normally an epoxy or polyester!.
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glass fibers are relatively strong and stiff but also brittle!, whereas the polymer is more
flexible. (hus, fiberglass is relatively stiff, strong 3igures ..@ and ..6!, and flexible. ,n
addition, it has a low density 3igure ..7!.
Another technologically important material is the carbon fiber8reinforced
polymer C3D=! composite)carbon fibers that are embedded within a polymer. (hese
materials are stiffer and stronger than glass fiber8reinforced materials 3igures ..@ and
..6! but more expensive. C3D= composites are used in some aircraft and aerospace
applications, as well as in high-tech sporting e1uipment e.g., bicycles, golf clubs, tennis
rac/ets, and s/is%snowboards! and recently in automobile bumpers. (he new #oeing
FBF fuselage is primarily made from such C3D= composites.
Chapter .6 is devoted to a discussion of these interesting composite materials.
1.5 A"VA!CE" ATERIALS
'aterials that are utilized in high-technology or high-tech! applications are sometimes
termed adanced materials! #y "ig" tec"nology we mean a device or product that oper-
ates or functions using relatively intricate and sophisticated principles2 examples include
electronic e1uipment camcorders, CE%E<E players, etc.!, computers, fiber-optic sys-
tems, spacecraft, aircraft, and military roc/etry. (hese advanced materials are
typically traditional materials whose properties have been enhanced and also newly
developed, high-performance materials. 3urthermore, they may be of all material types
e.g., metals, ceramics, polymers!, and are normally expensive. Advanced materials
include semicon- ductors, biomaterials, and what we may term $materials of the future&
i.e., smart materials and nanoengineered materials!, which we discuss next. (he
properties and applications of a number of these advanced materials)for example,
materials that are used for lasers, integrated circuits, magnetic information storage,
li1uid crystal displays LCEs!, and fiber optics)are also discussed in subse1uent
chapters.
Se2ic0n&(ct0rs
-emiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between those of elec-
trical conductors i.e., metals and metal alloys! and insulators i.e., ceramics and
polymers!)see 3igure ..F. 3urthermore, the electrical characteristics of these materials
are extremely sensitive to the presence of minute concentrations of impurity atoms, for
which the concentrations may be controlled over very small spatial regions.
-emiconductors have made possible the advent of integrated circuitry that has totally
revolutionized the electronics and computer industries not to mention our lives! over
the last three decades.
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3iberglass is sometimes also termed a $glass fiber8reinforced polymer& composite, abbreviated ;3D=.
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9i02ateria%s
#iomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body to replace
diseased or damaged body parts. (hese materials must not produce toxic substances and
must be compatible with body tissues i.e., must not cause adverse biological reactions!.
All of the preceding materials)metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and
semiconductors) may be used as biomaterials.
S2art ateria%s
Smart or intelligent! materials are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials now being
developed that will have a significant influence on many of our technologies. (he
ad:ective smart implies that these materials are able to sense changes in their environ-
ment and then respond to these changes in predetermined manners)traits that are also
found in living organisms. ,n addition, this $smart& concept is being extended to rather
sophisticated systems that consist of both smart and traditional materials.
Components of a smart material or system! include some type of sensor that
detects an input signal! and an actuator that performs a responsive and adaptive func-
tion!. Actuators may be called upon to change shape, position, natural fre1uency, or
mechanical characteristics in response to changes in temperature, electric fields, and%or
magnetic fields.
3our types of materials are commonly used for actuators: shape-memory alloys,
piezoelectric ceramics, magnetostrictive materials, and electrorheological%magnetorheo-
logical fluids. -hape-memory alloys are metals that, after having been deformed, revert
bac/ to their original shape when temperature is changed see the 'aterials of
,mportance box following -ection ...K!. =iezoelectric ceramics expand and contract in
response to an applied electric field or voltage!2 conversely, they also generate an
electric field when their dimensions are altered see -ection .5.56!. (he behavior of
magne- tostrictive materials is analogous to that of the piezoelectrics, except that
they are responsive to magnetic fields. Also, electrorheological and magnetorheological
fluids are li1uids that experience dramatic changes in viscosity upon the application of
electric and magnetic fields, respectively.
'aterials%devices employed as sensors include optical fibers -ection .K..@!, piezo-
electric materials including some polymers!, and microelectromechanical systems
'?'-2 -ection .7..4!.
3or example, one type of smart system is used in helicopters to reduce aerodynamic
coc/pit noise that is created by the rotating rotor blades. =iezoelectric sensors inserted
into the blades monitor blade stresses and deformations2 feedbac/ signals from these
sensors are fed into a computer-controlled adaptive device, which generates noise-
canceling antinoise.
!an02ateria%s
9ne new material class that has fascinating properties and tremendous technological
promise is the nanomaterials! "anomaterials may be any one of the four basic types)
metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites. *owever, unli/e these other materials,
they are not distinguished on the basis of their chemistry but rather their size2 the nano
prefix denotes that the dimensions of these structural entities are on the order of a
nanometer .4
K
m!)as a rule, less than .44 nanometers nm! e1uivalent to
approximately 644 atom diameters!.
=rior to the advent of nanomaterials, the general procedure scientists used to under-
stand the chemistry and physics of materials was to begin by studying large and complex
structures and then to investigate the fundamental building bloc/s of these structures
that are smaller and simpler. (his approach is sometimes termed $top-down& science.
9n
the other hand, with the development of scanning probe microscopes -ection 6..5!,
which permit observation of individual atoms and molecules, it has become possible to
design and build new structures from their atomic-level constituents, one atom or mole-
cule at a time i.e., $materials by design&!. (his ability to carefully arrange atoms pro-
vides opportunities to develop mechanical, electrical, magnetic, and other properties
that are not otherwise possible. 0e call this the $bottom-up& approach, and the study of
the properties of these materials is termed nanotec"nology.
6
-ome of the physical and chemical characteristics exhibited by matter may
experience dramatic changes as particle size approaches atomic dimensions. 3or
example, materials that are opa1ue in the macroscopic domain may become
transparent on the nanoscale2 some solids become li1uids, chemically stable materials
become combustible, and electrical insulators become conductors. 3urthermore,
properties may depend on size in this nanoscale domain. -ome of these effects are
1uantum mechanical in origin2 others are re- lated to surface phenomena)the
proportion of atoms located on surface sites of a particle increases dramatically as its size
decreases.
#ecause of these uni1ue and unusual properties, nanomaterials are finding niches
in electronic, biomedical, sporting, energy production, and other industrial
applications. -ome are discussed in this boo/2 these include the following:
L Catalytic converters for automobiles)'aterials of ,mportance box, Chapter 6
L Carbon nanotubes)'aterials of ,mportance box, Chapter 7
L =articles of carbon blac/ as reinforcement for automobile tires)-ection .6.5
L "anocomposites in tennis balls)'aterials of ,mportance box, Chapter .6
L 'agnetic nanosize grains that are used for hard dis/ drives)-ection .B...
L 'agnetic particles that store data on magnetic tapes)-ection .B...
0henever a new material is developed, its potential for harmful and toxicological
interactions with humans and animals must be considered. -mall nanoparticles have
exceedingly large surface area8to8volume ratios, which can lead to high chemical reactivi-
ties. Although the safety of nanomaterials is relatively unexplored, there are concerns
that they may be absorbed into the body through the s/in, lungs, and digestive tract at
relatively high rates, and that some, if present in sufficient concentrations, will pose
health ris/s)such as damage to E"A or promotion of lung cancer.
1.3 O"ER! ATERIALS: !EE"S
,n spite of the tremendous progress that has been made in the discipline of materials
science and engineering within the last few years, technological challenges remain,
including the development of even more-sophisticated and specialized materials, as well
as consideration of the environmental impact of materials production. -ome comment
is appropriate relative to these issues so as to round out this perspective.
"uclear energy holds some promise, but the solutions to the many problems that
remain will necessarily involve materials, such as fuels, containment structures, and
facilities for the disposal of radioactive waste.
-ignificant 1uantities of energy are involved in transportation. Deducing the weight
of transportation vehicles automobiles, aircraft, trains, etc.!, as well as increasing engine
operating temperatures, will enhance fuel efficiency. "ew high-strength, low-density
structural materials remain to be developed, as well as materials that have higher-
temperature capabilities, for use in engine components.
6
9ne legendary and prophetic suggestion as to the possibility of nanoengineered materials was offered by Dichard
3eynman in his .K6K American =hysical -ociety lecture titled $(here+s =lenty of Doom at the #ottom.&
.5 $ C-a.ter 1 / Intr0&(cti0n
1.5 Pr0cessing/Str(ct(re/Pr0.erties/Per10r2ance C0rre%ati0ns $ 13
3urthermore, there is a recognized need to find new, economical sources of energy
and to use present resources more efficiently. 'aterials will undoubtedly play a signifi-
cant role in these developments. 3or example, the direct conversion of solar power into
electrical energy has been demonstrated. -olar cells employ some rather complex and
expensive materials. (o ensure a viable technology, materials that are highly efficient
in this conversion process yet less costly must be developed.
(he hydrogen fuel cell is another very attractive and feasible energy-conversion
technology that has the advantage of being nonpolluting. ,t is :ust beginning to be
implemented in batteries for electronic devices and holds promise as a power plant for
automobiles. "ew materials still need to be developed for more efficient fuel cells and
also for better catalysts to be used in the production of hydrogen.
3urthermore, environmental 1uality depends on our ability to control air and water
pollution. =ollution control techni1ues employ various materials. ,n addition, materials
processing and refinement methods need to be improved so that they produce less
environmental degradation)that is, less pollution and less despoilage of the landscape
from the mining of raw materials. Also, in some materials manufacturing processes,
toxic substances are produced, and the ecological impact of their disposal must be
considered.
'any materials that we use are derived from resources that are nonrenewable)that
is, not capable of being regenerated. (hese include most polymers, for which the prime
raw material is oil, and some metals. (hese nonrenewable resources are gradually
becoming depleted, which necessitates .! the discovery of additional reserves, 5! the
development of new materials having comparable properties with less adverse environ-
mental impact, and%or 7! increased recycling efforts and the development of new recy-
cling technologies. As a conse1uence of the economics of not only production but also
environmental impact and ecological factors, it is becoming increasingly important to
consider the $cradle-to-grave& life cycle of materials relative to the overall manufactur-
ing process.
(he roles that materials scientists and engineers play relative to these, as well as
other environmental and societal issues, are discussed in more detail in Chapter 54.
1.5 PROCESSI!#/STR+CT+RE/PROPERTIES/
PER'ORA!CE CORRELATIO!S
As mentioned previously -ection ..5!, the science and engineering of materials
involves four interrelated components: processing, structure, properties, and
perform- ance 3igure ...!. ,nasmuch as the remainder of the boo/ discusses these
components for the different material types, it has been decided to direct the readers+
attention to the treatment of individual components for several specific materials.
0hereas some of these discussions are found within single chapters, others are
spread out over mul- tiple chapters. 3or the latter, and for each material we have
selected, a $topic timeline& has been created that indicates the locations by
sections! where treatments of the four components are to be found. 3igure ....
presents topic timelines for the following materials: steels, glass-ceramics, polymer
fibers, and silicon semiconductors. 3urthermore, a
processing%structure%properties%performance summary appears at the end of that
chapter in which the last item on the topic timeline appears)for example, Chapter .@
for steels, for glass-ceramics and polymer fibers, and Chapter .5 for silicon
semiconductors.
,n addition, near the end of each chapter that has some discussion of processing,
structure, properties, and%or performance for at least one of these four materials, a
sum- mary is provided in the form of one or more concept maps! A concept map is a
diagram that illustrates the relationships among concepts. 0e represent these
relationships by connecting arrows fre1uently horizontal!2 each arrow points left to
right! from one
STEELS
Is0t-er2a% trans10r2ati0n &iagra2s;
c0ntin(0(s<c00%ing trans10r2ati0n &iagra2s=
-eat treating 10r te2.ere& 2artensite
"i11(si0n Recr4sta%%i>ati0n
Heat treat2ent 01 stee%s
Pr0cessing
Crystal structure, Eevelopment of microstructure,
'icrostructure of various
polymorphism iron-iron carbide alloys
microconstituents
-tructure
Eislocations,
slip systems, =hase e1uilibria,
-olid solutions, 'echanical strengthening the iron-iron carbide 'echanical properties of
dislocations properties mechanisms phase diagram 3e-C alloys
=roperties
Applications of steel alloys
=erformance
ch 7 ch 6 ch A ch F ch B ch .4 ch .. ch .7 ch .@
(a)
#LASS<CERAICS
Cr4sta%%i>ati0n;
C0ntin(0(s<c00%ing 1abricati0n; -eat
C0nce.t 01 visc0sit4 trans10r2ati0n &iagra2s treat2ent
Pr0cessing
=olycrystallinity
Atomic structure
of silica glasses
"oncrystalline
solids
-tructure
'echanical, thermal, 9pacity and translucency in
optical properties insulators
=roperties
Applications
=erformance
ch 7 ch B ch .. ch .7 ch .@ ch .K
(b)
POL*ER 'I9ERS
e%ting te2.erat(re; P0%42eri>ati0n; a&&itives;
1act0rs t-at a11ect 2e%ting; 1iber 10r2ing
Pr0cessing
?lectronic structure, =olymer molecules, polymer
interatomic bonding crystals
-tructure
(hermoplastic 'echanical 'echanical properties, 'elting temperature,
polymers properties factors that affect factors that affect
Eegradation
=roperties
Applications
=erformance
ch 5
ch @ ch F ch B
(c)
ch .. ch .7 ch .@ ch .A
'ig(re 1.11 =rocessing%structure%properties%performance topic timelines for a! steels, b! glass-ceramics,
c! polymer fibers, and d! silicon semiconductors.

.@ $ C-a.ter 1 / Intr0&(cti0n

S(22ar4 $ 15
SILICO! SEICO!"+CTORS
C02.0siti0n
s.eci1icati0n
"i11(si0n Integrate& circ(its
Pr0cessing
?lectronic structure,
interatomic bonding
?lectronic band structure
-tructure
?lectrical properties
=roperties
,ntegrated circuits
=erformance
ch 5 ch 6 ch A ch .5
(d)
'ig(re 1.11 continued!
concept to another. (he organization of these connections is hierarchical)that is, a
concept to the left of an arrow should be mastered before a concept to the right can
be under- stood. 3or each map, at least one of its concepts is discussed in its chapter2
other concepts may be treated in previous and%or later chapters. 3or example, 3igure
...5 presents a portion of a concept map for the processing of steel alloys that appears
in Chapter ...
Ir0n?ir0n carbi&e
.-ase &iagra2
@C-a.ter 18A
Is0t-er2a%
trans10r2ati0n
&iagra2s
@C-a.ter 11A
C0ntin(0(s<c00%ing
trans10r2ati0n
&iagra2s
@C-a.ter 11A
Heat treat2ent
01 stee%s
@C-a.ter 14A
'ig(re 1.12 =ortion of a concept map for the processing of a steel alloy that is found in
Chapter ...
S+AR*
'aterials -cience
and ?ngineering
Classification of
'aterials
L (here are six different property classifications of materials that determine their appli-
cability: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative.
L 9ne aspect of materials science is the investigation of relationships that exist between
the structures and properties of materials. #y structure we mean how some internal
components! of the material is are! arranged. ,n terms of and with increasing!
dimensionality, structural elements include subatomic, atomic, microscopic, and
macroscopic.
L 0ith regard to the design, production, and utilization of materials, there are four
elements to consider)processing, structure, properties, and performance. (he
per- formance of a material depends on its properties, which in turn are a function
of its structures!2 furthermore, structures! is are! determined by how the
material was processed.
L (hree important criteria in materials selection are in-service conditions to which the
material will be sub:ected, any deterioration of material properties during operation,
and economics or cost of the fabricated piece.
L 9n the basis of chemistry and atomic structure, materials are classified into three
general categories: metals metallic elements!, ceramics compounds between
metallic and nonmetallic elements!, and polymers compounds composed of
carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements!. ,n addition, composites are
composed of at least two different material types.

Advanced 'aterials
L Another materials category is the advanced materials that are used in high-tech
applications. (hese include semiconductors having electrical conductivities interme-
diate between those of conductors and insulators!, biomaterials which must be com-
patible with body tissues!, smart materials those that sense and respond to changes
in their environments in predetermined manners!, and nanomaterials those that
have structural features on the order of a nanometer, some of which may be
designed on the atomic%molecular level!.
RE'ERE!CES
Ashby, '. 3., and E. D. *. Jones, Engineering Materials 1,
An Introduction to #"eir Properties and Applications,
7rd edition, #utterworth-*einemann, 0oburn, MN, 5446.
Ashby, '. 3., and E. D. *. Jones, Engineering Materials $, An
Introduction to Microstructures, Processing and Design,
7rd edition, #utterworth-*einemann, 0oburn, MN, 5446.
Ashby, '., *. -hercliff, and E. Cebon, Materials
Engineering,
Science, Processing and Design, #utterworth-*einemann,
9xford, 544F.
As/eland, E. D., =. =. 3ulay, and 0. J. 0right, #"e Science
and Engineering of Materials, Ath edition, Cengage
Learning, -tamford, C(, 54...
#aillie, C., and L. <anasupa, %aigating t"e Materials &orld,
Academic =ress, -an Eiego, CA, 5447.
3ischer, (., Materials Science for Engineering Students,
Academic =ress, -an Eiego, CA, 544K.
Jacobs, J. A., and (. 3. Nilduff, Engineering Materials
#ec"nology,
6th edition, =rentice *all =(D, =aramus, "J, 5446.
'c'ahon, C. J., Jr., Structural Materials, 'erion #oo/s,
=hiladelphia, 544@.
'urray, ;. (., C. <. 0hite, and 0. 0eise, Introduction to
Engineering Materials, 5nd edition, CDC =ress, #oca
Daton, 3L, 544F.
-chaffer, J. =., A. -axena, -. E. Antolovich, (. *. -anders, Jr.,
and -. #. 0arner, #"e Science and Design of
Engineering Materials, 5nd edition, 'c;raw-*ill, "ew
Hor/, .KKK.
-hac/elford, J. 3., Introduction to Materials Science for
Engineers, Fth edition, =rentice *all =(D, =aramus, "J,
544K.
-mith, 0. 3., and J. *ashemi, 'oundations of Materials Science
and
Engineering, 6th edition, 'c;raw-*ill, "ew Hor/, 54.4.
<an <lac/, L. *., Elements of Materials Science and Engineering,
Ath edition, Addison-0esley Longman, #oston, .KBK. 0hite,
'. A., Properties of Materials, 9xford Mniversity =ress,
"ew Hor/, .KKK.
B+ESTIO!
1.1 -elect one or more of the following modern
items or devices and conduct an ,nternet search
in order to determine what specific materials! is
are! used and what specific properties this
these! materials! possesses! in order for the
device%item to function properly. 3inally, write a
short essay in which you report your findings.
Cell phone%digital camera batteries
Cell phone displays
-olar cells
0ind turbine blades
3uel cells
Automobile engine bloc/s other than cast
iron!
Automobile bodies other than steel alloys!
-pace telescope mirrors
'ilitary body armor
-ports e1uipment
-occer balls
#as/etballs
-/i poles
-/i boots
-nowboards
-urfboards
;olf clubs
;olf balls
Naya/s
Lightweight bicycle frames
.A $ C-a.ter 1 / Intr0&(cti0n
C h a p t e r 5 Atomic -tructure and
,nteratomic #onding
(he photograph at the bottom of this page is of a
gec/o.
;ec/os, harmless tropical lizards, are extremely fasci-
nating and extraordinary animals. (hey have very stic/y
feet one of which is shown in the third photograph! that
cling to virtually any surface. (his characteristic ma/es it
possible for them to rapidly run up vertical walls and along
the un- dersides of horizontal surfaces. ,n fact, a gec/o can
support its body mass with a single toeO (he secret to this
remar/- able ability is the presence of an extremely large
number of microscopically small hairs on each of their toe
pads. 0hen
these hairs come in contact with a surface, wea/ forces of attraction i.e., van der 0aals
forces! are established between hair molecules and molecules on the surface. (he fact
that these hairs are so small and so numerous explains why the gec/o grips surfaces so
tightly. (o release its grip, the gec/o simply curls up its toes and peels the hairs away
from the surface.
Msing their /nowledge of this mechanism of adhesion, scientists
have developed several ultra-strong synthetic adhesives. 9ne of these
is an adhesive tape shown in the second photograph!, which is an
especially promising tool for use in surgical procedures as a
replacement for sutures and staples to close wounds and incisions. (his
material retains its adhesive nature in wet environments, is
biodegradable, and does not release toxic substances as it dissolves
during the healing process. 'icroscopic features of this adhesive tape
are shown in the
top photograph.
Adhesive tape: Courtesy Jeffrey Narp, Dobert
Langer and Alex ;ala/atos2 ;ec/o foot:
?manuele #iggi%;etty ,mages, ,nc.2 ;ec/o:
#arbara
=eacoc/%=hotodisc%;etty ,mages, ,nc.!
$ 15
)H* ST+"* Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding,
An important reason to have an understanding of
interatomic bonding in solids is that in some instances,
the type of bond allows us to explain a material+s prop-
erties. 3or example, consider carbon, which may exist as
both graphite and diamond. 0hereas graphite is
relatively soft and has a $greasy& feel to it, diamond is
the hardest /nown material. ,n addition, the electrical
properties of
diamond and graphite are dissimilar: diamond is a poor
conductor of electricity, but graphite is a reasonably
good conductor. (hese disparities in properties are
directly attributable to a type of interatomic bonding
found in graphite that does not exist in diamond see
-ection 7.K!.
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to do the following:
1. "ame the two atomic models cited, and note
the differences between them.
2. Eescribe the important 1uantum-mechanical
principle that relates to electron energies.
3. a! -chematically plot attractive, repulsive,
and net energies versus interatomic
separation for two atoms or ions.
b! "ote on this plot the e1uilibrium
separation and the bonding energy.
4. a! #riefly describe ionic, covalent, metallic,
hydrogen, and van der 0aals bonds.
b! "ote which materials exhibit each of these
bonding types.
2.1 I!TRO"+CTIO!
-ome of the important properties of solid materials depend on geometrical atomic
arrangements and also the interactions that exist among constituent atoms or molecules.
(his chapter, by way of preparation for subse1uent discussions, considers several funda-
mental and important concepts)namely, atomic structure, electron configurations in
atoms and the periodic table, and the various types of primary and secondary inter-
atomic bonds that hold together the atoms that compose a solid. (hese topics are re-
viewed briefly, under the assumption that some of the material is familiar to the reader.
Atomic -tructure
2.2 '+!"AE!TAL CO!CEPTS
?ach atom consists of a very small nucleus composed of protons and neutrons, which is
encircled by moving electrons. #oth electrons and protons are electrically charged, the
charge magnitude being ..A45 .4
.K
C, which is negative in sign for electrons and pos-
itive for protons2 neutrons are electrically neutral. 'asses for these subatomic particles
are extremely small2 protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass, ..AF
.4
5F
/g, which is significantly larger than that of an electron, K... .4
7.
/g.
?ach chemical element is characterized by the number of protons in the nucleus, or
at02ic n(2ber @ZA the at02ic n(2ber @ZA.
.
3or an electrically neutral or complete atom, the atomic num-
ber also e1uals the number of electrons. (his atomic number ranges in integral units
from . for hydrogen to K5 for uranium, the highest of the naturally occurring elements.
(he atomic mass A! of a specific atom may be expressed as the sum of the masses
of protons and neutrons within the nucleus. Although the number of protons is the
same
.
(erms appearing in b0%&1ace type are defined in the ;lossary, which follows Appendix ?.
16 $