4 Case Theory

These notes are in part based on the following sources:

Haegeman, L. (1994). Introduction to Government and Binding Theory. Oxford: Blackwell.
Roberts, . (199!). Comparative Syntax. London: "rnold.
4.1 The distribution and form of overt DPs
#ase t$eor% acco&nts for t$e d'str'b&t'on and form of overt ()s (as o**osed to covert ()s, s&c$ as traces of mo+ement). t def'nes contexts
'n w$'c$ ()s are ass'gned abstract case and t$en 'm*oses t$e re,&'rement t$at o+ert ()s $a+e abstract case- a cond't'on known as t$e
#ase .'lter.
(1) #ase .'lter
/() 'f () 's *$onolog'call% real'0ed and not case1marked
2$&s, t$e contrast between (3a) and (3b) co&ld be attr'b&ted to t$e case1ass'gn'ng ab'l't'es of t$e select'ng $eads 'n+ol+ed: a +erb ass'gns
acc&sat'+e case to 'ts com*lement, b&t a no&n der'+ed from t$'s +erb fa'ls to do so. 2$e str&ct&re can be resc&ed b% t$e 'nsert'on of t$e
4d&mm%5 *re*os't'on of.
(3) (a) 6
7)
destro% Rome8
(b) /6
9)
destr&ct'on Rome8
(b5) 6
9)
destr&ct'on 6
))
of Rome88
"d:ect'+es a**ear to *attern w't$ no&ns 'n t$'s res*ect:
(;) (a) )o'rot 6
7)
en+'es $'m8
(b) /)o'rot 's 6
")
en+'o&s $'m8
(b5) )o'rot 's 6
")
en+'o&s 6
))
of $'m88
#ase t$eor% 's based on t$e *rem'se t$at mor*$olog'cal case (e.g. case end'ngs on no&ns 'n lang&ages l'ke <erman or Lat'n) 's t$e o+ert
reflex of abstract case (t$at 's, s%ntact'c case feat&res). On t$'s +'ew, lang&ages s$ow *arametr'c +ar'at'on 'n t$e man'festat'on of
mor*$olog'cal case forms, b&t t$e'r &nderl%'ng s%stem of abstract case 's t$e same.
2$e 'n't'al mot'+at'on for case t$eor% came from look'ng at en+'ronments 'n w$'c$ o+ert ()s are not allowed b&t co+ert ones are. nf'n't'+al
cla&ses generall% cannot $a+e o+ert s&b:ects:
(4) (a) /"lan=s *lan 6$e>$'m to sell mar':&ana8
(a=) "lan=s *lan 6 ?? to sell mar':&ana8
(b) /t=s 'llegal 6one to sell mar':&nana8
(b=) t=s 'llegal 6 ?? to sell mar':&nana8
(c) /6>me to be *res'dent8 's n'ce
(c=) 6 ?? to be *res'dent8 's n'ce
(d) /)$'l tr'ed 6$e>$'m to *la% t$e mar'mba8
(d=) )$'l tr'ed 6 ?? to *la% t$e mar'mba8
(@) (a) "lan=s *lan 6t$at $e wo&ld sell mar':&ana8
(b) t=s 'llegal 6'f one sells mar':&nana8
(c) 62$at am *res'dent8 's n'ce
(d) no *ara*$rase for (4d)
(A) (a) "lan=s *lan 6for $'m to sell mar':&ana8
(b) t=s 'llegal 6for one to sell mar':&nana8
(c) 6.or me to be *res'dent8 's n'ce
(d) )$'l wanted 6$'mself to *la% t$e mar'mba8
2$e &ngrammat'cal't% of t$e exam*les 'n (4a1d) co&ld be dealt w't$ as follows.
Be ass&me, as before, t$at s&b:ect agreement ("grC) and tense (2) are located 'n a node . 9ow s&**ose t$at nom'nat'+e case 's a relat'on
between "grC 'n t$e 1node and t$e () 'n 'ts s*ec'f'er. f 'nf'n't'+al cla&ses lack (s&ff'c'ent) mark'ng for s&b:ect agreement to ass'gn case to
t$e s&b:ect, t$en t$e #ase .'lter r&les o&t o+ert s&b:ects 'n 'nf'n't'+al cla&ses.
O+ert s&b:ects are *oss'ble 'n tensed cla&ses, w$'c$, b% $%*ot$es's, carr% s&b:ect agreement 'n (cf. (@)). Howe+er, t$e% are also *oss'ble 'n
'nf'n't'+al cla&ses 'f t$e s&b:ect 's *receded b% t$e *re*os't'onal com*lement'0er for, as 'n (Aa1c). Be know 'nde*endentl% t$at Dngl's$
*re*os't'ons ass'gn e't$er acc&sat'+e or dat'+e case (I gave a book to him). C'nce s&b:ects *receded b% a *re*os't'on carr% s&c$ a case, t$e
s'm*lest ass&m*t'on 's t$at t$e% are ass'gned case b% t$e *re*os't'on.
n (Ad), too, t$e o+ert s&b:ect of t$e 'nf'n't'+al cla&se $as acc&sat'+e case, e+en t$o&g$ 't 's not *receded b% a *re*os't'on. Howe+er, 't 's
d'rectl% *receded b% a +erb, o*en'ng &* t$e *oss'b'l't% t$at t$e +erb ass'gns 't acc&sat'+e case across a cla&se bo&ndar%. 2$'s 'n t&rn ra'ses
t$e ,&est'on w$% (4d) 's &ngrammat'cal. Be ret&rn to t$'s *roblem below.
.or t$e moment, we can s&mmar'0e t$e conf'g&rat'ons for case ass'gnment as follows.
Case assigners with their assignment configurations:
7erbs: acc&sat'+e E &nder a relat'on resembl'ng s'ster$ood
)re*os't'ons: acc&sat'+e, dat'+e or
ablat'+e
(de*end'ng on t$e
*re*os't'on and t$e
lang&age)
E &nder a relat'on resembl'ng s'ster$ood
"grC (or ) nom'nat'+e E 'n a C*ec1Head relat'on (not &nder
s'ster$ood)
#onf'rmat'on for t$e 'dea t$at "grC 's 'n+ol+ed 'n t$e l'cens'ng of o+ert s&b:ects comes from t$e fact t$at 'n some lang&ages 'n w$'c$
'nf'n't'+al +erbs are 'nflected for *erson and n&mber (s&c$ as )ort&g&ese) t$e s&b:ect 'n s&c$ cla&ses can be o+ert:
(!) Cera d'f'c'l 6eles a*ro+ar1em a *ro*osta8
B'll1be d'ff'c&lt t$e% to1a**ro+e13Pl t$e *ro*osal
=t w'll be d'ff'c&lt for t$em to a**ro+e t$e *ro*osal=
B$at 's somew$at &n*leasant, $owe+er, 's t$at s&c$ an acco&nt of t$e contrast between Dngl's$ and )ort&g&ese, makes reference to
mor*$olog'cal case (as o**osed to abstract case). Of co&rse one co&ld ma'nta'n t$at t$e d'fference 'n mor*$olog'cal case forms 'n t$'s case
reflects a d'fference 'n abstract case, b&t t$at of co&rse &nderm'nes t$e 'dea t$at abstract case 's 'nde*endent of mor*$olog'cal case.
4.2 nherent case
2$e exam*les we $a+e looked at so far clearl% s$ow t$at a () ma% rece'+e case from a $ead t$at does not F1mark 't. .or 'nstance, t$e
s&b:ect a sentence rece'+es 'ts F1role from t$e +erb, b&t 's normall% case1marked b% "grC. C'm'larl%, 'n t$e exam*les 'n (A), t$e embedded
s&b:ect rece'+es 'ts F1role from t$e embedded *red'cate, e+en t$o&g$ 't 's de*endent for acc&sat'+e case on a *re*os't'on or a $'g$er +erb.
Co bot$ nom'nat'+e and acc&sat'+e case ass'gnment a**ear not d'rectl% related to F1mark'ng.
nterest'ngl%, t$'s d'ssoc'at'on between F1mark'ng and case1mark'ng 's not fo&nd w't$ mark'ng for ablat'+e, dat'+e and gen't'+e (excl&d'ng
*er$a*s *ossess'+e gen't'+e). 2$&s, t$ere are no lang&ages 'n w$'c$ a +erb marks dat'+e on a () t$at 't does not F1mark. C'm'larl%,
alt$o&g$ t$ere are lang&ages t$at somet'mes allow dat'+e s&b:ects (so1called ,&'rk% s&b:ects), s&c$ a s&b:ect does not rece'+e 'ts case
&nder agreement w't$ "grC (b&t *oss'bl% *r'or to mo+ement, from t$e +erb t$at selects 't):
(G) Strakunum leiddist sklann (celand'c)
the boys!"T got bored#sg in the school
9ot'ce t$at t$e s&b:ect does not agree w't$ t$e +erb, w$'c$ a**ears 'n t$e defa&lt t$'rd *erson s'ng&lar.
n order to ca*t&re t$'s d'c$otom%, we ass&me t$at w$'le t$e nom'nat'+e and acc&sat'+e case1mark'ng ab'l't% of a $ead are &nrelated to 'ts
t$emat'c *ro*ert'es, mark'ng for ablat'+e, dat'+e and gen't'+e case are d'rectl% l'nked to F1mark'ng.
(9)
Be w'll $encefort$ refer to dat'+e and 'ts co&s'ns as t$e inherent cases and to nom'nat'+e and acc&sat'+e as t$e structural cases.
4.! "ore about configurations for case assignment
(ata from O7 lang&ages l'ke (&tc$ and <erman s&ggest t$at t$e conf'g&rat'on for c$eck'ng of acc&sat'+e case 's weaker t$an s'ster$ood. n
t$e (&tc$ exam*le 'n (1H), t$e ob:ect does not $a+e to be ad:acent to t$e +erb:
(1H) ... dat Ian $et boek g'steren las
... t$at Io$n t$e book %esterda% read
=... t$at Io$n read t$e book %esterda%=
"ss&m'ng, as before, onl% b'nar% branc$'ng tree str&ct&res, t$en het boek cannot be a s'ster to las 'n (1H). B&t we m&st be caref&l not to
weaken t$e re,&'red str&ct&ral relat'on too m&c$ or we w'll for 'nstance not be able to *re+ent t$e ob:ect from be'ng ass'gned nom'nat'+e
case.
Be co&ld make a ste* 'n t$e r'g$t d'rect'on b% ass&m'ng t$at t$e conf'g&rat'on for case ass'gnment and t$at of ('nternal) t$eta1mark'ng are
essent'all% t$e same: m'n'mal m1command. n t$at case we wo&ld ex*ect t$at t$e () t$at 's ass'gned case c1commands t$e case ass'gn'ng
$ead and 's conta'ned 'n 'ts max'mal *ro:ect'on. 2$'s works f'ne for ass'gnment of nom'nat'+e to t$e () 'n C*ec): t$e () c1commands and
's conta'ned 'n ). C'm'larl%, a com*lement () ass'gned acc&sat'+e b% a +erb or a *re*os't'on w'll c1command t$e rele+ant $ead and be
conta'ned 'n 'ts max'mal *ro:ect'on. Jo& ma% c$eck t$'s for and 7 'n t$e str&ct&re below:
(11)
2$at t$'s cannot be t$e w$ole stor% becomes a**arent w$en we ret&rn to t$e k'nd of data we left &nd'sc&ssed earl'er (4d) and (Ad),
re*eated $ere as (13a1b), and 'ndeed 'f we look a b't more closel% at $ow a *re*os't'on co&ld case mark t$e s&b:ect of an 'nf'n't'+al cla&se,
as 'n (13c).
(13) (a) /)$'l tr'ed 6$e>$'m to *la% t$e mar'mba8
(b) )$'l wanted 6$'mself to *la% t$e mar'mba8
(c) "lan=s *lan 6for $'m to sell mar':&ana8

(1;)
#learl%, 'n t$ese cases t$e arg&ment does not c1command t$e $ead from w$'c$ 't rece'+es case (alt$o&g$ t$e o**os'te is t$e case). .or t$'s
reason, t$ese conf'g&rat'ons are &s&all% referred to as exce*t'onal case1mark'ng (D#K) conf'g&rat'ons. 2$e ex'stence of D#K constr&ct'ons
creates d'ff'c&lt *roblems for case t$eor%, beca&se 't makes 't $ard to def'ne t$e conf'g&rat'on &nder w$'c$ case1mark'ng a**l'es. K'n'mal
m1command can onl% be ma'nta'ned as a def'n't'on, 'f t$e 'nf'n't'+al 1nodes 'n (1;) some$ow do not co&nt as closer commanders. 2$'s
*roblem $as s*arked off an alternat'+e a**roac$ to case ass'gnment 'n w$'c$ com*lements mo+e *ast t$e $ead t$at selects t$em to a
$'g$er s*ec'f'er *os't'on, w$ere t$e% c$eck case w't$ a $ead 'n a s*ec'f'er1$ead conf'g&rat'on. Be w'll d'sc&ss t$'s a**roac$ to case t$eor% 'n
t$e next 'nstalment.
2o s&mmar'0e t$e d'sc&ss'on so far:
$ 2$e #ase .'lter l'm'ts t$e occ&rrence of o+ert ()s to case1marked *os't'ons.
$ #ase 's ass'gned 'n a local doma'n of some sort.
$ 2ensed , 7 and ) are case ass'gners. t a**ears t$at, 'n Dngl's$ at least, " and 9 are &nable to ass'gn case.
$ 2$ere 's a d'st'nct'on between 'n$erent and str&ct&ral case. n$erent case 's l'nked to F1mark'ng, w$'le str&ct&ral case 's not.
4.4 Passive
(14) (a) 2$e enem% destro%ed a c't%
(b) " c't% was destro%ed (b% t$e enem%)
(c) /2$ere was destro%ed a c't% (b% t$e enem%) 6bad 'n Dngl's$8
(c=) Dr werd een stad +erwoest (door de +':and) 6b&t f'ne 'n (&tc$ and ot$er
lang&ages8
4.4.1 Properties of passives
$ 2$e s&b:ect of t$e *ass'+e corres*onds to t$e 'nternal arg&ment of t$e corres*ond'ng act'+e.
$ 2$e external t$eta role 'n t$e act'+e 's ass'gned 'n an o*t'onal b%1*$rase 'n t$e *ass'+e.
$ t a**ears t$at t$e 'nternal arg&ment mo+es to C*ec) 'n order to rece'+e nom'nat'+e case from (cf 14b).
$ f C*ec) 's a+a'lable as a land'ng s'te for t$e ob:ect, t$en 't m&st be t$e case t$at t$e *ass'+e +erb does not $a+e an external
arg&ment. n ot$er words, 't s$o&ld not ass'gn an external F1role. 2$'s 's conf'rmed 'n lang&ages s&c$ as (&tc$, 'n w$'c$ t$e s&b:ect
of a *ass'+e can be an ex*let'+e (14c).
(1@)
Be can f'nd conf'rmat'on t$at t$ese are 'ndeed t$e *ro*ert'es of *ass'+e b% look'ng at a *ass'+e +erb w$'c$ takes a cla&se as 'ts 'nternal
arg&ment. #ons'der t$e facts 'n (1A). Dxam*le (1Aa) s$ows t$at believe 's a so1called exce*t'onal case mark'ng +erb: 't ass'gns acc&sat'+e
case to t$e s&b:ect of t$e 'nf'n't'+al ). Dxam*le (1Ab) 's &ngrammat'cal beca&se *ass'+e believed $as lost 'ts ab'l't% to ass'gn acc&sat'+e
case. 2$at t$'s 's t$e correct acco&nt for 'ts &ngrammat'cal't% 's conf'rmed b% (1Ac): $ere t$e com*lement of *ass'+e believed 's a tensed
cla&se. 2$e s&b:ect of t$'s cla&se rece'+es nom'nat'+e case from tensed . 9ot'ce t$at t$e s&b:ect of t$e *ass'+e +erb 's ex*let'+e it. 2$'s
conf'rms t$at a *ass'+e +erb does not ass'gn an external t$eta1role. 9ow cons'der (1Ad), t$e grammat'cal co&nter*art of (1Ab). I&st as 'n
(14b), Ko+e $as ra'sed t$e embedded s&b:ect (), w$'c$ cannot get case from t$e *ass'+e +erb, to s*ec), w$ere 't gets nom'nat'+e case
from tensed .
(1A) (a) Be bel'e+e 6$'m to $a+e destro%ed t$e e+'dence8
(b) /t was bel'e+ed 6$'m to $a+e destro%ed t$e e+'dence8
(c) t was bel'e+ed 6
#)
t$at $e $ad destro%ed t$e e+'dence8
(d) He
1
was bel'e+ed 6
)
t
1
to $a+e destro%ed t$e e+'dence8
Of co&rse we $a+e no acco&nt of %hy *ass'+e +erbs $a+e t$ese *ro*ert'es. 2$ere 's some reason to bel'e+e t$at 'n t$e *ass'+e constr&ct'on
t$e external role of t$e +erb, rat$er t$an be'ng com*letel% absent, 's ass'gned to t$e *ass'+e mor*$eme on t$e +erb. 2$'s F1role 's often
referred to as t$e absorbed role. 2$e e+'dence for t$e +'ew t$at t$e external F1role 's st'll some$ow *resent 'n a *ass'+e comes from t$e
remarkable contrasts below:
(1!) (a) 2$e boat was s&nk del'beratel% (LabsorbedL agent)
(a=) /2$e boat sank del'beratel% (absent agent)
(b) 2$e boat was s&nk ('n order) to collect t$e 'ns&rance (LabsorbedL agent)
(b=) /2$e boat sank ('n order) to collect t$e 'ns&rance (absent agent)
"d:&ncts of manner, s&c$ as deliberately re,&'re t$e *resence of an agent. 2$e same 's tr&e of *&r*ose cla&ses s&c$ as in order to collect
the insurance.
(1G)
4.1 #aising
9ow com*are t$e *arad'gm 'n (1Ab1d) to t$at 'n (19a1c):
(19) (a) /t seems $'m to $a+e destro%ed t$e e+'dence
(b) t seems 6
#)
t$at $e $as destro%ed t$e e+'dence8
(c) He
1
seems 6
)
t
1
to $a+e destro%ed t$e e+'dence8
4.1.1 Properties of raising
Be concl&de t$at seem $as exactl% t$e *ro*ert'es of *ass'+e believe:
$ t cannot ass'gn acc&sat'+e case (and t$erefore (19a) 's bad)
$ t does not ass'gn an external t$eta1role (and t$erefore 'ts s&b:ect can be an ex*let'+e, as 'n (19b))
$ t t$erefore *ro+'des an en+'ronment for ()1mo+ement (as 'n (19c)).
4.1.2 #aising ad$ectives: raising is not restricted to raising verbs
(3H) (a) /t 's l'kel% Io$n to w'n
(b) t 's l'kel% 6
#)
t$at Io$n w'll w'n8
(c) Io$n
1
's l'kel% 6
)
t
1
to w'n8
4.2 #aising versus control
Ra's'ng +erbs m&st be d'st'ng&'s$ed from +erbs of control, s&c$ as try. C&c$ +erbs are also followed b% an 'nf'n't'+e w't$ a n&ll s&b:ect. B&t
t$'s s&b:ect cannot be trace, beca&se t$e matr'x s&b:ect occ&*'es a t$eta1*os't'on:
(31) (a) Io$n
1
tr'ed 6
)
)RO
1
to w'n8
(b) /t tr'ed t$at Io$n won
Be m&st t$erefore ass&me t$at t$e n&ll s&b:ect 'n ,&est'on 's a n&ll *ronom'nal element t$at acts as an arg&ment. Hence, 'n (31a) bot$
John and PRO rece'+e a t$eta1role (from try and win res*ect'+el%).
4.! %ur&io's (eneralisation
(') " verb %hich lacks an external argument &ails to assign accusative case
('') " verb %hich &ails to check accusative case &ails to thetamark an external argument
B&r0'o=s general'sat'on *red'cts t$e ex'stence of t$ree t%*es of +erbs:
$ 7DRB1: 6 F F 8 trans't'+es
$ 7DRB3: 6 F 8 'ntrans't'+es
$ 7DRB;: 6 F 8 &nacc&sat'+es
Onl% t%*e t$ree, t$e &nacc&sat'+es, do not ass'gn acc&sat'+e case. )ass'+es and ra's'ng +erbs are &nacc&sat'+e1t%*e +erbs. B&t B&r0'o
(19GA) 'dent'f'es anot$er class of +erbs t$at be$a+e l'ke *ass'+e +erbs 'n man% res*ects.
(33) (a) <'acomo telefona ('ntrans't'+e, l'ke slee*)
<'acome tele*$ones
(b) <'acomo arr'+a (&nacc&sat'+e, l'ke was seen)
<'acomo arr'+es
4.!.1 )ne*argument verbs in talian
+e*cliticisation
(3;) (a) <'acomo $a 'ns&ltato d&e st&dent'
<. $as 'ns&lted two st&dents
(b) <'acome ne $a 'ns&ltato d&e (from com*lement ())
<. of1t$em $as 'ns&lted two
(34) (a) <'acomo $a *arlato a d&e st&dent'
<. $as s*oken to two st&dents
(b) /<'acome ne $a *arlato a d&e (from com*lement )))
<. of1t$em $as s*oken to two
(3@) (a) <'acomo *assa tre sett'mane a K'lano
<. *asses t$ree weeks 'n K'
(b) <'acomo ne *assa tre a K'lano (from com*lement ())
<. of1t$em *asses t$ree 'n K'lan
(c) 2re sett'mane sono state *assate a K'lano (ok to *ass'+'0e)
2$ree weeks $a+e been *assed 'n K'lan
(3A) (a) <'acomo resta tre sett'mane a K'lano
<. sta%s t$ree weeks 'n K'lan
(b) /<'acomo ne resta tre a K'lano (from ad:&nct)
<. of1t$em sta%s t$ree 'n K'lan
(c) /2re sett'mane sono state *assate a K'lano (can=t *ass'+'0e an 'ntrans't'+e)
2$ree weeks $a+e been rema'ned 'n K'lan

(3!)

2$e en+'ronment for ne1cl't'c'0at'on (onl% from a () t$at 's a com*lement to 7):

,ree inversion
With transitives
(3G) (a) 2re rega00e $anno mang'ato &n dolce
2$ree g'rls $a+e eaten a sweet
(b) Hanno mang'ato &n dolce tre rega00e (nom)
Ha+e eaten a sweet t$ree g'rls
With passives
(39) (a) Kolt' st&dent' f&rono arrestat'
Kan% st&dents were arrested
(b) .&rono arrestat' molt' st&dent' (nom)
Bere arrested man% st&dents
With one-argument verbs
(;H) (a) Kolt' st&dent' telefonano
Kan% st&dents tele*$one
(b) 2elefonano molt' st&dent' (nom)
2ele*$one man% st&dents
(;1) (a) Kolt' st&dent' arr'+ano
Kan% st&dents arr'+e
(b) "rr'+ano molt' st&dent'
"rr'+e man% st&dents
4.!.2 n what position are the postverbal sub$ects-
Postverbal sub$ect in transitives
(;3) /9e $anno mang'ato &n dolce tre (s&ggests ad:o'ned to 7= or 7))
Of1t$em $a+e eaten a sweet t$ree
Postverbal sub$ect in passives
(;;) 9e f&rono arrestat' molt' (m&st be a com*lementM)
Of1t$em were arrested man%
Postverbal sub$ect in one*argument verbs
(;4) (a) /9e telefonano molt' (s&ggest ad:o'ned to 7= or 7))
Of1t$em tele*$oned man%
(b) 9e arr'+ano molt' (m&st be a com*lementM)
Of1t$em arr'+ed man%
4.!.! .u/iliary selection
(;@) (a) <'acomo $a telefonato ('ntrans't'+e)
<'acomo $as tele*$oned
(b) <'acome N arr'+ato (&nacc&ast'+e)
<'acomo 's arr'+ed
0ssere*selection (B&r0'o)
2$ere 's a c$a'n between t$e s&b:ect *os't'on and t$e com*lement *os't'on of t$e +erb.
4.!.4 Conclusion
Telefonare 's a tr&e 'ntrans't'+e +erb (l'ke Dngl's$ sleep). Arrivare 's an &nacc&sat'+e +erb:
D2HDR: molt' st&dent'
1
arr'+ano t
1
OR: ec
ex*l
arr'+ano molt' st&dent'
2$e s&rface order 's der'+ed b% mo+'ng t$e &nderl%'ng ob:ect to s*ec) or b% 'nsert'ng a non1o+ert ex*let'+e 'n t$e +acant s&b:ect *os't'on.
9ot'ce t$at t$e occ&rrence of a *$onet'call% n&ll ex*let'+e 'n a lang&age l'ke tal'an s$o&ld not come as a s&r*r'se. tal'an 's a so1called *ro1
dro* lang&age and allows 'ts s&b:ect *rono&ns to be *$onet'call% em*t%:
(;A) ec $a mang'ato &n dolce
$as eaten a sweet
2$'s ec be$a+es l'ke a tr&e *rono&n. Be w'll call 't pro (*rono&nce Lsmall *roL). C'nce *rono&ns can be *$onet'call% n&ll 'n tal'an and
ex*let'+es are alwa%s *rono&ns, we wo&ld ex*ect to f'nd *$onet'call% n&ll ex*let'+es 'n tal'an, as 'ndeed we do.
4.4 1naccusatives in 0nglish
Ra's'ng +erbs and *ass'+es are &nacc&sat'+e +erbs, as d'sc&ssed abo+e. B&t w$at abo&t arrive and ot$er +erbs w$'c$ are &nacc&sat'+es 'n
tal'anO
4.4.1 .vere2essere
Dngl's$ does not $a+e t$e a+ere>essere d'st'nct'on, b&t older stages of t$e lang&age d'd and s$owed t$e ex*ected *attern.
4.4.2 +e*cliticisation
Dngl's$ does not $a+e ne1cl'c'sat'on b&t we can 'nfer somet$'ng from t$e &se of ex*let'+e there:
(;!) (a) 2$ree men arr'+ed
(b) 2$ere arr'+ed t$ree men
(;G) (a) 2$ree men sle*t
(b) /2$ere sle*t t$ree men
(;9) (a) 2$ree men bo&g$t a book
(b) /2$ere bo&g$t t$ree men a book
.'nall%, +erbs l'ke arrive *attern w't$ *ass'+e *art'c'*les 'n be'ng able to occ&r 'n *renom'nal *os't'on:
(4H) 2$e recentl% *romoted recr&'t
(41) 2$e recentl% arr'+ed recr&'t
(43) /2$e recentl% sle*t recr&'t
#eferences
4.3 Problems
Problem 1
.or t$e follow'ng sentences, 'nd'cate t$e case of eac$ () and s*ec'f% $ow 't 's ass'gned:
(4;) (a) He ga+e $er a book.
(b) 2$e book was g'+en to $er.
(c) 2$e destr&ct'on of Rome was a s&r*r'se to no one.
(d) Rome5s destr&ct'on s&r*r'sed no one.
Problem 2
Be $a+e seen t$at t$e *re*os't'on of a**ears to act as a d&mm% case1ass'gner w$en no&ns want to take a () com*lement:
(44) (a) /2$e destr&ct'on Rome.
(b) 2$e destr&ct'on of Rome.
B$at *roblems are created for t$'s +'ew b% t$e follow'ng exam*les:
(4@) (a) 2$e bel'ef t$at Io$n w'll w'n.
(b) /2$e bel'ef Io$n to w'n.
(c) /2$e bel'ef of Io$n to w'n.
Problem !
Be $a+e now seen a n&mber of exam*les w$ere t$e s&b:ect *os't'on 's f'lled b% an ex*let'+e. B't$ &nacc&sat'+es, bot$ Dngl's$ and tal'an
allow t$'s:
(4A) (a) 2$ree men arr'+ed
(b) 2$ere arr'+ed t$ree men
B&t we saw t$e same *attern 'n exam*les 'n+ol+'ng ra's'ng:
(4!) (a) There seems to be a man in the garden
(b) " man seems to be in the garden
"n 'm*ortant *ro*ert% of t$ese sentences 's t$at t$e s&b:ect agrees w't$ t$e s&b:ect 'f t$e s&b:ect 's not an ex*let'+e, b&t agrees w't$ t$e
ex*let'+e=s =assoc'ate= 'f t$e ex*let'+e 's t$e s&b:ect:
(4G) (a) 'There seems to be three men in the garden
(b) 'There seem to be a man in the garden
How co&ld t$ese facts be acco&nted forO
Problem 4
(raw a tree for t$e follow'ng sentence. <'+e arg&ments for %o&r anal%s's. ncl&de t$eta1relat'ons
and case ass'gnment.
2$'s book was wr'tten 'n 19GG.
Problem 3
.or eac$ of t$e follow'ng &nderl'ned 'tems dec'de w$et$er 't tr'ggers control or ra's'ng:
(49) (a) Io$n a**ears to be a great sw'mmer.
(b) Io$n managed to sw'm across t$e #$annel.
(c) Io$n wants to sw'm across t$e "tlant'c as well.
(d) B&t 't 's *oss'ble t$at $e w'll not make 't.
4.4 ,urther reading
Haegeman, L. (1994). Introduction to Government and Binding Theory. Oxford: Blackwell. 6c$a*ter ;: #ase t$eor%- on de*artmental f'le8
Haegeman, L. (1994). Introduction to overnment and !inding Theory. Oxford: Blackwell. 6c$a*ter @: 9on1O+ert #ategor'es: )RO and
#ontrol- on de*artmental f'le8.
Roberts, . (199!). Comparative Syntax. London: "rnold. 6c$a*ter 3: case and agreement- on de*artmental f'le8
Hans +an de Poot>3H October 3HH;