The major water pollutants are chemical, biological, or physical materials that degrade water quality. Based on the set of hazards they present pollutants can be classed into eight categories: Petroleum Products, Pesticides and Herbicides, Heavy Metals, Hazardous Wastes, Excess Organic Matter, Sediment, Infectious organisms, Thermal Pollution.
A) Petroleum Products Petroleum products such as oil and chemicals derived from oil are used for fuel, lubrication, plastics manufacturing, and many other purposes. These products get into water sources by means of accidental spills from ships, tanker trucks, pipelines, and leaky underground storage tanks. Many petroleum products are poisonous if ingested by animals, often causing death. The feathers of birds or the fur of animals are damaged by spilled oil. Spilled oil may also be contaminated with other harmful substances, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
B) Pesticides and Herbicides Pesticides and Herbicides used in agricultural lands may be washed away by rainwater runoff and carried into streams, especially if these substances are applied too lavishly. Some of these chemicals are biodegradable and quickly decay into harmless or less harmful forms, while others are nonbiodegradable and remain dangerous for a long time.
When animals consume plants that have been treated with nonbiodegradable chemicals such as chlordane and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), these chemicals are absorbed into the tissues or organs of the animals. When other animals feed on these contaminated animals, the chemicals are passed up the food chain.
Many drinking water supplies are contaminated with pesticides from widespread agricultural use.
C) Heavy Metals Heavy metals, enter into water from many sources, including industries, automobile exhaust, mines, and even natural soil. Heavy metals become more concentrated as animals feed on plants and are consumed in turn by other animals. When their concentration reaches high levels in the body, they can be poisonous, or can result in long-term health problems. For example, crops can absorb cadmium in fertilizers. When these crops are ingested by humans, the metal can cause diarrhea and, over time, liver and kidney damage.
D) Hazardous Wastes Hazardous wastes are chemical wastes that are either toxic, reactive (capable of producing explosive or toxic gases), corrosive (capable of corroding steel), or ignitable (flammable). Such wastes, when treated or stored improperly, can pollute water supplies. Polychlorinated biphenyls 2 (PCBs), a class of chemicals once widely used in electrical equipment such as transformers for example, can get into the environment through oil spills and can reach toxic levels as organisms eat one another.
E) Excess Organic Matter Fertilizers that are used to promote plant growth on farms may find their way into water. These nutrients encourage the growth of plants and algae in water. However, when the plant matter and algae die and settle underwater, microorganisms decompose them. In the process of decomposition, these microorganisms consume oxygen that is dissolved in the water. Oxygen levels in the water may drop to such dangerously low levels that oxygen-dependent animals in the water, such as fish, die. This process of depleting oxygen to deadly levels is called eutrophication.
F) Sediment Sediment, soil particles carried to a streambed, lake, or ocean, can also be a pollutant if it is present in large enough amounts. Soil erosion produced by the removal of soil-trapping trees near waterways, or carried by rainwater and floodwater from croplands, strip mines, and roads, can damage a stream or lake by introducing too much nutrient matter. This leads to eutrophication. Sedimentation can also cover streambed gravel in which many fish, such as salmon and trout, lay their eggs.
G) Infectious organisms Many disease-causing organisms that are present in small numbers in most natural waters are considered pollutants when found in drinking water. Such parasites as Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum occasionally turn up in urban water supplies. These parasites can cause illness, especially in people who are very old or very young, and in people who are already suffering from other diseases.
H) Thermal Pollution Water is often drawn from rivers, lakes, or the ocean for use as a coolant in factories and power plants. The water is usually returned to the source warmer than when it was taken. Even small temperature changes in a body of water can drive away the fish and other species that were originally present, and attract other species in place of them. Thermal pollution can accelerate biological processes in plants and animals or deplete oxygen levels in water. The result may be fish and other wildlife deaths near the discharge source. Thermal pollution can also be caused by the removal of trees and vegetation that shade and cool streams.
II. Characterization of Waste Water
Water, released by residences, businesses and industries in a community after being used for various purposes is said to be waste water. This includes the water we use to wash our clothes, ourselves, our dishes, our food as well as the water we flush down the toilet.
3 Several characteristics are used to describe waste water. These include turbidity, suspended solids (ppm), total dissolved solids (ppm), acidity (pH), and dissolved oxygen. Biochemical oxygen demand is used as a measure of oxygen-demanding substances. Sewage is about 99.94 percent water, with only 0.06 percent of dissolved and suspended solid material. Suspended particles in untreated sewage ranges from 100 to 350 mg/l. The strength of a waste is measured in terms of the amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms to break down sewage in five days. This amount is known as biochemical oxygen demand, or BOD 5 . The BOD 5 value of untreated sewage ranges from 100 mg/l to 300 mg/l.
In addition to dissolved and suspended solid materials, waste water contains pathogens or disease-causing organisms. Coliform bacteria are used as an indicator of disease-causing organisms. Waste water also contains nutrients (such as ammonia and phosphorus), minerals, and metals. The concentration of ammonia can range from 12 to 50 mg/l and phosphorus can range from 6 to 20 mg/l in untreated sewage.
2.1 Water Pollution Control
The major sources of water pollution can be classified as municipal, industrial, and agricultural. Waste water from any of these sources has to be treated before it reenters a body of water, is applied to the land or is reused.
Water treatment may be divided into three major categories: Purification for domestic use Treatment for specialized industrial applications Treatment of wastewater to make it acceptable for release or reuse
Municipal water pollution consists of waste water from homes and commercial establishments. Excluding the preliminary treatment, which is done to screen out, grind up, or separate debris, the basic methods of treating municipal wastewater fall into three stages: primary, secondary and tertiary treatment.
A) Primary Treatment During primary treatment, a large percentage of the suspended solids, inorganic material and greases are removed from the sewage. Waste-water is held in a tank for several hours allowing the particles to settle to the bottom and the greases to float to the top. The solids drawn off the bottom and skimmed off the top receive further treatment as sludge. The clarified wastewater flows on to the next stage of wastewater treatment.
B) Secondary Treatment The focus of secondary treatment is removing dissolved organic matter by accelerating natural biological processes. Sewage microorganisms are cultivated and added to the wastewater. The microorganisms absorb organic matter from sewage as their food supply. 4 C) Tertiary Treatment Tertiary treatment is necessary when the water will be reused; 99 percent of solids are removed and various chemical processes are used to ensure the water is as free from impurity as possible.
2.2 Water Quality Requirements
The composition of water varies widely with local geological conditions. No matter how pure it is, water contains small amounts of gases, minerals and organic matter. The knowledge that water may contain some constituents that are undesirable has led to the establishment of guidelines and regulations for drinking water quality.
Drinking water should contain sufficient amounts of the various minerals required for a healthy life and low levels of Pollutants.
Consumption of water that contains only small amounts of dissolved essential minerals such as calcium and magnesium has a number of health consequences. Experiments have shown that the intake of distilled water or water with TDS 75 mg/l leads to: 1) increased water intake, diuresis, extracellular fluid volume, and serum concentrations of sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl) ions and their increased elimination from the body, resulting in an overall negative balance if it is not adequately compensated from food, and 2) lower volumes of red cells and some other hematocrit changes.
Calcium and magnesium are both essential elements. Calcium is a substantial component of bones and teeth. In addition, it plays a role in neuromuscular excitability. Magnesium plays an important role as a cofactor and activator of more than 300 enzymatic reactions including glycolysis, ATP metabolism, transport of elements such as sodium, potassium, and calcium through membranes, synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids, neuromuscular excitability and muscle contraction.
Although drinking water is not the major source of essential elements for humans, its contribution may be important for several reasons. The modern diet of many people may not be an adequate source of minerals and microelements. Therefore, In the case of borderline deficiency of a given element, even the relatively low intake of the element with drinking water may play a relevant protective role. This is because the elements are usually present in water as free ions and therefore, are more readily absorbed from water compared to food where they are mostly bound to other substances.
The Maximum acceptable concentrations of inorganic and organic substances and microorganisms have been established internationally and in many countries to assure the safety of drinking water. Water Quality Standards define the goals for a water body by designating its uses, setting criteria to protect those uses, and establishing provisions to protect water 5 quality from pollutants. A water quality standard consists of four basic elements:
1) designated uses of the water body (e.g., recreation, water supply, aquatic life, agriculture),
2) water quality criteria to protect designated uses (numeric pollutant concentrations and narrative requirements),
3) an antidegradation policy to maintain and protect existing uses and high quality waters, and
The drinking water quality criteria provided by the World Health Organization for various pollutants is given in the following sub-unit. In addition to the guideline values of the pollutants a short narration of the health impacts of each of the pollutants are provided to make students aware of the reason behind the suggested guideline values.
III. The WHO Guideline for drinking water
To protect public health, by ensuring the safety of drinking-water supplies through the elimination, or reduction to a minimum concentration, of constituents of water that are known to be hazardous to health the WHO has prepared a guideline for drinking water quality.
3.1) Microbiological aspects
A) Guideline values for Pathogenic agents Pathogenic agents have several properties that distinguish them from chemical pollutants: Pathogens are discrete and not in solution. They are often clumped or adherent to suspended solids in water, so that the likelihood of acquiring an infective dose cannot be predicted from their average concentration in water.
The likelihood of a successful challenge by a pathogen, resulting in infection, depends upon the invasiveness and virulence of the pathogen, as well as upon the immunity of the individual.
If infection is established, pathogens multiply in their host. Certain pathogenic bacteria are also able to multiply in food or beverages, thereby perpetuating or even increasing the chances of infection.
Because of these properties there is no tolerable lower limit for pathogens, and water intended for consumption, for preparing food and drink, or for personal hygiene should thus contain no agents pathogenic for humans. 6 B) Guideline Values for Bacteriological quality Water intended for drinking and household purposes must not contain water-borne pathogens. Because the most numerous and the most specific bacterial indicator of faecal pollution from humans and animals is E. coli, it follows that E. coli or thermotolerant coliform organisms must not be present in 100-ml samples of any water intended for drinking.
C) Guideline Values for Virological quality Drinking-water must essentially be free of human enteroviruses to ensure negligible risk of transmitting viral infection. Any drinking-water supply subject to faecal contamination presents a risk of viral disease to consumers.
D) Guideline Values for Parasitological quality It is not possible to set guideline values for pathogenic protozoa, helminths, and free-living organisms, other than that these agents should not be present in drinking-water, because one or very few organisms can produce infection in humans.
3.2) Chemical aspects
A) Inorganic constituents
Aluminium In some studies, aluminium has appeared to be associated with the brain lesions characteristic of Alzheimer disease, and in several ecological epidemiological studies the incidence of Alzheimer disease has been associated with aluminium in drinking-water. There is a need for further studies. However, a concentration of aluminium of 0.2 mg/litre in drinking-water provides a compromise between the practical use of aluminium salts in water treatment and discoloration of distributed water.
Antimony Reported concentrations of antimony in drinking-water are usually less than 4 g/litre. Estimated dietary intake for adults is about 0.02 mg/day. Where antimony-tin solder is beginning to replace lead solder, exposure to antimony may increase in the future.
The provisional guideline value for antimony has therefore been set at a practical quantification level of 0.005 mg/litre.
Arsenic Inorganic arsenic is a documented human carcinogen. With a view to reducing the concentration of this carcinogenic contaminant in drinking- water, a provisional guideline value for arsenic in drinking-water of 0.01 mg/litre is established.
7 Asbestos Asbestos is a known human carcinogen by the inhalation route. Although well studied, there has been little convincing evidence of the carcinogenicity of ingested asbestos in epidemiological studies of populations with drinking-water supplies containing high concentrations of asbestos. Due to lack of consistent evidence that ingested asbestos is hazardous to health, it was concluded that there was no need to establish a health-based guideline value for asbestos in drinking-water.
Barium Exposure to low concentrations of barium in drinking-water has shown an increase in systolic blood pressure. The guideline value suggested for barium in drinking-water is 0.7 mg/litre.
Beryllium Beryllium is found infrequently in drinking-water and only at very low concentrations, usually less than 1 g/litre. Beryllium has been shown to interact with DNA and cause gene mutations, chromosomal aberrations, and sister chromatid exchange in cultured mammalian somatic cells, although it has not been shown to be mutagenic in bacterial test systems. There are no suitable oral data on which to base a toxicologically supportable guideline value.
However, the very low concentrations of beryllium normally found in drinking-water seem unlikely to pose a hazard to consumers.
Boron Boron is usually present in drinking-water at concentrations of below 1 mg/litre, but some higher levels have been found as a result of naturally occurring boron. The total daily intake of boron is estimated to be between 1 and 5 mg. The guideline value for boron in drinking water is 0.3 mg/litre
Cadmium Cadmium levels in drinking-water are usually less than 1 g/litre. The daily oral intake is 10-35 g.
There is evidence that cadmium is carcinogenic by the inhalation route. However, there is no evidence of carcinogenicity by the oral route, and no clear evidence for the genotoxicity of cadmium. The guideline value set for cadmium is 0.003 mg/litre.
Chloride No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride in drinking-water. However, chloride concentrations in excess of about 250 mg/litre can give rise to detectable taste in water.
Chromium Total chromium concentrations in drinking-water are usually less than 2 g/litre, although concentrations as high as 120 g/litre have been reported. Chromium(VI) is more readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract than chromium(III) and is able to penetrate cellular membranes. 8 Chromium(VI) is a carcinogen via the inhalation route, although the limited data available do not show evidence for carcinogenicity via the oral route. In epidemiological studies, an association has been found between exposure to chromium(VI) by the inhalation route and lung cancer.
As a practical measure, 0.05 mg/litre has been set as the provisional guideline value until additional information becomes available and chromium can be re-evaluated.
Copper Copper levels in drinking-water are usually low at only a few micrograms per litre. Copper is an essential element, and the intake from food is normally 1-3 mg/day. Acute gastric irritation may be observed in some individuals at concentrations in drinking-water above 3 mg/litre.
For drinking-water, a provisional health-based guideline value of 2 mg/litre is suggested. This concentration should also contain a sufficient margin of safety for bottle-fed infants, because their copper intake from other sources is usually low.
Cyanide The acute toxicity of cyanides is high. Effects on the thyroid and particularly the nervous system were observed in some populations as a consequence of the long-term consumption of inadequately processed cassava containing high levels of cyanide. A guideline value of 0.07 mg/litre, which is considered to be protective for acute and long-term exposure is suggested for cyanide in drinking water.
Fluoride Exposure to fluoride from drinking-water depends greatly on natural circumstances. Levels in raw water are normally below 1.5 mg/litre, but ground water may contain about 10 mg/litre in areas rich in fluoride- containing minerals. Fluoride is sometimes added to drinking-water to prevent dental caries. The guideline value for fluoride in drinking water is 1.5 mg/litre. Concentrations above this value carry an increasing risk of dental fluorosis, and much higher concentrations lead to skeletal fluorosis.
Hardness Depending on pH and alkalinity, hardness of above about 200 mg/litre can result in scale deposition. Although a number of ecological and analytical epidemiological studies have shown significant inverse relationship between hardness of drinking-water and cardiovascular disease, the available data are inadequate to permit a conclusion that the association is causal.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for hardness. However, the degree of hardness in water may affect its acceptability to the consumer in terms of taste and scale deposition.
Hydrogen sulfide However, the level of hydrogen sulfide found in drinking-water will usually be low, because sulfides are readily oxidized in well-aerated water. 9 Although oral toxicity data are lacking for hydrogen sulfide, it is unlikely that a person could consume a harmful dose of hydrogen sulfide from drinking-water. Consequently, no health-based guideline value is proposed. However, hydrogen sulfide should not be detectable in drinking-water by taste or odour.
Iron Iron is found in natural fresh waters at levels ranging from 0.5 to 50 mg/litre. Iron may also be present in drinking-water as a result of the use of iron coagulants or the corrosion of steel and cast iron pipes during water distribution. Iron is an essential element in human nutrition. In drinking-water a guideline value of about 2 mg/litre, which does not present a hazard to health is suggested. No health-based guideline value for iron in drinking- water is proposed.
Lead Lead is present in tapwater to some extent as a result of its dissolution from natural sources, but primarily from household plumbing systems containing lead in pipes, solder, fittings, or the service connections to homes. It is a general toxicant that accumulates in the skeleton. Infants, children up to six years of age, and pregnant women are most susceptible to its adverse health effects. Lead is toxic to the central and peripheral nervous systems, inducing subencephalopathic neurological and behavioural effects.
The health-based guideline value for lead is 0.01 mg/litre.
Manganese Manganese is an essential trace element with an estimated daily nutritional requirement of 30-50g/kg of body weight. Evidence of manganese neurotoxicity has been seen in miners following prolonged exposure to dusts containing manganese. There is no convincing evidence of toxicity in humans associated with the consumption of manganese in drinking-water, but only limited studies are available.
The provisional health-based guideline value of manganese in drinking water is 0.5 mg/litre.
Mercury Mercury is present in the inorganic form in surface and ground waters at concentrations usually of less than 0.5 g/litre. The kidney is the main target organ for inorganic mercury, whereas methyl-mercury affects mainly the central nervous system.
The guideline value for total mercury is 0.001 mg/litre
Molybdenum Concentrations of molybdenum in drinking-water are usually less than 0.01 mg/litre. However, in areas near mining sites, molybdenum concentrations as high as 200 g/litre have been reported. No data are available on the carcinogenicity of molybdenum by the oral route. 10 A guideline value of 0.07 mg/litre is set for molybdenum.
Nickel The concentration of nickel in drinking-water is normally less than 0.02 mg/litre. Nickel, as both soluble and sparingly soluble compounds, is now considered as a human carcinogen in relation to pulmonary exposure.
The health-based guideline value for drinking-water is 0.02 mg/litre
Nitrate and nitrite Naturally occurring nitrate levels in surface and ground water are generally a few milligrams per litre. In many ground waters, an increase of nitrate levels has been observed owing to the intensification of farming practice. Concentrations can reach several hundred milligrams per litre. Experiments suggest that neither nitrate nor nitrites act directly as a carcinogen in animals, but there is some concern about increased risk of cancer in humans from the endogenous and exogenous formation of N-nitroso compounds, many of which are carcinogenic in animals. The guideline value for nitrate-nitrogen is 10 mg/litre. However, this value should not be expressed on the basis of nitrate-nitrogen but on the basis of nitrate itself, which is the chemical entity of concern to health, and the guideline value for nitrate is therefore 50 mg/litre.
Dissolved oxygen No health-based guideline value is recommended for dissolved oxygen in drinking-water. However, dissolved oxygen content is substantially lower than the saturation concentration may be indicative of poor water quality.
pH No health-based guideline value is proposed for pH, although eye irritation and exacerbation of skin disorders have been associated with pH values greater than 11. Although pH usually has no direct impact on consumers, it is one of the most important operational water quality parameters.
Selenium Selenium levels in drinking-water vary greatly in different geographical areas but are usually much less than 0.01 mg/litre. Selenium is an essential element for humans and forms an integral part of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase and probably other proteins as well. Most selenium compounds are water soluble and are efficiently absorbed from the intestine. Except for selenium sulfide, which does not occur in drinking-water, experimental data do not indicate that selenium is carcinogenic.
The drinking-water guideline value for selenium is 0.01 mg/litre.
Silver Silver has occasionally been found in ground, surface, and drinking-water at concentrations above 5 g/litre. Levels in drinking-water treated with silver for disinfection may be above 50 g/litre. The only obvious sign of silver overload is argyria, a condition in which skin and hair are heavily 11 discoloured by silver in the tissues. The low levels of silver in drinking- water, generally below 5 g/litre, are not relevant to human health with respect to argyria. On the other hand, special situations exist where silver salts may be used to maintain the bacteriological quality of drinking-water. Higher levels of silver, up to 0.1mg/litre could be tolerated in such cases without risk to health.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for silver in drinking-water.
Sodium Although concentrations of sodium in potable water are typically less than 20 mg/litre, they can greatly exceed this in some countries. No firm conclusions can be drawn concerning the possible association between sodium in drinking-water and the occurrence of hypertension. Therefore, no health-based guideline value is proposed. However, concentrations in excess of 200 mg/litre may give rise to unacceptable taste.
Sulfate Sulfates are discharged into water in industrial wastes and through atmospheric deposition; however, the highest levels usually occur in ground water and are from natural sources. Sulfate is one of the least toxic anions; however, catharsis, dehydration, and gastrointestinal irritation have been observed at high concentrations.
No health-based guideline is proposed for sulfate. However, because of the gastrointestinal effects resulting from ingestion of drinking-water containing high sulfate levels, it is recommended that health authorities be notified of sources of drinking-water that contain sulfate concentrations in excess of 500 mg/litre.
Inorganic tin For the general population, drinking-water is not a significant source of tin, and levels in drinking-water greater than 1-2 g/litre are exceptional. Tin and inorganic tin compounds are poorly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, do not accumulate in tissues, and are rapidly excreted, primarily in the faeces.
No increased incidence of tumours was observed in long-term carcinogenicity studies and tin has not been shown to be teratogenic or fetotoxic. In general there is no evidence of adverse effects in humans associated with chronic exposure to tin and the presence of tin in drinking- water does not present a hazard to human health. For there is no established guideline value for inorganic tin.
Total dissolved solids Total dissolved solids (TDS) comprise inorganic salts (principally calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, bicarbonates, chlorides and sulfates) and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. Reliable data on possible health effects associated with the ingestion of TDS in drinking- water are not available, and no health-based guideline value is proposed. 12 However, the presence of high levels of TDS in drinking-water may be objectionable to consumers.
Uranium Uranium is introduced into water supplies as a result of leaching from natural sources, from mill tailings, from emissions from the nuclear industry, from the combustion of coal and other fuels, and from phosphate fertilizers. Uranium accumulates in the kidney, and nephropathy is the primary induced effect in humans and animals. At doses that are not high enough to destroy a critical mass of kidney cells, the effect is reversible, as some of the lost cells are replaced.
The guideline value for uranium is set at 40 g/litre.
Zinc Zinc is an essential trace element (daily requirement for adult men = 15-20 mg/day) found in virtually all food and potable water in the form of salts or organic complexes. Although levels of zinc in surface and ground water normally do not exceed 0.01 and 0.05 mg/litre, respectively, concentrations in tapwater can be much higher as a result of dissolution of zinc from pipes.
It was concluded that, the derivation of a health-based guideline value is not required at this time. However, drinking-water containing zinc at levels above 3 mg/litre may not be acceptable to consumers.
B) Organic constituents
i) Chlorinated alkanes
Carbon tetrachloride Carbon tetrachloride is used principally in the production of chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants. Concentrations in drinking-water are generally less than 5 g/litre. Carbon tetrachloride has been shown to cause hepatic and other tumours. There is no evidence for its mutagenicity or genotoxicity. However, it is indicated that it is possible that carbon tetrachloride acts as a non-genotoxic carcinogen.
The guideline value in drinking-water is 2 g/litre.
Dichloromethane Exposure to dichloromethane from drinking-water is likely to be insignificant compared with other sources. Dichloromethane is of low acute toxicity. Although inhalation study provided conclusive evidence for its carcinogenicity, a drinking-water study provided only suggestive evidence.
A guideline value of 20 g/litre, is set for drinking water.
1,1-Dichloroethane There are limited data showing that it can be present in concentrations of up to 10 g/litre in drinking-water. However, because of the widespread use and disposal of this chemical, its occurrence in ground water may increase. 13 1,1-Dichloroethane is rapidly metabolized by mammals to acetic acid and a variety of chlorinated compounds. There is limited in vitro evidence of genotoxicity.
In view of the very limited database on toxicity and carcinogenicity, it was concluded that no guideline value should be proposed.
1,2-Dichloroethane 1,2-Dichloroethane has been found in drinking-water at levels of up to a few micrograms per litre. 1,2-Dichloroethane has been shown to produce significant increases in a number of tumour types, and is proven to be potentially genotoxic.
Its guideline value for drinking-water is 30 g/litre.
1,1,1-Trichloroethane 1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been found in only a small proportion of surface and ground waters, usually at concentrations of less than 20 g/litre. Exposure to high concentrations can lead to hepatic steatosis (fatty liver).
A provisional guideline value of 2000 g/litre is proposed for 1,1,1- Trichloroethane in drinking-water.
Chlorinated ethenes Vinyl chloride has been found in drinking-water at levels of up to a few micrograms per litre, and, on occasion, much higher concentrations have been found in ground water.
Vinyl chloride is metabolized to highly reactive and mutagenic metabolites by a dose-dependent and saturable pathway. The acute toxicity of vinyl chloride is low, but vinyl chloride is toxic to the liver after short- and long- term exposure to low concentrations. Vinyl chloride has been shown to be mutagenic in various test systems in vitro and in vivo. It is carcinogenic and some studies suggest that it is also associated with hepatocellular carcinoma, brain tumours, lung tumours, and malignancies of the lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues.
Its guideline value for drinking-water is 5 g/litre.
1,1-Dichloroethene 1,1-Dichloroethene, is usually found together with other chlorinated hydrocarbons. It is a central nervous system depressant and may cause liver and kidney toxicity in occupationally exposed humans. It is also known to cause liver and kidney damage. It was reported not to be carcinogenic.
Its guideline value for drinking water is 30 g/litre.
1,2-Dichlorethene The cis form of 1,2-Dichlorethene, which was previously used as an anaesthetic, is more frequently found as a water contaminant. Both the cis and trans isomers have been reported to cause increased serum alkaline 14 phosphatase levels. At higher doses the trans- isomer was found to cause reduced kidney weights. There are limited data on the possible genotoxicity of both isomers and there is no information on their carcinogenicity.
Its guideline value for drinking water is 50 g/litre.
Trichloroethene Trichloroethene in anaerobic ground water may degrade to more toxic compounds, including vinyl chloride. It has been shown that this compound induces lung and liver tumours. However, there are no conclusive data that it causes cancer in other species.
Based on the limited study, a provisional guideline value of 70 g/litre is set.
Tetrachloroethene Tetrachloroethene is found in trace amounts in water. Emissions can sometimes lead to high concentrations in ground water. Tetrachloroethene in anaerobic ground water may degrade to more toxic compounds, including vinyl chloride. At high concentrations, tetrachloroethene causes central nervous system depression. Lower concentrations of tetrachloroethene have been reported to damage the liver and the kidneys. Tetrachloroethene is not genotoxic.
The guideline value for tetrachloroethene in drinking water is 40 g/litre.
C) Aromatic hydrocarbons
Benzene Benzene may be introduced into water by industrial effluents and atmospheric pollution. Concentrations in drinking-water are generally less than 5 g/litre. Acute exposure of humans to high concentrations of benzene primarily affects the central nervous system. At lower concentrations, benzene is toxic to the haematopoietic system, causing a continuum of haematological changes, including leukaemia. It is carcinogenic to humans.
The guideline value for benzene in drinking water is 10 g/litre.
Toluene Concentrations of a few micrograms per litre have been found in surface water, ground water, and drinking-water. The acute oral toxicity of toluene is low. Toluene exerts embryotoxic and fetotoxic effects, but there is no clear evidence for teratogenic activity in laboratory animals and humans.
The guideline value of toluene is 700 g/litre.
Xylenes Concentrations of up to 8 g/litre have been reported in surface water, ground water, and drinking-water. Levels of a few milligrams per litre were found in ground water polluted by point emissions. 15 The acute oral toxicity of xylenes is low. No convincing evidence for its teratogenicity, carcinogenicity or mutagenicity has been found.
Its guideline value for drinking water is 500 g/litre.
Ethylbenzene Ethylbenzene is found in trace amounts in surface water, ground water, drinking-water, and food. The acute oral toxicity of ethylbenzene is low. No data on carcinogenicity are available. It has shown no evidence of genotoxicity.
Its guideline value for drinking water is 300 g/litre.
Styrene Styrene is found in trace amounts in surface water, drinking-water, and food. It has a low acute toxicity. High doses of orally administered styrene has been found to increase the incidence of lung tumours but had no carcinogenic effect.
Its guideline value in water is determined to be 20 g/litre.
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons Drinking water contributes only minor amounts to PAHs exposure. Little information is available on the oral toxicity of PAHs.
Benzopyrene, which constitutes a minor fraction of total PAHs, has been found to be carcinogenic and mutagenic. Adequate data for the carcinogenicity of ingested PAHs are available only for benzopyrene, which appears to be a local carcinogen in that it induces tumours at the site of administration.
The guideline value for benzopyrene in drinking-water is determined to be 0.7g/litre and the data available to derive drinking-water guidelines for other PAHs is insufficient.
D) Chlorinated benzenes
i) Monochlorobenzene (MCB) MCB is of low acute toxicity. Oral exposure to high doses of MCB affects mainly the liver, kidneys, and haematopoietic system. Limited evidences suggest the carcinogenicity of MCBs. The majority of evidence suggests that MCB is not mutagenic.
Its guideline value for drinking-water is 300 g/litre.
ii) Dichlorobenzenes (DCBs)
1,2-Dichlorobenzene 1,2-DCB is of low acute toxicity by the oral route of exposure. Oral exposure to high doses of 1,2-DCB affects mainly the liver and kidneys. It is found not to be genotoxic and there is no evidence for its carcinogenicity. 16 Its guideline value for drinking-water is 1000 g/litre.
1,4-Dichlorobenzene 1,4-DCB is of low acute toxicity, but there is evidence that it increases the incidence of renal tumours. It is not considered to be genotoxic.
Its guideline value for drinking-water is 300 g/litre.
iii) Trichlorobenzenes TCBs are found in drinkingwater but rarely at levels above 1 g/litre. The TCBs are of moderate acute toxicity. Available data suggests that TCBs are non-genotoxic.
The guideline value of total TCBs in drinking water is 20 g/litre.