Theoretical Perspectives

on Gender and
Development
Edited by Jane L. Parpart,M. Patricia
Connelly,andV. Eudine Barriteau
Published by the International Development
Research CentrePO Box 8500, Ottaa, O!, Canada
"#$ %&'
( Commonealth o) *earnin+ ,000
*e+al deposit- ,nd .uarter ,000!ational *ibrary o)
CanadaI/B! 0088'%10'#000
2he vies expressed are those o) the author3s4 and
do not necessarily represent those o) the
International Development Research Centre5
6ention o) a proprietary name does not constitute
endorsement o) the product and is +iven only )or
in)ormation5 7 micro8che edition is available5
2he catalo+ue o) IDRC Boo9s and this publication
may be consulted online at
http-::5idrc5ca:boo9ti.ue5
CONTENTS
Foreword
; Anneli Alba
Preface
; Jane L. Parpart, M. Patricia Connelly, and V. Eudine Barriteau
Acknowledgments
Chapter !h" Theor"#
; Barbara Bailey, Elsa Leo-Rhynie, and Jeanette Morris
Chapter $ !h" Gender# !h" Development#
; Rhoda Reddock
Chapter % Feminism and Development& Theoretical Perspectives
; M. Patricia Connelly, ania Murray Li, Martha Mac!onald, and Jane L. Parpart
Chapter ' Feminist Theor" and Development& (mplications for Polic") *esearch) and Action
; V. Eudine Barriteau
Chapter + Alternative Approaches to !omen and Development
; Ma"ine McClean
Chapter , The !omen-s .ovement and (ts *ole in Development
; Anne #. $alker
Appendi/ 0e" Concepts
Appendi/ $ Acron"ms and A11reviations
Appendi/ % Contri12ting A2thors
FO*E!O*D
2he development debate has advanced
considerably since the <nited !ation=s >irst
Development Decade in the #'10s, hich
emphasi?ed economic +roth and the @tric9le0
don@ approach as 9ey to reducin+ poverty5 One o)
the notable advancements in the debate has been
the move to consider +ender e.uality as a 9ey
element o) development5 Aomen=s concerns ere
8rst inte+rated into the development a+enda in the
#'B0s5 Disappointment over the tric9le0don
approach paved the ay )or the adoption o) the
basic0needs strate+y, hich )ocused on increasin+
the participation in and bene8ts o) the
development process )or the poor, as ell as
reco+ni?in+ omen=s needs and contributions to
society5 7ctivists articulated omen=s issues in
national and international )orums5 >olloin+ these
events, the omen0in0development movement
endorsed the enhancement o) omen=s
consciousness and abilities, ith a vie to enablin+
omen to examine their situations and to act to
correct their disadvanta+ed positions5 2he
movement also aCrmed that +ivin+ omen +reater
access to resources ould contribute to an
e.uitable and eCcient development process5
2he end o) the #'B0s ushered in the concern ith
+ender relations in development5 6icrolevel studies
dre our attention to the diDerences in
entitlements, perceived capabilities, and social
expectations o) men and omen, boys and +irls5
Contrary to the uni8ed0household model, the
household has been considered an arena o)
bar+ainin+, cooperation, or conEict5 ReEectin+ the
norms, las, and social values o) society, the
diDerences in the status o) men and omen have
pro)ound implications )or ho they participate in
mar9et or nonmar9et or9 and in community li)e
as a hole5 2hese diDerences embody social and
poer relations that constitute the settin+ )or the
implementation o) development pro+rams, and
these diDerences there)ore inEuence pro+ram
outcomes5 In the #'80s and #''0s, research
demonstrated that +ender relations mediate the
process o) development5 >or example, analyses o)
stabili?ation and structural0adFustment policies
shoed that +ender ine.ualities have an impact on
the attainment o) macroeconomic obFectives5
2he concern ith +ender relations in development
has stren+thened the aCrmation that e.uality in
the status o) men and omen is )undamental to
every society5 7nd this concern has prompted us to
re8ne our perspective on hat development should
be and ho to brin+ it about eCciently5 Ae reali?e
that development re.uires more than the creation
o) opportunities )or people to earn sustainable
livelihoods ; it also re.uires the creation o) a
conducive environment )or men and omen to
sei?e those opportunities5 Development implies not
only more and better schools but also e.ual access
to education )or boys and +irls5 Development
re.uires +ood +overnments that +ive men and
omen e.ual voices in decision0ma9in+ and policy
implementation5 Bearin+ in mind the perspective
that +ender matters in development, e can +o on
to reexamine and rede8ne other development
concerns and obFectives5
2hus, one can only a+ree to the advanta+es +ained
i) practitioners and students o) development have
a +rasp o) the concepts, theories, and discourses
that stimulate the +ender debate5 Ae ill, as a
result, be able to better analy?e and understand
+ender issues and properly inte+rate +ender
interests and needs into policies and pro+rams5
Concepts and ideas ; such as )eminism, +ender
analysis, diversity, and +ender mainstreamin+ ;
that have become bu?? ords in the development
circle ill be clari8ed and demysti8ed5 2his ill
)oster eDective communication amon+
development a+ents and result in a consistent vie
o) overall development +oals and in
complementary, rather than contradictory, plans o)
action5
Clearly, there is scope )or developin+ and
increasin+ the accessibility o) pro+rams )or
education and research on omen and +ender5
/uch pro+rams could reach a ide audience,
institutionali?e +ender scholarship, and
complement other avenues )or disseminatin+ the
+ender debate and advancin+ the cause o) +ender
e.uality5 Get, researchers and students in
developin+ countries have expressed )rustration in
accessin+ +ender pro+rams and resource
materials5 In developin+ countries, the spread and
depth o) these pro+rams and resource materials
are still more limited than in developed countries5
2he Commonealth o) *earnin+ and the
International Development Research Centre 3IDRC4
have helped to address this +ap by supportin+ the
development o) this course module5 2he research
and ritin+ o) the module bene8ted )rom the
contributions o) +ender experts, includin+ scholars,
educators, and practitioners )rom the three
campuses o) the <niversity o) the Aest Indies
3Barbados, Hamaica, and 2rinidad4, /aint 6ary=s
<niversity 3Canada4, Dalhousie <niversity
3Canada4, and the International Aomen=s 2ribune
Centre 3<nited /tates45 >urther support as
provided by IDRC )or the publication o) this
module, to ma9e it accessible to development and
educational institutions in developin+ countries5
IDRC=s support )or this underta9in+ resonates ith
IDRC=s dedication to improvin+ human ell0bein+
throu+h research and the application o) 9noled+e5
/ince IDRC=s creation in #'B0, it has )unded
development research in poor countries, ith the
obFective o) buildin+ the capabilities and
institutions needed to conduct the relevant
research in these countries5 $ender is an important
concern at IDRC5 2he Centre has ta9en steps to
promote +ender0sensitive research that improves
our understandin+ o) development problems and
leads to appropriate solutions, and it has supported
eDorts to disseminate 9noled+e on +ender issues,
such as this boo95 It is hoped that this publication
encoura+es learnin+, research, and action )or a
sustainable and e.uitable orld5
Anneli Al1aResearch %ello&, 'ender and
#ustainable !e(elop)ent *nit+nternational
!e(elop)ent Research Centre
%ebruary ,---
his pa.e intentionally le/t blank
P*EFACE
One o) the approaches to overcomin+ obstacles to
omen=s advancement is to develop and exchan+e
materials, resources, and courses in the areas o)
omen=s studies and omen and development
3A7D45 7t a meetin+ in Ottaa, Canada, in October
#''0, the Commonealth 6inisters Responsible )or
Aomen=s 7Dairs speci8cally mandated the
Commonealth o) *earnin+ 3CO*4 to develop a
pro+ram to address the needs o) omen in the
Commonealth countries o) the /outh5
In 7pril #'',, CO* convened a ee90lon+ meetin+
at /aint 6ary=s <niversity in &ali)ax, Canada, to
examine ays to create course modules on
omen0+ender and development5 2he meetin+ as
attended by representatives o) institutions o)
hi+her education )rom 7ustralia, Canada, the
Caribbean, India, !i+eria, the /outh Paci8c, and
Iimbabe, as ell as the <nited !ations 2rainin+
and Research Institute and the International
Aomen=s 2ribune Centre 3IA2C4 in !e Gor95
Discussion )ocused on identi)yin+ the needed
resources and materials and examinin+ the
capacities o) various institutions to coordinate the
development o) modules5 7ll the participants
expressed interest in contributin+ to the lon+0term
proFect and a desire to use the modules in courses
on omen0+ender and development and omen=s
studies at their on institutions5
2hey established a proFect team, comprisin+
representatives )rom the three campuses o) the
<niversity o) the Aest Indies 3<AI4 3Barbados,
Hamaica, and 2rinidad4J the /ummer Institute )or
$ender and Development 3/I$7D4, a Foint proFect
o) /aint 6ary=s and Dalhousie <niversityJ IA2CJ
and CO*5 2he team convened in "in+ston, Hamaica,
in >ebruary #''% to determine the speci8c content
and desi+n o) the course modules and to assi+n
ritin+ tas9s to team members5 2o subse.uent
proFect0team meetin+s ere convened, in !e Gor9
in Hanuary and Hune #''K, to revie and 8nali?e
dra)t materials prepared by the various teams o)
riters5 CO* mana+ed the proFect and coordinated
the activities5
2he Centres )or $ender and Development /tudies
at the three campuses o) <AI and /I$7D
collaboratively developed and rote this core
module, hich )ocuses on the theoretical
Fusti8cation )or examinin+ omen=s speci8c roles
and contributions to development initiatives5 2he
module is concerned ith the inte+ration and
reco+nition o) omen and their inclusion as
decision0ma9ers in development plannin+ and
policy0ma9in+, as ell as other development
activities- it also celebrates omen=s contributions
to social, economic, and political development5 2he
collaborative process as complicated, but
reardin+5 7lthou+h individuals or small teams
authored speci8c chapters, )eedbac9 )rom the
various ritin+ teams enriched and enlar+ed
everyone=s ritin+ and thin9in+5 >or example, the
presentation o) blac9 )eminism and 2hird Aorld
)eminism in Chapter % bene8ted enormously )rom
the input o) Ludine Barriteau )rom the Barbados
<AI team5 2he opportunity to read each o) the
chapters provided ne ays o) addressin+
important issues and inEuenced all o) our ritin+
and thin9in+5 Input )rom the ritin+ teams also
assisted in the laborious process o) identi)yin+
appropriate activities, excerpts, case studies,
recommended readin+s, and 9ey concepts5 7bove
all, the to editorial meetin+s )acilitated rethin9in+
and reritin+5 Representatives o) the ritin+ teams
or9ed throu+h the materials ith the additional
input o) the various participants )rom IA2C, CO*,
and the International Development Research
Centre5 2hese meetin+s ere +ruelin+,
intellectually challen+in+, and enormously
important5 Lvery sentence and ord as examined
and contestedJ every concept as revisited and
reexamined5 Participants le)t humbled, but
inspired, by both the challen+es and the bene8ts o)
/outh0!orth collaboration5
2he module that emer+ed )rom this process is a
comprehensive, )oundational text on +ender and
development 3$7D45 2he module contains
narratives or case studies to )urther illustrate the
main topics5 Lxercises and study .uestions invite
the user to enhance his or her 9noled+e throu+h
personal research5 Related )urther readin+s are
provided to direct the user to additional sources o)
in)ormation5 "ey concepts 3de8ned in 7ppendix #4
are hi+hli+hted in bold in the text5 2he module
spans the emer+ence o) omen in development
3AID4, brin+in+ us to the point here the second
ave o) criti.ues and evaluation led to the
emer+ence o) the ne 8eld o) $7D5 It documents,
discusses, and presents the maFor themes and
practices in the 8eld o) AID, A7D, and $7D5 It also
addresses emer+in+ debates that have continued
to develop since the mid0#''0s, particularly those
on the poer o) development discourse,
+lobali?ation, and the concepts o) diDerence and
voice5
2he module as made available to educational
institutions and non+overnmental and omen=s
or+ani?ations throu+hout the Commonealth )or
local adaptation and use in traditional educational
settin+s and in)ormal situations5 Its publication, in
revised )orm, as a boo9 is intended to enhance its
use)ulness and increase its availability around the
orld5 2he attribution o) +eneral editors reEects
the or9 o) movin+ the manuscript )rom a module
to a boo95 Individual authors are listed on the
chapters they rote, but the manuscript as a hole
reEects our collective endeavours5
3ane 45 Parpart.5 Patricia Connell"65 E2dine
7arritea2
his pa.e intentionally le/t blank
AC0NO!4EDG.ENTS
2he Commonealth o) *earnin+ 3CO*4 extends
sincere appreciation to the )olloin+ proFect team
members )or their si+ni8cant contributions to the
success o) the proFect-
%ro) the *ni(ersity o/ the $est +ndies ;
Barbara Bailey, M5 Ludine Barriteau, Llsa *eo0
Rhynie, 6axine 6cClean, Heanette 6orris,
and Rhoda Reddoc9J
%ro) the #u))er +nstitute on 'ender and
!e(elop)ent ; Hane Parpart, 6artha
6acDonald, 2ania *i, and Patricia ConnellyJ
%ro) the +nternational $o)en0s ribune
Centre ; 7nne Aal9er and Mic9i /emlerJ
%ro) the $orld Bank ; Lli?abeth 6orris0
&u+hesJ and
%ro) the +nternational !e(elop)ent and
Research Centre ; Rosina Ailtshire and
Henni)er *oten5
Ae also ac9noled+e the eDorts o) /herrill
Ahittin+ton, the )ormer CO* staD member
responsible )or omen0and0development proFect
coordination, and Patricia 6c Ailliams, ho
assumed responsibility )or the proFect a)ter 6s
Ahittin+ton=s departure )rom CO*5
Ae are very +rate)ul to /ue Par9er, *ibrary
2echnician at CO*, )or her help ith copyri+ht
clearancesJ and to Beverley $ardner )or the
ori+inal layout and ord processin+5 2heir
tremendous support helped ensure the success o)
the proFect5
2his or9 as carried out ith the aid o) a +rant
)rom the International Development Research
Centre 3IDRC4, Ottaa, Canada5 Lva Rath+eber,
Re+ional Director )or IDRC in 7)rica, played a
crucial role in conceivin+ and supportin+ the
proFect5
2he opinions expressed in this document are
entirely those o) the authors and should not be
attributed in any manner to CO*, the members o)
its Board o) $overnors, or the countries they
represent5
C8APTE* !89 T8EO*9#
Barbara Bailey, Elsa Leo-Rhynie, and Jeanette
Morris
(ntrod2ction
In this chapter, e examine the process o)
theori?in+ and learn to appreciate the dynamic and
Eexible nature o) this process5 6uch o) our
understandin+ o) the orld, our societies, and
ourselves, today, rests on theories and 9noled+e
+enerated historically and predominantly by men
o) certain nationalities and economic classes5 6ale0
dominated and culturally speci8c theori?in+ and
9noled+e have +enerally resulted in the exclusion
o) omen and other +roups )rom the process o)
)ormal theori?in+ and 9noled+e0buildin+5 Ahen
applied in research, policy, and action, such
theories and 9noled+e not only i+nore omen=s
contributions in all spheres o) activity but also
exclude consideration o) issues particularly
relevant to omen5
Feminist scholars have ar+ued that 9noled+e
based mainly on male, culturally speci8c
experience represents a s9eed perception o)
reality and is only partial 9noled+e5 2he best ay
to correct this is to ta9e omen=s daily experiences
and their in)ormal theori?in+ into account and, on
this basis, adopt )eminist approaches to buildin+
theory and 9noled+e5
*ationale
2heori?in+ and theory0buildin+ have +enerally been
seen as the business o) academics in ivory toers,
yet all individuals ma9e choices and decisions
based on ass2mptions or theories about the
orld5 2hese )ormal, mainstream 3or @male0
stream@4 approaches to theori?in+ are bein+
challen+ed by various +roups o) omen ho have
en+a+ed in diDerent approaches to the process o)
theori?in+5 2hese omen are brin+in+ their uni.ue
perspectives to bear on issues aDectin+ their daily
lives5 Aomen have used these ne perspectives to
deconstr2ct traditional 9noled+e bases and
build ne ones5 /uch reconstruction o) 9noled+e
has inEuenced policy and action aDectin+ the lives
o) omen5
O1:ectives
2he obFectives o) this chapter are the )olloin+-
2o introduce the concept o) theoryJ
2o understand that theori?in+ is one ay in
hich people use their assumptions to
achieve, interpret, or impose meanin+J
2o understand ho )eminist theori?in+ has
challen+ed mainstream theori?in+J
2o understand ho diverse assumptions
about the same phenomenon result in
diverse explanations, theories, and power
positionsJ and
2o understand ho theory and 9noled+e are
interrelated and ho )eminist theori?in+ and
9noled+e have inEuenced research, policy,
and action5
!hat is theor"#
7lthou+h e have no precise, universally accepted
de8nition o) theory, certain recurrin+ elements
appear in the literature, hich allos us to rou+hly
dra the boundaries o) the concept5 2heory is
de8ned most commonly as scienti8c theory, hich
emphasi?es a lo+ically uni8ed )rameor9,
+enerali?ation, and explanation5 Ornstein and
&un9ins 3#''%, p5 #8K4 indicated that a theory is a
@device )or interpretin+, critici?in+ and uni)yin+
established las, modi)yin+ them to 8t data
unanticipated in their )ormation, and +uidin+ the
enterprise o) discoverin+ ne and more poer)ul
+eneralisation5@ Common0sense understandin+s o)
theory o)ten use the concept to describe the rules
that +uide action, opinion, ideals, or a particular
philosophy5 /tanley and Aise 3#'8%4 su++ested
that the maFority o) persons, particularly omen,
have been brou+ht up to thin9 o) theory as
somethin+ mysterious and )orbiddin+, produced by
clever people, most o) hom are men5 !oadays,
people are .uestionin+ this divide beteen experts
and nonexperts and adoptin+ a more inclusive
approach to theori?in+5
The nat2re of theori;ing
2he traditional, mainstream process o) theori?in+
rests on the scienti8c method5 2his is summari?ed
in the model presented in >i+ure #5
2he male0centred approach to theori?in+ has
produced particular vies o) many issues,
includin+ those aDectin+ omen5 2hese vies rely
on androcentric assumptions5 7n example o) such
an assumption is that omen=s or9 is biolo+ically
determined and there)ore is or should be home
based and restricted to nurturin+ and domestic
chores5 /uch assumptions provide the basis )or
hypotheses such as, in this case, the hypothesis
that the a+ed or9)orce tends to be
predominantly male and omen or9 at home5 2he
in)ormation +athered durin+ the testin+ o) such an
h"pothesis has traditionally been limited to
.uantitative data, hich are used to support the
+eneral principles posited as oDerin+ valid
explanations about this issue5 Researchers have,
)or a lon+ time, uncritically accepted these
explanations as )actual and have produced
theories about omen=s or9 based on
.uestionable assumptions5 Despite their
.uestionable nature, such theories have also
in)ormed policy and action5
Fig2re 5 2he process o) theori?in+- the
9noled+e spiral5
/ome problems associated ith mainstream
theori?in+ are listed belo-
<nreco+ni?ed and value0laden assumptions, based
on the 3male4 researcher=s biasesJ
Overemphasis on empirical and .uantitative data
and the denial o) the validity o) .ualitative dataJ
*ac9 o) involvement o) the researcher ith the
subFect3s4 o) the researchJ
Impersonal and detached nature o) the processJ
and
2he supposed @obFectivity@ o) the researcher and
9noled+e5
/andra &ardin+ expressed the )olloin+ vie o) the
traditional, scienti8c approach-
/cienti8c 9noled+e0see9in+ is supposed to
be value0neutral, obFective, dispassionate,
disinterested, and so )orth5 It is supposed to
be protected )rom political interests, +oals,
and desires 3such as )eminist ones4 by the
norms o) science5 In particular, science=s
@method@ is supposed to protect the results o)
research )rom the social values o) the
researchers5
; &ardin+ 3#'8Ba, p5 #8,4
Ahen researchers use this traditional approach to
theori?in+, hoever, their biases can aDect the
process at every sta+e-
In the identi8cation o) the problemJ
In the )ormulation o) hypotheses and
calculated +uessesJ
In the desi+n o) the research to test
hypothesesJ and
In the collection and interpretation o) data5
!onetheless, theories based on this approach have
been a maFor )orce in shapin+ perceptions o)
reality5
7n investi+ation o) omen=s or9 conducted by
researchers ith a )eminist perspective ould, in
all li9elihood, rely on a variety o) assumptions
related to their on experiences, as ell as to the
experiences o) omen in other situations5 /uch
assumptions ould diDer accordin+ to )actors such
as race, class, ethnicity, and a+e5 7n investi+ation
such as this ould there)ore be more li9ely to +ive
the )olloin+ results-
/ome omen do unpaid or9 in the homeJ
/ome omen do both unpaid or9 in the
home and a+ed and unpaid or9 in ider
societyJ
/ome omen or9 only in ider society and
employ other omen to or9 in their homesJ
Aomen are )ound in a variety o) occupationsJ
Aomen or9 at all levels in the or9placeJ
and
Aomen, both in their paid and in their unpaid
or9, contribute +reatly to the national
economy5
Based on this ider vie, the +eneral principle
ould be that omen=s or9 is not restricted to the
home5 >emale perspectives and experiences ould
help to challen+e the hypothesis 3+enerated )rom
the male perspective4 that omen=s or9 is in the
home and sho it to be invalid5 2heori?in+ is
there)ore an important, Eexible, and dynamic
process5
Ae each have assumptions about people, events,
issues, etc5, in our everyday lives5 Ae may
explicitly state these assumptions or allo them to
remain implicit in our opinions, attitudes, and
behaviours5 Ae each interpret thin+s diDerently as
e brin+ our assumptions to bear on a situation5
Ae test some o) these assumptions )ormally and
others in)ormally5 In)ormal testin+ o) our
assumptions is, in )act, a process o) hypothesis
testin+, and the results o)ten cause us to chan+e
our assumptions5 /andra &ardin+=s vies, reprinted
in Box #, are particularly interestin+5
7o/
Feminist empiricism
2hou+h )eminist empiricism appears in these ays to be consistent ith empiricist tendencies, )urther consideration
reveals that the )eminist component deeply undercuts the assumptions o) traditional empiricism in three ays- )eminist
empiricism has a radical )uture5 In the 8rst place, )eminist empiricism ar+ues that the @context o) discovery@ is Fust as
important as the @context o) Fusti8cation@ )or eliminatin+ social biases that contribute to partial and distorted
explanations and understandin+s5 2raditional empiricism insists that the social identity o) the observer is irrelevant to the
@+oodness@ o) the results o) research5 It is not supposed to ma9e a diDerence to the explanatory poer, obFectivity, and
so on o) the research=s results i) the researcher or the community o) scientists are hite or blac9, Chinese or British, rich
or poor in social ori+in5 But )eminist empiricism ar+ues that omen 3or )eminists, male and )emale4 as a +roup are more
li9ely than men 3non0)eminists4 as a +roup to produce claims unbiased by
results o) in.uiry5 It ar+ues that the authors o) the )avored social theories are not anonymous at all- they are clearly men,
and usually men o) the dominant classes, races, and cultures5 2he people ho identi)y and de8ne scienti8c problems
leave their social 8n+erprints on the problems and their )avored solutions to them5
/econd, )eminist empiricism ma9es the related claim that scienti8c method is not eDective at eliminatin+ social biases
that are as idespread as androcentrism5 2his is especially the case hen androcentrism arrives in the in.uiry process
throu+h the identi8cation and de8nition o) research problems5 2raditional empiricism holds that scienti8c method ill
eliminate any social biases as a hypothesis +enerated by hat men 8nd problematic in the orld around them5 2he
problem here is not only that the hypotheses hich ould most deeply challen+e androcentric belie)s are missin+ )rom
those alternatives sexists consider hen testin+ their )avored hypotheses5 It is also that traditional empiricism does not
direct researchers to locate themselves in the same critical plane as their subFect matter5 Conse.uently, hen non0
)eminist researchers +ather evidence )or or a+ainst hypotheses, @scienti8c method,@ bere)t o) such a directive, is
impotent to locate and eradicate the androcentrism that shapes the research process5
>inally )eminist empiricists o)ten exhort social scientists to )ollo the existin+ research norms more ri+orously5 On the
other hand, they also can be understood to be ar+uin+ that it is precisely )olloin+ these norms that contributes to
androcentric research results5 2he norms themselves have been constructed primarily to produce ansers to the 9inds o)
.uestions men as9 about nature and social li)e and to prevent scrutiny o) the ay belie)s hich are nearly or completely
culture0ide in )act cannot be eliminated )rom the results o) research by these norms5 7 reliable picture o) omen=s
orlds and o) social relations beteen the sexes o)ten re.uired alternative approaches to in.uiry that challen+e
traditional research habits and raise pro)ound .uestions hich are no lon+er mar+inali?ed as deviant5

Activit"
.aking ass2mptions
7nser the )olloin+ .uestions5
#5 Ahat assumptions do you thin9 are held by various +roups across cultures about the )olloin+ issuesN
3a4 Parentin+
3b4 7bortion
3c4 Miolence a+ainst omen
3d4 6arria+e
,5 Identi)y and state assumptions that omen could propose to challen+e the assumptions you listed in anser #5
%5 Ahat are the essential diDerences beteen the assumptions in ansers # and ,N
2he diDerences identi8ed in this activity can reveal
the ays the perspectives o) men and omen
diDer, and these diDerences also relate to the
problems experienced by men and omen5 7s
&ardin+ noted,
6any phenomena hich appear problematic
)rom the perspective o) men=s characteristic
experiences do not appear problematic at all
)rom the perspective o) omen=s experiences
; On the other hand, omen experience
many phenomena hich they thin9 do need
explanation5 Ahy do men 8nd child care and
houseor9 so distaste)ulN Ahy do omen=s
li)e opportunities tend to be constricted
exactly at the moments traditional history
mar9s as the most pro+ressiveN Ahy is it hard
to detect blac9 omen=s ideals o) omanhood
in studies o) blac9 )amiliesN Ahy is men=s
sexuality so @driven,@ so de8ned in terms o)
poerN Ahy is ris9in+ death said to represent
the distinctively human act but +ivin+ birth
re+arded as merely naturalN
; &ardin+ 3#'8Bb, p5 14
I) e concede that men and omen o)ten vie
issues diDerently and have diDerent experiences, it
)ollos that e must consider a phenomenon in
relation to the individuals ho experience it5
&ardin+ there)ore )urther su++ested that
ReEectin+ on ho social phenomena +et
de8ned as problems in need o) explanation in
the 8rst place .uic9ly reveals that there is no
such thin+ as a problem ithout a person 3or
+roup o) those4 ho have this problem- a
problem is alays a problem )or someone or
other5 Reco+nition o) this )act and its
implications )or the structure o) the scienti8c
enterprise .uic9ly brin+s )eminist approaches
to en.uirin+ into conEict ith traditional
understandin+s in many ays5
; &ardin+ 3#'8Bb, p 14
>eminists have challen+ed the vie o) omen that
has developed )rom male theori?in+5 &ilary Rose
explained the nature o) the challen+e-
Increasin+ly, the ne scholarship dre on the
concept o) +ender to illuminate a double
process o) a +endered science produced by a
+endered 9noled+e production system5 Aas
the seemin+ly ta9en )or +ranted
androcentricity, even miso+yny, o) science, a
matter o) @bias@ hich +ood unbiased science
turned out by )eminists and their allies ould
correct, or as the problem more pro)ound,
one that only an explicitly )eminist science
could displace, so as to become, in the
lan+ua+e o) the enli+htenment, a @successor
science@N
; Rose 3#''K4
Feminist approaches to research
and theori;ing
Once e underta9e to use omen=s
experience as a resource to +enerate
scienti8c problems, hypotheses and evidence,
to desi+n research )or omen, and to place
the researcher in the same critical plane as
the research subFect, traditional
epistemolo+ical assumptions can no lon+er be
made5 2hese a+endas have led )eminist social
scientists to as9 .uestions about ho can be a
9noer 3only menN4J hat tests belie)s must
pass in order to be le+itimated as 9noled+e
3only tests a+ainst men=s experiences and
observationsN4J hat 9inds o) thin+s can be
9non 3can @subFective truths,@ ones that only
omen ; or some omen ; tend to arrive at,
count as 9noled+eN4J the nature o)
obFectivity 3does it re.uire @point0o)0
vielessness@N4J the appropriate relationship
beteen the researcher and her:his research
subFects 3must the researcher be
disinterested, dispassionate, and socially
invisible to the subFectN4J hat should be the
purposes o) the pursuit o) 9noled+e 3to
produce in)ormation >OR menN45
; &ardin+ 3#'8Ba, p5 #8#4
2he aim o) )eminist theori?in+ is to deconstruct and
rede8ne concepts previously de8ned )rom a male
perspective and +enerally accepted as )actual5 2he
deconstruction and rede8nition o) concepts, as ell
as the creation o) ne ones, have emphasi?ed the
)olloin+-
Aomen=s experiences and 9noled+eJ
Conduct o) research >OR omenJ
Problems that, hen solved, ill bene8t both
researcher and subFectJ
Interaction beteen researcher and subFectJ
Lstablishment o) nonhierarchical
relationshipsJ
Lxpression o) )eelin+s and concern )or valuesJ
and
<se o) nonsexist lan+ua+e5
2he result is the +eneration o) theories )rom a vie
o) the orld throu+h )eminist lenses5 2he aim has
been to chan+e conditions adversely aDectin+
omen=s lives by critically analy?in+ existin+
theories and developin+ ne policies and social
action5 &ilary Rose 3#''K4 elaborated on this in her
address entitled @7lternative "noled+e /ystems
in /cience,@ an excerpt o) hich is set out in Box ,5
7o/ $
Feminist theori;ing
2he problem )or )eminist materialists is to admit biolo+y ; that is, a constrained essentialism ; hile +ivin+ priority to
the social, ithout concludin+ at the same time that human bein+s are in8nitely malleable 555 the very )act that omen
are, by and lar+e, shut out o) the production system o) scienti8c 9noled+e, ith its ideolo+ical poer to de8ne hat is
and hat is not obFective 9noled+e, paradoxically has oDered )eminists a )resh pa+e on hich to rite5 *ar+ely i+nored
by the oppressors and their systems o) 9noled+e, )eminists at this point necessarily theorised )rom practice and
re)erenced theory to practice5555 thin9in+ )rom the everyday lives o) omen necessarily )uses the personal, the social and
the biolo+ical5 555 hile there is +eneral a+reement that the 8rst move is to challen+e and overthro existin+ canonical
9noled+es, the .uestion o) hat e mi+ht replace them ith produces broadly spea9in+ to responses5 2he 8rst is
)eminist stand0point theory hich loo9s to the possibility o) a )eminist 9noled+e to produce better and truer pictures o)
realityJ the second is )eminist post0modernism hich re)uses the possibility o) any universalisin+ discourse but hich
ar+ues instead )or localised reliable )eminist 9noled+es5
>eminist theori?in+ see9s to uncover
2he pervasiveness o) +endered thin9in+ that
uncritically assumes a necessary bond
beteen bein+ a oman and occupyin+
certain social rolesJ
2he ays omen ne+otiate the orldJ and
2he isdom inherent in such ne+otiation5
2he social roles and the ays omen ne+otiate the
orld also diDer amon+ omen in diverse contexts
3cultural, social, political, racial or ethnic, reli+ious,
etc54 and ith diverse personal characteristics
3a+e, education, sexual orientation, etc545 2he
excerpt )rom /andra &ardin+=s @Is 2here a >eminist
6ethodN,@ reprinted in Box %, expands on this
point5
7o/ %
!omen-s e/periences
!otice that it is @omen=s experiences@ in the plural hich provide the ne resources )or research5 2his )ormulation
stresses several ays in hich the best )eminist analyses diDer )rom traditional ones5 >or one thin+, once e reali?ed
that there is no universal )an, but only culturally diDerent men and omen, then @6an=s eternal companion =oman=@
also disappeared5 2hat is, omen come only in diDerent classes, races, and cultures- there is no @oman@ and no
@oman=s experience5@ 6asculine and )eminine are alays cate+ories ithin every class, race, and culture in the sense
that omen=s and men=s experiences, desires, and interest diDer ithin every class, race, and culture5 But so too, are
class, race, and culture alays cate+ories ithin +ender, since omen=s and men=s experiences, desires, and interests
diDer accordin+ to class, race, and culture5 2his leads some theorists to propose that e should tal9 about our
@)eminisms@ only in the plural, since there is no one set o) )eminist principles or understandin+s beyond the very, very
+eneral ones to hich )eminists in every race, class, and culture ill assent5 Ahy should e have expected it to be any
diDerentN 2here are very )e principles or understandin+s to hich sexists in every race, class, and culture ill assentO
!ot only do our +ender experiences vary across the cultural cate+oriesJ they also are o)ten in conEict in any one
individual=s experience5 6y experiences as a mother and a pro)essor are o)ten contradictory5 Aomen scientists o)ten tal9
about the contradictions in identity beteen hat they experience as omen and scientists5 Dorothy /mith rites o) the
@)ault line@ beteen omen sociolo+ists= experience as sociolo+ists and as omen5 2he hyphenated state o) many sel)0
chosen labels o) identity ; blac9 )eminist, socialist )eminist, 7sian07merican )eminist, lesbian )eminist ; reEects this
challen+e to the @identity politics@ hich has +rounded Aestern thou+ht and public li)e5 2hese )ra+mented identities are
a rich source o) )eminist insi+ht5
In examinin+ problems and carryin+ out analyses,
)eminists reco+ni?e that )actors other than +ender
shape perceptions and understandin+s5 Class, race,
and culture are also poer)ul determinants and
there)ore create diDerences that must be ta9en
into account5 2he cate+ory @omen@ is pluralistic,
so treatin+ omen as a homo+enous +roup results
in a theori?in+ process no better than that o) the
traditional, androcentric approach5
2o )urther accommodate these diDerences, )eminist
in.uiry hi+hli+hts the importance o) placin+ the
in.uirer on the same @critical plane@ as the subFect
o) in.uiry, ith the aim o) ensurin+ less bias and
distortion5 Researchers can then no lon+er hide
behind the lan+ua+e o) @obFectivity@J they must
situate themselves in their research5 2he excerpt
)rom the or9 o) /andra &ardin+ in Box K
elaborates on this point5
7o/ '
Feminist research
2he best )eminist analysis +oes beyond these innovations in subFect matter in a crucial ay- it insists that the in.uirer
her:himsel) be placed in the same critical plane as the overt subFect matter, thereby recoverin+ the entire research
process )or scrutiny in the results o) research5 2hat is, the class, race, culture, and +ender assumptions, belie)s, and
behaviours o) the researcher her:himsel) must be placed ithin the )rame o) the picture that she:he attempts to paint5
2his does not mean that the 8rst hal) o) a research report should en+a+e in soul searchin+ 3thou+h a little soul searchin+
by researchers no and then can=t be all badO45 Instead, as e ill see, e are o)ten explicitly told ho she:he suspects
this has shaped the research proFect ; thou+h o) course e are )ree to arrive at contrary hypotheses about the inEuence
o) the researcher=s presence on her:his analysis5 2hus, the researcher appears to us not as an invisible, anonymous voice
o) authority, but as a real, historical individual ith concrete, speci8c desires and interests5
2his re.uirement is no idle attempt to @do +ood@ by the standards o) ima+ined critics in classes, races, cultures 3or o) a
+ender4 other than that o) the researcher5 Instead, it is a response to the reco+nition that the cultural belie)s and
behaviours o) )eminist researchers shape the results o) their analysis no less than do those o) sexist and androcentric
researchers5 Ae need to avoid the @obFectivis@ stance that attempts to ma9e the researcher=s cultural belie)s and
practices invisible hile simultaneously s9eerin+ the research obFects, belie)s and practices to the display board5 Only
in this ay can e hope to produce understandin+s and explanations hich are )ree 3or, at least, more )ree4 o) distortion
)rom the unexamined belie)s and behaviors o) social scientists themselves5 7nother ay to put this point is that the
belie)s and behaviors o) the researcher are part o) the empirical evidence )or 3or a+ainst4 the claims advanced in the
results o) research5 2his evidence too must be open to critical scrutiny no less than hat is traditionally de8ned as
relevant evidence5 Introducin+ this @subFective@ element into the analysis in )act increases the obFectivity o) the research
and decreases the @obFectivism@ hich hides this 9ind o) evidence )rom the public5 2his 9ind o) relationship beteen the
researcher and the obFect o) research is usually discussed under the headin+ o) the @reEexivity o) social science5@
>eminists have proposed various theories to
explain their experiences on the basis o)
diDerences in their class, race, and culture5
/ubstantial discourse amon+ )eminists has )ocused
on these various theories5 Discussin+ a paper by
7mrita Chhachhi 3Chhachhi #'884, Raida Ba9sh0
/oodeen noted that
2he variety o) approaches ithin )eminist
theory reEect, on the one hand, diver+ent
perceptions, and on the other, diDerent social
and historical locations in hich )eminists
exist5 >rom Chhachhi=s point o) vie, the
reFection o) all )eminist theory as @estern,@
@eurocentric,@ or <ethnocentric< results )rom
a )ailure to distin+uish beteen the
application o) )eminist theories to the
historical, political and socio0cultural
speci8cities o) blac9:2hird Aorld omen, and
the notion o) all theory as @hite5@ /he
distin+uishes 555 three levels o) analysis in
most contemporary social theories, includin+
)eminism5
#5 Basic concepts hich are abstract and
)unction as tools o) analysis 3e5+5 relations o)
production, relations o) reproduction, etc54J
,5 Intermediate level concepts 3such as
patriarchy, mode o) production, etc54J
%5 &istorically speci8c analysis o) a concrete
social phenomenon 3e5+5 slavery in
nineteenth century Caribbean society, dory
in north India, etc545
; Ba9sh0/oodeen 3#''%, p5 %#4
Chhachhi had ar+ued that at the 8rst level o) basic
conceptual analysis 3that o) basic concepts4, little
disa+reement occurs beteen blac9 and hite
)eminists ho share similar approaches5 &oever,
she noted that blac902hird Aorld )eminists have
encoura+ed an important sensitivity to the need
)or historically speci8c research at levels , and %
3those o) intermediate0level concepts and
historically speci8c analyses45 7s Ba9sh0/oodeen
remar9ed,
most o)ten the limitations o) Luro07merican
)eminist studies lie at the second and third
levels o) analysis in that abstract concepts are
imposed mechanically and historically, and
hence become a substitute )or an historically
speci8c analysis hich ta9es into account the
complexities o) social reality5
; Ba9sh0/oodeen 3#''%, p5 %#4
*et us examine ho omen )rom diDerent social
contexts mi+ht have diver+ent perceptions and
explanations o) the same phenomenon5
Activit" $
Considering povert"
In this activity, e consider the phenomenon o) poverty ; Ahy are people poorN
#5 /tate the assumptions you thin9 the )olloin+ omen ould have about this .uestion-
3a4 2he i)e o) a success)ul pro)essional ho does not or9 outside the home
3b4 7 retired civil servant on a pension
3c4 7 rural subsistence )armer
3d4 7n executive )rom a donor lendin+ a+ency
,5 Based on the assumptions you have identi8ed, hat explanation ould each omen li9ely +ive )or povertyN
%5 7re there any commonalities or diDerences amon+ these explanationsN
K5 &o do you account )or these commonalities or diDerencesN 32he diDerences in the explanations you identi)y are due
to the )act that each o) the individuals considered in the above exercise occupies a uni.ue position, role, and status
in society5 2hese positions are usually une.ual5 /ome omen exercise +reater authority and poer than others5 7s a
result, their assumptions and interpretations are more valued than those o) others ith less authority and poer54
55 In your opinion, hich o) these )our cate+ories o) omen ould have the most, the least poerN $ive reasons )or your
choice5
&ilary Rose=s comments in Box 5 illustrate ho
theoretical positions can also be used to exert
poer and inEuence over the lives o) omen5
7o/ +
7iological determinism and patriarch"
2he recrudescence o) biolo+ical determinism durin+ the seventies as committed to the renaturalisation o) omenJ to
an insistence that, i) not anatomy then evolution, P chromosomes, or hormones ere destinyJ and to the inevitability o)
patriarchy5 /uch vies )ed upon the or9 o) IQ advocates, hose vies had become an important location )or social and
political stru++le around issues o) race and class5 Aithin the <5/5 these interventions ere +reedily ta9en up by a
+overnment loo9in+ )or ays to Fusti)y the ithdraal o) resources )rom the Poverty Pro+ramme, as a laisse?0)aire
approach to el)are as more in accord ith nature5 Despite resistance by the Ael)are Ri+hts 6ovement, scienti8c
racism helped Fusti)y cuttin+ el)are bene8ts o) poor ; primarily blac9 ; omen and their children, thus enablin+ more
resources to be committed to the Mietnam Aar5 In Britain, IQ theory as extensively cited by the racist campai+n )or
immi+rant restriction and )ed racist sentiment that +enetic in)eriority explained hi+h levels o) unemployment and thence
excessive demands on the el)are system by blac9 people5 2he critical counter attac9 mounted by anti0racists helped
prevent the ne scienti8c racism spreadin+ unchallen+ed5
In the prevailin+ political climate, the relationship beteen biolo+ical determinists ; especially in the +uise o) the ne
sociobiolo+y ; and the !e Ri+ht as a love match5 In Britain, a !e Ri+ht +overnment happily sei?ed on biolo+ical
determinism as a scienti8c prop to their plan to restore omen to their natural place, hich at that point as not in the
labour mar9et5 3By the mid0ei+hties the vie chan+ed and part0time omen=s or9 became the ideal solution to achieve
unpaid labour at home and cheap labour in employment5 >rom then on e heard little about omen=s natural mar9et
place54 !o one put the +overnment=s vie in the early #'80s more succinctly than the /ecretary o) /tate )or /ocial
/ervice, Patric9 Hen9ins, in a #'80 television intervie on or9in+ mothers- @Quite )ran9ly, I don=t thin9 mothers have the
same ri+ht to or9 as )athers5 I) the *ord had intended us to have e.ual ri+hts, he ouldn=t have created men and
omen5 2hese are biolo+ical )acts, youn+ children do depend on their mothers5@
Ahile it as perhaps over9ill to dra on both creationism and biolo+y to ma9e his point, in the political rhetoric o)
+overnment ministers and other !e Ri+ht ideolo+ues, the old enthusiasm )or biolo+ical determinism as +iven )resh
vi+our by the )ashionable ne sociobiolo+y5 2his at the hei+ht o) the stru++le o) the )eminist movement to brin+ omen
out o) nature into culture, a host o) +reater or lesser socio0biolo+ists, their media supporters and ne Ri+ht politicians
Foined ea+erly in the cultural and political eDort to return them hence they came5

Activit" %
4earning from a case st2d"
Read the case study o) omen=s or9 in the Philippines that )ollos 3Case /tudy #4 and then anser these .uestions-
#5 Ahat )actual in)ormation about omen=s or9 in the Philippines can you extract )rom this case studyN
,5 Ahat principles about omen=s or9 in the Philippines emer+e )rom these )actsN
%5 Do these principles coincide ith those obtainin+ in your on societyN
K5 &ave the )acts in the case study caused you to chan+e your assumptions about omen=s or9N &oN
55 Based on the data and your on experience, hat explanation or theory ould you develop o) omen=s or9N
Case St2d"
!omen-s work in the Philippines
In the mid0#'B0s, $elia Castillo noted that about
10 percent o) the omen in the rural areas o) the
Philippines ere en+a+ed in a+riculture or related
activities, such as 8shin+, an increase )rom the
#'15 8+ure o) 5%51 percent5 In rou+hly to
decades 3)rom #'51 to #'BK4, the proportion o) all
>ilipinos in a+ricultural and related activities
decreased )rom about 5' to 55 percent, and the
proportion o) all omen and +irls over ten years
old decreased sli+htly more 3)rom K85# percent to
%151 percent45 2he overall decline in the proportion
o) omen employed in a+riculture coupled ith the
increased proportion o) rural omen in a+riculture
)rom the mid0#'10s to the mid0#'B0s could
su++est that there ere more opportunities )or
urban employment and:or )eer opportunities )or
non0a+ricultural rural employment5 It is also
possible that )arm omen ere counted diDerently
in the #'B0s, i), as may people contend,
a+ricultural omen are +enerally
underenumerated, the #'B0s 8+ures could reEect
+reater accuracy 3Castillo did not address this
issue in her study45
O) these a+ricultural omen, the vast maFority are
crop or9ers in rice and com )armin+, and the
burden o) the omen=s or9 is in non0mechani?ed
tas9s such as eedin+ and transplantin+5 In one
study carried out in the provinces o) Bulacan and
2atan+as, plantin+:transplantin+, harvestin+, and
post0harvest activities accounted )or nearly B0
percent o) the )emale contribution to )armin+ those
re+ions5 2hese are activities that can be done in a
relatively short span o) time, so they are
compatible ith the maFor household duties )or
hich the omen are also responsible5 2he 9ind o)
or9 >ilipinas do helps to explain hy there are
substantial seasonal variations in the a+ricultural
employment o) omen5 Castillo notes, )or instance,
that the
percenta+e o) omen or9in+ )ull time in
a+riculture can increase beteen 1 and #0 percent
beteen >ebruary and 6ay5
7 detailed study o) time allocation in rural
households in *a+una, a province o) the
Philippines, shoed that mothers ere less
involved in a+ricultural activities than either
)athers or children5 On the avera+e, the omen in
the sample spent sli+htly over one hour a day on
pre0and post0harvest activities, ve+etable
production, livestoc9 raisin+, and the li9e ; men
and children spent ell over three hours a day on
these same activities ; but the 5 percent o) the
omen in the sample ho reported that their
primary occupation as )armin+ avera+ed about
three and one0third hours a day on )armin+ alone5
Overall, )armin+ and non0)armin+ omen in this
rural area spent an additional seven and one0hal)
hours on household or9 or home production5
7s in most countries, rural omen are amon+ the
most economically disadvanta+ed people in >ilipino
society5 2here are more unpaid )amily or9ers
amon+ omen than amon+ men, and almost '0
percent o) all male unpaid or9ers in #'B5 ere in
the rural areas and en+a+ed in a+ricultural or95
Despite this +eneral condition, hoever, both rural
and urban >ilipinas are vieed by a number o)
scholars as havin+ considerable status and poer
compared to omen in other 7sian countries, and
>ilipina inEuence extends to important decision0
ma9in+ roles in a+ricultural matters5 Hustin $reen,
)or example, noted that omen are better
educated than men, and he has also ar+ued that
omen have a +ood deal o) behind0the0scenes or
privately exercised poer5 People ho thin9 that
the traditional method o) rec9onin+ 9inship and the
prevalence o) bride price or dory are indicators o)
male0)emale status mi+ht note that historically,
>ilipinos have traced 9inship throu+h both parents
and bride price has been common 3hereas dory
prevails in India45 >or rural >ilipino omen, a
practical conse.uence o) this relative e.uity is that
the sexual division o) labor is not as ri+id as in
many societies5 Aomen can handle a plo i)
necessary, and a husband ill do the coo9in+ i) his
i)e is aay or do the laundry i) his i)e has Fust
delivered a child5
; Charlton 3#'8K4
*elationship of theor" and
knowledge
2he theori?in+ process both uses and produces
9noled+e5 7ndrocentric theories +enerate
9noled+e that embodies the assumptions o)
these theories and i+nores the experiences and
perspectives o) omen5 One o) the tenets o)
)eminist theori?in+ is that 9noled+e should be
)ormulated )rom a broader base o) experience5
2hus, a ne, more comprehensive, more all0
encompassin+ 9noled+e is built up throu+h
)eminist theori?in+5 /uch theori?in+ see9s to
provide a more complete representation o)
omen=s realities5 7s /andra &ardin+ expressed it,
"noled+e is supposed to be based on
experience, and the reason the )eminist
claims can turn out to be scienti8cally
pre)erable is that they ori+inate in, and are
tested a+ainst, a more complete and less
distortin+ 9ind o) social experience5 Aomen=s
experiences, in)ormed by )eminist theory,
provide a potential +roundin+ )or more
complete and less distorted 9noled+e claims
than do men=s5
; &ardin+ 3#'8Ba, pp5 #8K0#854
&ardin+=s analysis represents a )eminist0standpoint
theoretical approach5 *i9e others, )eminist0
standpoint theorists have their on assumptions5
2hey assume there is an obFective reality that can
be made better i) omen=s experiences and
9noled+es are added to mainstream or
androcentric epistemologies5
Postmodernist0)eminist theori?in+ supports the
investi+ation o) omen=s experiences and
9noled+es as a basis )or creatin+ ne )eminist0
in)ormed 9noled+es5 2his approach diDers )rom
)eminist0standpoint theori?in+ in several ays5
Postmodernist0)eminist theorists do not assume
there is a complete, coherent reality to hich
omen=s experiences can be addedJ rather, they
assume there are multiple realities and
experiences5 Postmodernist0)eminist theorists see
these experiences and their inEuence on the
+eneration o) 9noled+e as Euid, contin+ent,
diverse, and historically and culturally speci8c5
2hey do not ar+ue that )eminist claims are
scienti8cally pre)erable, as they are more sceptical
about the )aith placed in rationality, obFectivity,
and science5 &oever, they support the position
that 9noled+e claims should be )ormulated )rom a
broader base o) experience and should reco+ni?e
that omen=s experiences ill diDer across race,
class, culture, and sexual orientation5
2hus, there are diverse )eminist theoretical
approaches5 7lthou+h they conver+e on the core
issue o) omen=s subordination, they diDer in their
assumptions about the causes or sources o) that
subordination5 2hese diDerences reEect the
richness o) omen=s lives and the need to
inte+rate the experiences and 9noled+es o)
omen in the /outh, as ell as all omen in the
!orth, i) e are to move toard a more inclusive,
sensitive theori?in+ about both omen=s
subordination and their poer5 &ilary Rose=s
remar9s in Box 1 illustrate some o) the ne
thin9in+ o) )eminists in the /outh and !orth5
7o/ ,
Feminists 2sing theor"
#tayin. Ali(e by Mandana /hiva is a marvellous example o) the ays that )eminists relate to theory, usin+ it as a resource in the de)ence o)
both omen and nature5 >irst the boo9 is ritten )rom ithin a stru++le o) the Chip9o omen to de)end the trees on hich their lives
depend5 Ahile ithout the mass movement there ould be no story, it is also a story in hich her s9ills as a scientist are inte+ral5 &er
account o) the stru++le is a story o) trans)ormation 555 o) the people and also an exposition o) the science 3the de8nition, the analysis and
explanation o) the problem45 /he ma9es solid technical ar+uments about hat is happenin+ to the land and the ater5 &er trainin+ as a
physicist ; part o) that universalistic hi+hly abstract discourse so criticised by )eminism ; is both a crucial element ithin, and
trans)ormed by the stru++le5 /he reports diDerent ays o) collectin+ data, or+anisin+ in )resh ays, producin+ a holistic ecolo+ical
9noled+e speci8c to the locality and people5 2his care)ul rethin9in+ o) the environmental endemic +enerates a hi+hly @situated and
embodied 9noled+e@ ith stron+ claims to obFectivity, out o) the @universalistic and disembodied 9noled+e@ o) the physicist5
!or are the activities she reports limited to ne 9noled+e buildin+, )or she also describes and endorses essential myth ma9in+ 3hich
historically has o)ten +iven ener+y to social movements o) the excluded4 but hich un.uestionably o)ten ma9es their intellectual allies
uneasy5 Ahereas Aestern )eminists have mostly )ou+ht the notion that omen are naturally nearer to nature, seein+ that as a patriarchal
ca+e, /hiva casts Indian peasant omen 3and the myths they construct cast themselves4 in the role o) the natural protectors o) the )orest5
Lssentialism is used as a source o) stren+th5 It is a dan+erous move yet the situation is already a matter o) stayin+ alive5 But the point I
ant to ma9e is the extra0ordinarily diver+ent strands hich /hiva eaves to+ether5 !othin+ that can be made use)ul ithin a stru++le is
disre+arded, she ta9es very diDerent discourses and radically recycles them, adaptin+ them ith stren+th and ima+ination to political
purposes5 In /hiva I thin9 e +et somethin+ o) a reply )rom a )eminist scientist to 7udre *orde=s .uestion, can the master=s tools be used
to dismantle the master=s houseN I thin9 the reply +oes somethin+ li9e this, providin+ e are prepared to select, to adapt, to use )or
hitherto unima+ined purposes and eave them in ith the entirely ne, then yes, e can use the master=s tools5 But in the process it is
crucial to understand that the tools are themselves trans)ormed5 7s ell as tearin+ don the master=s house, that crucial preliminary act,
a )eminist science also be+ins to build ane, to construct a )eminist science5
2his more comprehensive 9noled+e base enables
a ide cross section o) experiences and measures
to in)orm policy and action5 Chapter K ill examine
existin+ policies and those bein+ developed, to
illustrate ho they reEect and satis)y the needs o)
omen5
Concl2sion
2his chapter discusses theori?in+ as a process used
to test assumptions about a number o) phenomena
in order to +enerate principles and theories to
explain these phenomena5 2his chapter also points
out that traditionally this process has been male
centred and related to the cultures, nationalities,
and dominant economic classes o) the theorists,
ho did not ta9e into account the perspectives and
experiences o) omen or the problems and issues
that aDect omen5 <ntil )eminist theorists be+an
criti.uin+ existin+ 9noled+es, these theories ere
used to produce pro+rams and policies that
adversely aDected the lives o) omen5
2he readin+s hi+hli+ht the )eminist challen+es to
the traditional, androcentric approach to theori?in+
and discuss some o) the characteristics o) )eminist
approaches5 2hese approaches not only ta9e into
account diDerences in experiences o) omen and
men but also reco+ni?e that omen themselves do
not constitute a homo+enous +roup5
<sin+ these approaches, )eminists have
deconstructed androcentric theories and
9noled+e and produced a comprehensive vie o)
omen=s multiple realities5 2he 9noled+es they
have +enerated provide a basis )or criti.uin+
existin+ policies and determinin+ alternative
policies and activities to address the problems
aDectin+ omen5
Reco+ni?in+ that )actors such as class, race,
ethnicity, a+e, social status, and sexual orientation
shape perceptions and experience points to the
social character o) +ender and +ender relations5 In
the next chapter, you ill examine a number o)
theories on +ender and development that have
evolved )rom a process o) both omen=s and men=s
theori?in+ in diDerent contexts and situations5
*eferences
Ba9sh0/oodeen, R5 #''%5 Is there an
international )eminismN 7lternative 7pproach
,K 3/ummer4, ,,0%,5
Charlton, /5L5 #'8K5 Aomen in 2hird Aorld
development5 Aestvie Press, Boulder, CO,
</75
Chhachhi, 75 #'885 Concepts in )eminist
theory- consensus and controversy5 +n
6ohammed, P5J /hepherd, C, ed5, $ender in
Caribbean development5 Aomen and
Development /tudies $roup, <niversity o) the
Aest Indies, Cave &ill, BarbadosJ 6ona,
HamaicaJ /t 7u+ustine, 2rinidad and 2oba+o,
pp5 B10'15
&ardin+, /5 #'8Ba5 Conclusion-
epistemolo+ical .uestions5 +n &ardin+, /5, ed5,
>eminism and methodolo+y- social science
issues5 Indiana <niversity Press, Bloomin+ton,
I!, </75 pp5 #8#0#'05
RRRRR #'8Bb5 Introduction- Is there a )eminist
methodN +n &ardin+, /5, ed5, >eminism and
methodolo+y- social science issues5 Indiana
<niversity Press, Bloomin+ton, I!, </75 pp5 #0
#K5
Ornstein, 75C5J &un9ins, >5P5 #''%5 Curriculum
; )oundations, principles and issues5 7llyn
and Bacon, Boston, 67, </75
Rose, &5 #''K5 7lternative 9noled+e systems
in science- can )eminism rebuild the sciencesN
+n Bailey, B5J 6cClenan, M5, ed5, Readin+s in
+ender, science and technolo+y5 Centre )or
$ender and Development /tudies, <niversity
o) the Aest Indies, 6ona, Hamaica, pp5 #015
/tanley, *5J Aise, /5 #'8%5 Brea9in+ out-
)eminist consciousness and )eminist research5
Routled+e and "e+an Paul, *ondon, <"5
S2ggested reading
&ardin+, /5 #''#5 Ahose scienceN Ahose
9noled+eN Cornell <niversity Press, !e
Gor9, !G, </75
hoo9s, b5 #'885 2al9in+ bac9 ; thin9in+
)eminism, thin9in+ blac95 Beteen the *ines,
2oronto, O!, Canada5
/eibold, C5J Richards, *5J /imons, D5 >eminist
method and .ualitative research about mid0
li)e5 Hournal o) 7dvanced !ursin+, #', %'K0K0,5
/hiva, M5 #'885 /tayin+ alive5 Ied Press,
*ondon, <"5
his pa.e intentionally le/t blank
C8APTE* $ !89 GENDE*#!89
DE6E4OP.ENT#
Rhoda Reddock
(ntrod2ction
2his chapter introduces the concepts o) +ender and
development and the )actors that +ave rise to their
emer+ence5 It also provides an explanation o) the
precolonial experience o) so0called 2hird Aorld
people, especially ith respect to +ender relations
and the experiences o) omen and men in social,
political, and economic li)e5 2he discussion
challen+es simplistic characteri?ations and
+enerali?ations o) precolonial societies and points
to their rich diversity and diDerence5
2his chapter provides a )rameor9 )or considerin+
alternative ays o) perceivin+ human social and
cultural development and or+ani?in+ social,
economic, and political li)e5 It also provides
in)ormation that challen+es traditional monolithic
assumptions about omen and the se/2al
division of la1o2r5
O1:ectives
2he obFectives o) this chapter are the )olloin+-
2o explore the evolution o) the concepts o)
+ender and development and to critically
examine their underlyin+ assumptionsJ
2o reco+ni?e the diversity o) human
experience and the alternative measures o)
value and standards )or the assessment o)
pro+ress and human achievementJ and
2o provide a +eneral historical understandin+
o) the lives o) 2hird Aorld people be)ore the
institutionali?ation o) development5
!h" development#
In ordinary usa+e, de(elop)ent 3a noun derived
)rom the verb de(elop4 implies movement )rom
one level to another, usually ith some increase in
si?e, number, or .uality o) some sort5 In the
Pen+uin En.lish !ictionary, the verb de(elop
means @to un)old, brin+ out latent poers o)J
expandJ stren+thenJ spreadJ +roJ evolveJ become
more matureJ sho by de+reesJ explain more )ullyJ
elaborateJ exploit the potentialities 3o) a site4 by
buildin+, minin+, etc5@ 3Pen+uin #'BB45
>or our purposes, these meanin+s o) de(elop)ent
apply to human societies5 2he usa+e o) the ord in
this context as populari?ed in the post0Aorld Aar
n period to describe the process throu+h hich
countries and societies outside !orth 7merica and
Lurope 3many o) them )ormer colonial territories4
ere to be trans)ormed into modern, developed
nations )rom hat their coloni?ers sa as
bac9ard, primitive, underdeveloped societies 3see
Box #45
7o/
Colonialism
Colonialism re)ers in +eneral to the extension o) the poer o) a state throu+h the ac.uisition, usually by con.uest, o) other territoriesJ the
subFu+ation o) the inhabitants to a rule imposed by )orceJ and the 8nancial and economic exploitation o) the inhabitants to the advanta+e
o) the colonial poer5
Characteristic o) this )orm as the maintenance o) a sharp and )undamental distinction 3o)ten expressed in la as ell as in )act4 beteen
the rulin+ nation and the subordinate 3colonial4 populations5 2his led to entrenched )orms o) racism5 In the modern period, that is, since
#K',, colonial poers initially included the Dutch, Ln+lish, >rench, Portu+uese, and /panish5 *ater, other Luropean states also became
involved, such as the Bel+ians and $ermans5 In the ,0th century, the <nited /tates, too, became a colonial poer5
It is necessary to diDerentiate beteen settler colonialism and nonsettler colonialism5 In the case o) the <nited "in+dom, )or example,
special status o) dominion 3or protectorate4 as +iven to settler colonies, such as 7ustralia, Canada, the Irish >ree /tates, !e)oundland,
!e Iealand, /outhern Rhodesia, and the <nion o) /outh 7)rica, hich had lar+e communities o) Luropean mi+rants5 2hey ere usually
sel)0+overnin+ territories o) the British empire5 Protectorate as used to re)er to territories +overned by a colonial poer althou+h not
)ormally annexed by it5
In these areas also, includin+ the <nited /tates, internal colonialis)
native or indi+enous people and minorities5 7lthou+h other )orms o) domination and he+emony have existed in human history, this
chapter concentrates on the speci8c )orm o) Luropean coloni?ation and colonial domination that has ta9en place since the #1th century5
!hich were these societies#
2hese areas comprised most o) 7)rica, 7sia, the
Caribbean, the 6iddle Last, the Paci8c re+ion, and
/outh and Central 7merica5 2oday, this +roupin+
includes )ormer colonial, lar+ely but not totally
tropical, countries, peopled mainly by non0
Luropeans5 It is usually re)erred to as the 2hird
Aorld, underdeveloped countries, developin+
countries, and, more recently, the /outh or the
economic /outh5
7lthou+h it ould be help)ul to have one term to
desi+nate all o) these countries, none o) the above
terms is really ade.uate5 7ll are based on
assumptions that e should be aare o) hen e
use them5 2hey are an improvement, hoever, on
the terms 8rst used in development ritin+, such
as back&ard or econo)ically back&ard countries5
It is important to note that be)ore Luropean
colonial domination, many societies had already
)elt the impact o) other dominatin+ )orces5 >or
example, in !orth 7)rica the spread o) the Islamic
inEuence rou+ht +reat chan+es in the li)estyle o)
the native people ; so much so that, no, some
people hardly have any memory o) a pre0Islamic
past5 In India, the spread o) &induism over the
continent had a similar, althou+h more varied,
impact5 In some instances, the coloni?ers entered
countries already controlled by ell0established,
strati8ed, patriarchal structures and introduced yet
another controllin+ )orce into omen=s lives5
In this chapter, I brieEy explore each o) these
concepts and the contexts ithin hich they arose5
=nderdeveloped>developing co2ntries
2he concept o) underdeveloped0developin+
countries emer+ed as part o) the or9 o) early
development economists in the #'50s, ho
theori?ed very simplistically about the sta+es o)
development mat societies had to pass throu+h to
become @developed,@ or @modern5@ 2hese concepts
sou+ht to encompass all o) the countries and areas
to hich I re)erred earlier, i+norin+ the vast
diDerences amon+ them5 In addition, the history o)
Aestern industriali?ed countries as used as a
broad model )or the process throu+h hich all
societies ere to pass5
2hese development economists coined the
)olloin+ triad-
<nderdeveloped Developin+ Developed
7round the #'10s, ith nationalist sentiments
becomin+ vocal, the term less de(eloped as
added, as it as considered less peForative than
underde(eloped5 2his approach is sometimes
critically re)erred to as developmentalism5
!ot much later, a school o) mainly sociolo+ists and
political scientists emer+ed5 2hey ere eventually
re)erred to as moderni?ation theorists because
they described this process as one o) becomin+
modem5 2hey, too, developed a triad-
2raditional2ransitional6odern
In the ords o) /hyama Charan Dube,
6odernity may be understood as the common
behaviourial system historically associated
ith the urban, industrial, literate, and
participant societies o) Aestern Lurope and
!orth 7merica5 2he system is characterised
by a rational and scienti8c orld vie, +roth
and ever0increasin+ application o) science and
technolo+y, to+ether ith continuous
adaptation o) the institutions o) society to the
imperatives o) the ne orld vie and the
emer+in+ technolo+ical ethos5
; Dube 3#'88, p5 #B4
One o) the main )eatures common to these to
approaches is that they e.uated development 3or
modernity4 ith industriali?ation5 Industriali?ation
and its companion, urbani?ation 3the emer+ence o)
tons and cities4, ere considered the only ays
)or bac9ard societies to become modern, or
developed5 Pro+ress and advancement ere also
seen in this li+ht5
2here as little appreciation o) the social, cultural,
economic, or political attributes o) non0Aestern
societies5 Indeed, these approaches accepted to a
lar+e de+ree the colonial )eelin+ o) superiority over
indi+enous peoples, many o) hom ere
decimated, robbed o) their land, or con8ned to
reservations or territories 3)or example, in
7ustralia, Canada, and the <nited /tates4, or
mar+inali?ed and )orced to Eee into the mountains
3)or example, in parts o) 7sia and most o) /outh
and Central 7merica4 3see Box ,45
7o/ $
Sta"ing alive
2hus are economies based on indi+enous technolo+ies vieed as @bac9ard@ and @un0productive5@ Poverty, as the denial
o) basic needs, is not necessarily associated ith the existence o) traditional technolo+ies, and its removal is not
necessarily an outcome o) the +roth o) modem ones5 On the contrary, the destruction o) ecolo+ically sound traditional
technolo+ies, o)ten created and used by omen, alon+ ith the destruction o) their material base is +enerally believed
to be responsible )or the @)eminisation@ o) poverty in societies hich have had to bear the costs o) resource destruction5

E/ercise
(ndigeno2s technologies
#5 Ahat does the author mean by @indi+enous technolo+ies@N
,5 $ive examples o) indi+enous technolo+ies used in your society today by
Aomen
6en
2hese approaches also had little to say about
omen5 Aomen ere lar+ely lin9ed to the
traditional and bac9ard aspects o) these societies
and most resistant to chan+e5 Because the
theorists used traditional in such a +eneral sense,
ith little recourse to history or social
anthropolo+y, they little reali?ed the diversity in
omen and men=s relations, in modes o) domestic
and )amily or+ani?ation, or in social, economic, and
political li)e5
Third !orld
@2hird Aorld@ is the Ln+lish translation o) le tiers
)onde, developed in >rance in the #'50s5 It
emer+ed ith the hei+htened anticolonial
consciousness that arose ith the comin+ o) the
ne nation0states in 7)rica and 7sia5 2his as also
a time hen the Cold Aar beteen the <nited
/tates and the /oviet <nion0Lastern Lurope as
dividin+ the orld alon+ ideolo+ical and
+eopolitical lines5
In this context, the nely independent states o)
7)rica and 7sia 3includin+ $hana, India, Indonesia,
and !i+eria4, as ell as Gu+oslavia, met in
Bandun+, Indonesia, in 7pril #'555 2hey adopted
the position o) nonali+nment ith either camp,
ar+uin+ the need )or a third, alternative orld
+roupin+5 2he term hird $orld as adopted by
many o) these countries to diDerentiate
themselves )rom the >irst Aorld 3the !orth 7tlantic
capitalist orld, or the orld o) advanced mar9et
economies4 and the /econd Aorld 3the centrally
planned economies o) Lastern Lurope and the
/oviet <nion45 2he 2hird Aorld consisted o) all
other nations ; usually in 7)rica, 7sia, the
Caribbean, the Paci8c, and /outh and Central
7merica, includin+ the centrally planned
economies in these areas5
One o) the main criticisms o) the concept o) the
2hird Aorld has been that it su++ests a hierarchy
o) nations5 /ome people ar+ue that to accept third
place is to accept a loer status in the orld order5
2he people ho coined the phrase probably never
considered this but simply sa hird $orld as an
alternative to the to main options their countries
ere bein+ pushed to accept, options that, as
history ould sho, they ould eventually a+ree
to5
North>So2th
1orth-#outh became a popular term around #'80,
a)ter the publication o) the report o) the
Independent Commission on International
Development Issues, popularly 9non as the
Brandt Commission because it as led by the late
Ailly Brandt, )ormer Chancellor o) Aest $ermany
3see Brandt #'8045 7ccordin+ to one source,
2he expression as selected by the
Commission to emphasi?e the economic
divide beteen the !orth 3rich nations4 and
the /outh 3poor nations4 and to hi+hli+ht the
presumed desirability o) a !orth0/outh
dialo+ue +rounded in a common concern )or
+lobal problems and )reed )rom the
complications o) Last0Aest political interests5
; &ulme 3#''0, p5 84
2his division, li9e many associated ith relations o)
poer, is +eo+raphically incorrect5 /ome countries
in the /outh are neither lo income nor not )ormer
colonial countriesJ li9eise, some economies and
conditions o) li)e in the !orth, such as can be )ound
in Lastern and /outhern Lurope, have little in
common ith the leadin+ industriali?ed capitalist
economies o) the !orth5 >or some, this terminolo+y
reEects +lobal restructurin+ and the chan+es
ta9in+ place in the +lobal economy5 Econo)ic
#outh as a term coined to )urther delineate this
+roupin+ in economic and political terms, rather
than in purely +eo+raphic ones5
Development toda"
2he heyday o) developmentalism ; in the #'50s,
#'10s, and #'B0s ; )ostered some stron+ belie)s,
such as
2hat state or +overnment should play the
central determinin+ role in introducin+
development policies and strate+ies that
could lead to improved standards o) livin+
and conditions o) li)eJ and
2hat international investment, loans, and aid
can redirect economies aay )rom their
traditional bases ; usually in a+riculture ;
toard industry and manu)acture5
2oday, althou+h much o) this sentiment has
chan+ed, much has remained the same5 2he
dominant thin9in+ in the late #'80s and early
#''0s has been that the state has a leadin+, but
only )acilitatin+, role in the economy5 Development
is no seen as the responsibility o) private
companies and, increasin+ly, private
non+overnmental or+ani?ations 3!$Os45 In
addition, the mar9et is seen as the main arbiter o)
decision0ma9in+5
2his approach is based on the reneed inEuence o)
liberal economic thin9in+ 3no called neoliberal
economics4, hich has aDected international
economic
policy and development thin9in+5 7ll this has ta9en
place ithin the context o) a 2hird Aorld debt
crisis, ithin hich economic restructurin+ and
structural0adFustment policies are advocated as
mechanisms )or +eneratin+ income to repay debt5
/uch thin9in+ has become reality throu+h the
conditions on the stabili?ation and structural0
adFustment loans oDered by the International
6onetary >und 3I6>4 and the International Ban9 )or
Reconstruction and Development 3the Aorld Ban94
to countries )acin+ balance0o)0payments
diCculties5
2he I6> and the Aorld Ban9 ere established in
#'KK at Bretton Aoods, !e &ampshire, in the
<nited /tates5 7t this meetin+, Canada, the <nited
"in+dom, and the <nited /tates set up a system to
)acilitate the reconstruction o) Aestern Lurope
a)ter Aorld Aar &5 2he main purpose o) the ne
or+ani?ations as to provide a basis )or monetary
and currency stability )or increased trade and
expansion o) these economies5 2his as to be
accomplished by providin+ 8nancial support durin+
periods o) balance0o)0payments diCculties, that is,
hen imports exceeded exports5 2he $eneral
7+reement on 2ariDs and 2rade as later added,
and, accordin+ to Dennis Pantin, each o) these
institutions ould play a complementary role in the
mana+ement o) a orld economy that did not
restrict the movement o) +oods, services, and
money 3Pantin #'8'45
/ince the emer+ence o) the ne nation0states in
7)rica, 7sia, the Caribbean, and the Paci8c in the
#'50s and #'10s, the Bretton Aoods 7+reement
has idened in scope5 7s a result o) the current
trend in monetarist, or neoliberal, economics, the
role o) this a+reement has expanded5 2he I6>
provides short0term stabili?ation assistance to
countries ith balance0o)0payments diCculties, on
condition that they implement certain 8scal and
monetary policies5 2he Aorld Ban9, on the other
hand, is more concerned ith lon+0term
adFustment throu+h restructurin+ o) host
economies alon+ 8xed lines5 Its policies can be
summari?ed as )ollos 3Blac9den #''%4-
/tabili?ation or reduction o) bud+et or
balance0o)0payments de8cits, reduction o)
bud+et de8cits or )ree?es in public0sector
employment, cut0bac9s in public0sector
investment, removal o) public0sector
subsidies 3usually aay )rom the a+riculture
and social sector to the private commercial
sector4, and tax re)ormJ
Promotion o) the private sector throu+h
contractin+ o) public services, sale o) state
enterprises, and dere+ulationJ
6ar9et liberali?ation and price re)orms, in
hich the local mar9et is opened to +reater
)orei+n and domestic competitionJ exchan+e0
rate liberali?ation, usually devaluations or
Eoatation o) local currency to encoura+e
exportsJ and removal o) price controls and
supports to local industryJ and
Rationali?ation o) public0sector institutions,
includin+ civil0service 3public0sector4 re)orm,
privati?ation o) state enterprises, and re)orm
o) the social sector to ma9e it cost0eDective5
7spects o) these neoliberal policies have also been
implemented since the #'80s in !orthern
countries, such as Canada, the <nited "in+dom,
and the <nited /tates, and, more recently, in
continental Lurope5 7dditionally, many
+overnments have implemented economic0
adFustment pro+rams ithout bein+ involved in an
I6> or Aorld Ban9 pro+ram5
In the 2hird Aorld, these pro+rams have been
severely critici?ed )or the )olloin+ reasons-
2hey are not tailored to the particular needs
o) individual economiesJ
2hey contribute to maFor declines in
standards o) livin+, includin+ nutritional
levels, educational standards, employment
rates, and access to social0support systemsJ
2hey shi)t more o) the responsibility )or
health care, education, and care o) the sic9
and elderly to omen already burdened by
unpaid or9J
2hey increase social ills, such as violent
crime, dru+ abuse, and violence a+ainst
omenJ and
2hey result in increased levels o) mi+ration
3le+al and ille+al4 )rom the /outh to the
!orth5
S2staina1le development
In many parts o) the !orth and /outh, omen=s
or+ani?ations and !$Os are involved in developin+
sustainable and economically )easible alternatives
to these neoliberal policies o) structural
adFustment5
2he term sustainable de(elop)ent came into
popular use a)ter the #'8B report o) the Aorld
Commission on Lnvironment and Development,
popularly 9non as the Brundtland Report and the
Brundtiand Commission, respectively5 2he report
as lar+ely a response to the +roin+ international
environmental and ecolo+ical lobby5 It de8ned
sustainable development as @development that
meets the needs o) the present ithout
compromisin+ the ability o) )uture +enerations to
meet their on needs@ 3ACLD #'8B, p5 K%45
7ccordin+ to Donald Broo9s 3#''04, the paradi+m,
or orldvie, emer+in+ around this concept
reco+ni?ed the need to ensure and )acilitate the
)olloin+-
Inte+ration o) conservation and developmentJ
6aintenance o) ecolo+ical inte+rityJ
/atis)action o) basic human needs 3see
Chapter %4J
7chievement o) e.uity and social FusticeJ and
Provision o) social sel)0determination and
cultural diversity5
2his comprehensive approach does not reEect all
approaches to sustainable development5 /ome
economists, )or example, spea9 o) @sustainable
+roth5@ Critics a+ree, hoever, that economic
+roth 3that is, continuous increase in the .uantity
o) economic production4 cannot be sustained
inde8nitely, +iven the reneable and
nonreneable resources o) the planet5
!evertheless, a more e.uitable distribution o)
existin+ resources could lead to improvements in
the .uality o) li)e5
>eminist activists have been central to the
movement a+ainst environmental de+radation and
)or sustainability ri+ht )rom the movement=s
inception5 2hey have also o)ten +one beyond the
narroer de8nitions o) the issues to include the
stru++le )or peace and the stru++le a+ainst the
proli)eration o) nuclear eapons5 Ahereas most o)
the discussions on sustainable development have
ta9en place ithin the context o) mainstream
development economics, )eminist activists have )or
the most part seen sustainable development as
part o) a lar+er alternative model o) development
or societal trans)ormation5
"amla Bhasin S#''%T identi8ed the )olloin+
components o) sustainable development-
It must be in harmony ith nature 3i) nature is
to sustain us, e must sustain nature4J
It must be people centred and oriented
3people have to be seen as the subFects, not
the obFects, o) development4J
It must be omen centred 3reco+ni?in+ the
responsibility that omen have alays
assumed )or caterin+ to the basic needs o)
society4J
It must cater to the needs o) the maFority
3consumption levels o) the rich and
industriali?ed orld must be reduced4J
2here must be decentrali?ation o) decision0
ma9in+ and control over resources ithin
countries and internationallyJ
Democracy must become more participatory
and direct, unleashin+ the latent ener+ies o)
the peopleJ and
7t every level, sustainable development must
promote the politics o) peace, nonviolence,
and respect )or li)e5
In short, sustainable development )or many
)eminists )rom the /outh and !orth implies a ne
9ind o) political, economic, social, and cultural
system and a ne value orientation5
The women-s challenge to
moderni;ation and development
2he seeds o) the omen0and0development concept
3a broad0based term that includes a number o)
approaches to omen=s developmentJ see belo4
ere planted durin+ the #'50s and #'10s5 Durin+
this time, 50 countries ere )reed )rom colonialism,
and the omen ho had participated in
independence movements acted on their
convictions that they must Foin ith men in
buildin+ these ne nations5 >or example, at the
be+innin+ o) the #'10s, omen o) Last 7)rican
countries, led by 6ar+aret "enyatta, met at
seminars to adopt strate+ies aimed at reachin+
their +oals5 2his as at a time hen the revived
)eminist movement in the !orth had not yet )ound
a distinct voice and he %e)inine Mysti2ue
3>riedan #'1%4,
#
2his section bene8ted +reatly )rom the contributions o) 6ar+aret /nyder and 6ary 2adesse 3#''545
the boo9 that some credit ith si+nalin+ the revival
o) )eminism and launchin+ the omen=s liberation
movement in !orthern countries, had not yet been
ritten5
Be)ore that time, in #'KB, Fust , years a)ter the
)ormation o) the <nited !ations, the Commission
on the /tatus o) Aomen 3C/A4 as established to
monitor <nited !ations activities on behal) o)
omen5 2o a lar+e extent, hoever, its eDorts ere
limited ithin the le+alistic context o) human
ri+hts5 By the #'50s and #'10s, omen o) these
nely independent countries be+an ta9in+ their
dele+ations to the <nited !ations 3thou+h in small
numbers4 and ere able to challen+e the le+alistic
a+enda o) C/A by raisin+ development0oriented
issues5
By #'B0, hen the0<nited !ations $eneral
7ssembly revieed the results o) the >irst
Development Decade o) the #'10s, three )actors
that ould eventually conver+e to )oster the
various approaches to omen=s development had
become evident-
It as )ound that the industriali?ation
strate+ies o) the #'10s had been ineDective
and had, in )act, orsened the lives o) the
poor and the omen in 2hird Aorld
countries5 2he /econd Development Decade
as there)ore desi+ned to address this and
@brin+ about sustainable@ improvement in
the ell0bein+ o) individuals and besto
bene8ts on all5
Lvidence as brou+ht )orard in Lster
Boserup=s 3#'B04 no classic $o)en0s Role
in Econo)ic !e(elop)ent5 Boserup, an
a+ricultural economist, used research data
)rom 7)rica, 7sia, the Caribbean, and *atin
7merica to hi+hli+ht omen=s central
positions in the economic li)e o) these
societies, and she described the disruptive
eDects o) colonialism and moderni?ation on
the sexual division o) labour throu+h the
introduction o) the international mar9et
economy5 7mon+ other thin+s, this process
dre men aay )rom production based on
)amily labour and +ave them near0exclusive
access to economic and other resources5
Boserup concluded that the economic
survival and development o) the 2hird Aorld
ould depend heavily on eDorts to reverse
this trend and to more )ully inte+rate omen
into the development process5
2he )eminist movement reemer+ed in
Aestern countries around #'18, alon+side
other social movements )or civil ri+hts5
7lthou+h the movement=s ener+ies ere, )or
the most part, directed internally, some
Aestern omen used their position to
pressure their +overnment=s )orei+n0aid
oCces to ensure that +rants to recipient
countries supported omen as ell as men5
2he central point o) the ori+inal omen0and0
development approach as that both omen and
men must be li)ted )rom poverty and both omen
and men must contribute to and bene8t )rom
development eDorts5 6ar+aret /nyder and 6ary
2adesse, in their boo9, A/rican $o)en and
!e(elop)ent3 A 4istory, de8ned &o)en and
de(elop)ent as )ollos-
@Aomen and Development@ is an inclusive
term used throu+hout this boo9 to si+ni)y a
concept and a movement hose lon+0ran+e
+oal is the ell0bein+ o) society ; the
community o) men, omen and children5 Its
)ormulation is based on the )olloin+
suppositions-
@Development,@ in accordance ith the
International Development /trate+y )or the
/econd Development Decade, means @to
brin+ about sustained improvement in the
ell0bein+ o) the individual and to besto
bene8ts on all5@
Because omen comprise more than hal) o)
the human resources and are central to the
economic as ell as the social ell0bein+ o)
societies, development +oals cannot be )ully
reached ithout their participation5
Aomen and development is thus a holistic
concept herein the +oal o) one cannot be
achieved ithout the success o) the other5
Aomen, there)ore, must have @both the le+al
ri+ht and access to existin+ means )or the
improvement o) onesel) and o) society5@
; /nyder and 2adesse 3#''5, p5 14
International Aomen=s Gear as declared by the
<nited !ations in #'B5, and the celebration o) this
at the >irst International Aomen=s Con)erence in
6exico City mar9ed the +lobali?ation o) the
movement5 2his uni.ue inter+overnmental
con)erence and the non+overnmental International
Aomen=s 2ribune Centre 32A2C4, a netor9in+ and
communications institution, brou+ht to+ether
omen )rom nearly all countries o) the orld under
the theme L.uality, Development and Peace and
extended its or9 durin+ the <nited !ations
Decade )or Aomen, #'B10855 2his spar9ed the
creation o) institutions and netor9s orld0ide as
@omen and development@ became an area o)
speciali?ation in the development 8eld5
2he <nited !ations Moluntary >und )or Aomen
3later called the <nited !ations Development >und
)or Aomen4 and the International 2rainin+ and
Research Centre )or Aomen ere soon established
ithin the <nited !ations system5 IA2C and the
Aomen=s Aorld Ban9, a loan0+uaranteein+
or+ani?ation, came into existence as !$Os5 7t the
national level, @national machineries@ ;
commissions on omen, omen=s des9s, and
omen=s bureaus ; ere soon established in most
countries5 !e omen=s or+ani?ations and
netor9s spran+ up at the community and national
levels5 2hese contributed to the institutionali?ation
o) omen and development as an internationally
reco+ni?ed set o) concepts and did much to
+enerali?e 9noled+e and consciousness about
omen=s issues internationally5
E/ercise $
National machineries for women
Misit the national machinery )or omen=s aDairs in your country5 It may be a omen=s des9, a omen=s bureau, or a
ministry o) omen=s aDairs5 Arite a short history o) its emer+ence and analy?e its interpretation o) the term
de(elop)ent5
!h" gender#
2he concern ith +ender emer+ed as )eminist
theorists sou+ht to understand the complexities o)
omen=s subordination5 2he ord .ender came
into mainly academic use some #5 years a)ter the
reemer+ence o) late0,0th0century )eminism, hich
has, unli9e its earlier mani)estations, made a
si+ni8cant dent in male0dominated ?androcentric@
scholarship 3at least, I li9e to thin9 so45
>eminist scholars ar+ued that the Aestern
academic tradition, o) hich most universities and
colle+es in the orld are part, has systematically
i+nored the experiences o) omen in its 8elds o)
learnin+, concepts, theories, and research
methods5 7dditionally, althou+h claimin+ to be
scienti8c, it has really embodied mythical
assumptions about omen=s and men=s
capabilities, the sexual division o) labour in early
human history, and, as a result, omen=s place in
today=s society5 2hese assumptions ere extended
to non0Aestern societies, ith the result that
Aestern assumptions and values inEuenced
relations beteen the sexes and beteen +roups
ithin each sex, relations that ran+ed )rom
e+alitarian to hi+hly patriarchal and strati8ed5
2he ord .ender, li9e de(elop)ent, had a speci8c
usa+e be)ore )eminist theorists extended its
meanin+5 One o) the earliest uses o) .ender in
)eminist theory can be traced to the #'B1
<niversity o) /ussex Aor9shop on the
/ubordination o) Aomen and the school o) thou+ht
that emer+ed )rom this or9shop5 /cholars such as
Olivia &arris, 6aureen 6ac9intosh, >elicity Odium,
7nn Ahitehead, and "ate Goun+ ar+ued that
omen, li9e men, are biolo+ical bein+s but that
omen=s subordination as socially constructed
and not biolo+ically determined5 2hey ar+ued
)urther that to conceptually diDerentiate beteen
these to realities, it is necessary to identi)y @sex@
as the biolo+ical diDerentiation beteen male and
)emale, and @+ender@ as the diDerentiation
beteen masculinity and )emininity as constructed
throu+h sociali?ation and education, amon+ other
)actors5 Ahat is biolo+ical is 8xed and
unchan+eable, but hat is social is subFect to
chan+e and should be the )ocus o) attention )or
)eminist theorists5
In its more recent use, as you ill see in Chapter %,
.ender has come to be used, li9e class and
ethnicity or race, to desi+nate an analytical social
cate+ory, one that interacts ith other social
)actors in inEuencin+ li)e experiences o) +roups
and individuals 3see Box %45
7o/ %
The social relations of gender
>irstly, hat is +enderN It is somehat ironic that the term @+ender,@ hich as 8rst coined by psycholo+ists and then used by )eminists to
+et aay )rom the biolo+istic re)erent o) the ord sex, is no virtually synonymous ith the latter ord5 Get by usin+ +ender e are usin+
a shorthand term hich encodes a very crucial point- that our basic social identities as men and omen are socially constructed rather
than based on 8xed biolo+ical characteristics5 In this sense e can tal9 about societies in hich there are more than to +enders 3and in
the anthropolo+ical record there are several such societies4, as ell as the historical diDerences in masculinity 3)emininity4 in a +iven
society5
/ince that time this concept has +ained
idespread acceptance in a ran+e o) +roups and
o)ten )or diDerent reasons5 /ome o) these reasons
are as )ollos-
2he need to include men in our analysis-
2hose ho orried that omen=s studies
scholarship )ocused too narroly and
separately on omen used the term 555 to
introduce a relational notion into our analytic
vocabulary5
; /cott 3#'8', p5 #14
2o +ain academic acceptance-
In its simplest recent usa+e, @+ender@ is a
synonym )or @omen5@ 7ny number o) boo9s
and articles hose subFect is omen=s
history have in the past )e years
substituted @+ender@ )or @omen@ in their
titles5 In some cases this usa+e 555 is about
political acceptability hi the 8eld5 In these
instances, the use o) @+ender@ is meant to
denote scholarly seriousness o) a or9, )or
@+ender@ has a more neutral and obFective
sound than does @omen5@
; /cott 3#'8', p5 #14
Recently, the phrase @omen in development@
3AID4 is also bein+ replaced in some circles by
@+ender and development@ 3$7D4 or @+ender
concerns in development@ 3$CID4 2he details o)
these approaches ill be dealt ith in more
explicitly in Chapter %5
2oday, hoever, to types o) criti.ues have
emer+ed in relation to the concept o) +ender5 One
o) these comes )rom a movement perspective5 7s
noted by Hoan A5 /cott, +ender has become a
use)ul and almost inescapable concept in omen=s
studies and )eminist theory 3/cott #'8'45 6any
people in the omen=s movement )ear, hoever,
that this is leadin+ to a situation in hich omen
are once more invisible5 2hey note that the 8elds o)
AID, $7D, $CID, )eminist theory, and omen=s
studies all oe their ori+ins to the omen=s
movement and the stru++les o) omen in the
streets, tons, villa+es, and academies5 Get, today,
ith the +roin+ acceptance o) academic omen=s
studies and +ender specialists, the concern ith
the day0to0day problems and stru++les o) omen
and the movement is bein+ mar+inali?ed and,
indeed, no lon+er even ac9noled+ed5
2he other criti.ue comes )rom a theoretical
perspective5 It is no bein+ )ound that
2he divisions beteen male and )emale are
not as 8xed and clear cut as once thou+ht ;
the male0)emale dichotomy is seen as bein+
Fust as problematic as other dichotomies in
Aestern thou+htJ and
It is not so simple to extricate hat is @sex@
)rom hat is @+ender,@ as these to
phenomena, as described, intertine5
7lthou+h the concept o) +ender can never
substitute )or that o) oman, it has added to our
understandin+ o) the complexities o) human social
relations in numerous ays5 Clearly, it is a concept
that is here to stay5
Gender and societ" 1efore the
development era
It is important that e recall the richness o) the
history o) most developin+ countries be)ore
colonialism and the era o) development5 It is also
important )or us to understand the nature o) social
relations in the earlier periods o) that history5 7s I
noted earlier, the 2hird Aorld, or the /outh, really
comprises most o) the orld5 It is a mista9e to
spea9 o) this vast and varied area as i) it ere all
the same5
<ntil recently, most o) our history o) this re+ion
as androcentric5 It )ocused on the period a)ter the
encounter ith Aestern Lurope and emphasi?ed
male action or a+ency5 In addition, it as o)ten 8rst
ritten in Aestern lan+ua+es by Aestern male
scholars ho, ith )e exceptions, ere
Lurocentric and intolerant o) the people they
studied5 7s a result, our historical records are laced
ith racism, sexism, and imperialist sentiments5
2he )olloin+ #Bth0century Luropean male=s
description o) matrilineality in Aest 7)rica is a clear
example-
2he Ri+ht o) Inheritance is very oddly
adFustedJ as )ar as I could observe, the
Brother=s and /ister=s Children are the ri+ht
and la)ul &eirs, in the manner )olloin+5
2hey do not Fointly inherit, but the eldest /on
o) his 6other is &eir to his 6other=s Brother or
her /on, as the eldest Dau+hter is &eiress o)
her 6other=s /ister or her Dau+hter- neither
the >ather him0sel) or his Relations as
Brothers, /isters etc5 have any claim to the
$oods o) the De)unct, )or hat Reason they
can=t tell- But I am o) the Opinion that this
Custom as introduc=d on account o) the
Ahoredom o) the Aomen, herein )olloin+ the
custom o) some Last0Indian "in+s ho 3as
7uthors >ay4 educate their /ister=s /on as
their on, and appoint him to succeed in the
2hrone, because they are more sure that their
/ister=s /on is o) their Blood than they can be
o) their on 5sic65
; Bosman 3#'1B, p5 ,0%4
7lthou+h development theorists paid little
attention to the complexities o) these societies
be)ore the era o) development, social
anthropolo+ists did5 &oever, they also too9 ith
them androcentric and ethnocentric biases that
clouded their vie o) these societies and o) +ender
relations in these societies5
In the heyday o) 2hird Aorld nationalism, in the
#'10s and #'B0s, indi+enous historians sou+ht to
correct this ron+5 6ost o) these historians ere
male or trained in the androcentric orldvie, so
9noled+e o) omen=s experiences in precolonial
society continued to be hidden5 2o counteract
centuries o) hat Peter Aorsley 3#'B04 called
@imperialist history,@ nationalist historians o)ten
distorted this history to hi+hli+ht a +reat and
+lorious past, stressin+ the 9in+s and .ueens,
ealth and empire5 In so doin+, they o)ten i+nored
the traditional egalitarianism o) many precolonial
societies, in hich omen had +reater poer and
autonomy and li)e as more in tune ith nature
and the environment, not based on its destruction5
2oday, as )eminist activists and other concerned
scholars reevaluate development and
moderni?ation, there is a reneed appreciation o)
the positive )eatures o) the ays o) li)e in earlier
societies, althou+h e reali?e the limitations o)
those times5 Ae also understand the need to
preserve and protect the e+alitarian and
environmentally )riendly practices that have
survived in our societies and have been adapted to
serve people=s needs, o)ten outside mainstream
political and economic structures5
E/ercise %
!omen-s knowledge
Collect examples o) omen=s 9noled+e o) medicine and healin+ and the ays in hich these have been passed on )rom one
+eneration to another5
Gender relations and social change
/ince the late #8th century, social scientists have
sou+ht to develop a schema to explain the variety
and diDerences in human experience5 Larly
evolutionists incorporated the notion o) pro+ress-
human development movin+ )rom primitive,
bac9ard )orms to advanced and developed ones5
>unctionalist anthropolo+ists in the mid0,0th
century concentrated on seein+ each society as an
inte+rated hole5 2hey could not help interpretin+
hat they observed throu+h their biased
perspectives and basin+ conclusions on their
customary assumptions5
2oday, althou+h critical scholars no lon+er attribute
value to societies in terms o) pro+ress or
bac9ardness, they do reco+ni?e that precolonial
societies may have been at diDerent sta+es o)
social development5 2hese sta+es are usually
described in relation to the production systems
that predominated at the time5 *i9e all schemas,
hoever, these descriptions provide only a partial
understandin+5 6ost societies cannot be neatly
classi8ed in one cate+ory or another5 6any sho
si+ns o) bein+ at more than one @sta+e5@ In
addition, it must be stressed that all societies do
not necessarily pass throu+h all the reco+ni?ed
sta+es5
/ome anthropolo+ists totally reFect any theory o)
sta+es o) social development because o) their lin9s
to the notions o) moderni?ation and pro+ress5 2hey
ar+ue, instead, )or a nonsta+e approach that
examines each society on its on terms and sees
movement 3social chan+e4 ta9in+ place in any
direction5 2ransitions )rom one sta+e to another, i)
these are thou+ht to occur at all, are there)ore the
result o) many )actors that anthropolo+ists are still
explorin+, includin+ a society=s environment and its
historical relationships ith other +roups5 2he
sta+es are usually identi8ed as )ollos-
&
unter0+atherer or )ora+in+ societies
&
orticultural societies
6atrilineal descent
Patrilineal descent
7
+ricultural or a+rarian societies
P
astoral or herdin+ societies
I
ndustrial societies
M
arious combinations o) the above
>eminist anthropolo+ists have also ar+ued that the
or+ani?ation o) social and prod2ction relations
A such as social stratiBcation, the mono+amous
)amily, onership o) property, and )orms o) or9
and production ; has +reatly inEuenced the
diDerences in +ender relations around the orld5
In some instances, as discussed earlier, societies
ere extremely strati8ed patriarchies be)ore the
arrival o) Luropean coloni?ers5 2his as sometimes
the result o) domination by other patriarchal and
hi+hly strati8ed +roups or an existin+ system o)
social strati8cation5 In many other instances,
hoever, this as not the case, especially in
matrilineal societies, as shon in >atima 6ernissi=s
description o) 6orocco be)ore its Islami?ation-
2he panorama o) )emale sexual ri+hts in pre0
Islamic culture reveals that omen=s sexuality
as not bound by the concept o) le+itimacy5
Children belon+ed to their mother=s tribe5
Aomen had sexual )reedom to enter into and
brea9 oD unions ith more than one man,
either simultaneously or successively5 7
oman could either reserve hersel) to one
man at a time, on a more or less temporary
basis, as in a )ut0a marria+e, or she could be
visited by many husbands at diDerent times
henever their nomadic tribe or trade
caravan came throu+h the oman=s ton or
campin+ +round5 2he husband ould come
and +oJ the main unit as the mother and
child ith an entoura+e o) 9in)ol95
; 6ermssi #'8B, p5 B84
In all situations, omen had been able to create
spaces and possibilities )or autonomy ithin the
structures o) subordination existin+ in their
societies 3see Case /tudies #0K45 &oever, these
strate+ies ere complicated or removed by the
imposition o) assumptions about a oman=s or
man=s place in the ne systems o) strati8cation
that ere based on notions o) class and racial or
ethnic superiority5
Case St2d"
The 7ari of Col2m1ia
Llisa Buenaventura0Posso and /usan L5 Bron, in
their study o) the Bari, an indi+enous people o)
Columbia, traced the Bari=s historical bac9+round
and described their society as @)ully e+alitarian,@ a
society ithout strati8cation, diDerential access to
resources, or accumulation o) ealthJ exhibitin+
)ull sexual symmetry and individual autonomyJ and
valuin+ each person=s or9 as socially e.ual5
Buenaventura0Posso and Bron 3#'B14 made their
assessment throu+h analyses o) the processes o)
leadership, strati8cation, decision0ma9in+, division
o) labour, ritual, interpersonal relationships, and
+eneral social atmosphere5
2he )erocity ith hich the Bari resisted usurpation
arid extinction by poer)ul external )orces )or K00
years contrasts sharply ith their harmonious,
classless, internal social or+ani?ation and very hi+h
re+ard )or peace5 In #BB,, a colonial envoy noted
that @they do not live subFect to anyone=s
domination 555 SbutT in )raternal union, ma9in+
decisions by unanimous a+reement5@
2o hundred years later, a visitin+ Capuchin mon9
made similar observations, addin+ that @there are
no privile+ed classes 555 everyone is e.ual and )or
everyone exist the same opportunities5 2he head o)
the +roup cannot be called a chie)555 but555 primus
inter pares5 Lveryone enFoys absolute )reedom
ithin 555 re.uired norms5@ Buenaventura0Posso and
Bron concurred and explained that sanctions )or
inappropriate behaviour amon+ the Bari come
throu+h social0control mechanisms such as +roup
pressure and public opinion5 2here are special
positions o) responsibility, hich may be chan+ed,
but they do not carry even temporary authority5
2he Bari are )orest horticulturists ho live in
autonomous +roups o) K0080, occupyin+ to or
more dellin+s several days= travel apart )rom one
another5 &ouse members belon+ to three +roups,
named a)ter the positions o) their hearths ; east,
est, and centre ; and the people in these +roups
coo9 and share )ood to+ether5 Lach +roup has its
on hearth, and each individual has his or her on
space5 Order is maintained, collective activities are
per)ormed, and each individual has a reco+ni?ed
place5 !o one has more access to strate+ic
resources, authority, or 9noled+e than any other
person5
2he or+ani?ation and division o) labour beteen
the sexes and amon+ children are practical,
Eexible, and complementary, ith little prohibition
a+ainst interchan+e5 7lthou+h a )e tas9s are
restricted, many are communal or, li9e house0
buildin+, per)ormed by both sexes5 Inter0
dependence is hi+h, and conse.uently there are no
resultin+ hierarchies, social divisions, or
anta+onisms beteen the sexes5
2he Bari=s )e rituals and ceremonies display )ull
sexual symmetry5 2hese rituals and ceremonies
help each +roup maintain alliances ith other
+roups5 Both men and omen can invite +uests o)
the same sex, exchan+e +i)ts, and sin+ son+s
about their respective activities over days or
ee9s5 /exual independence is maintained be)ore
and a)ter marria+e5 <nions are +enerally stable but
are dissolved ithout a )uss hen they are not5
Interpersonal relations are shaped by complex,
subtle connections, pacts, alliances, and 9inships
amon+ the separate, autonomous +roups5 7ll Bari
are either o7ibara 3ally4 or sadodi 39in4 to one
another, and sa.do7i-ok7ibara is the lin9in+
principle, promotin+ order and ta9in+ the place o)
+enealo+ical descent5 *i9e earlier observers,
Buenaventura0Posso and Bron noted the
harmonious, e+alitarian, and +entle relations
beteen man and oman, as ell as in the +eneral
social atmosphere5
/ource- Buenaventura0Posso and Bron 3#''04
Case St2d" $
The Na"ar of so2th (ndia
/tudies considerin+ +ender he+emonies )rom
medieval times to the early postcolonial period in
south India indicate that ithin the strictures o)
caste, class, and +ender strati8cations, !ayar
matrilineal social structure vested leadership and
poer in the male and alloed various de+rees o)
autonomy to omen5
"alpana "annabiran, in her thesis, @2emple Aomen
in /outh India- 7 /tudy in Political Lconomy and
/ocial &istory@, su++ested that the matrilinearity o)
the &indu !ayar caste may hin+e, in a sense, on
the patrilineal structure o) their close, but superior,
caste Brahmin nei+hbours, the !ambudiri
3"annabiran #'',45
Paul 2homas= 3#'1K4 observations on the !ayar o)
"erala in south India in +ndian $o)en hrou.h the
A.es, )rom his research durin+ the early #'50s, are
remar9ably similar to those o) Robin HeDrey 3#''%4
in her Politics, $o)en and $ell-Bein.5
"erala has a caste0based society and an
a+ricultural economy ith a per capita income ell
belo the national avera+e5 Get, other statistics
indicate hi+her standards o) livin+ in most vital
aspects than )ound in the rest o) the country- birth
rates and in)ant mortality rates are loerJ li)e
expectancy is lon+erJ and education and literacy
levels are hi+her5 2he 8+ures are particularly
stri9in+ )or omen 3ho live lon+er in "erala4, and
explanations have been sou+ht in the social history
and development o) the people o) the re+ion5
2he !ayar constitute a numerous )ourth0level
martial &indu caste in "erala, south India5 <ntil the
middle o) this century, their social system as
matrilineal5 2heirs as a humane system in hich
the eldest male mana+ed the )amily aDairs but
descent as traced throu+h the )emale line )rom a
)emale ancestor5 Properties ere Fointly oned by
)amilies in the name o) the senior )emale5 7 oman
as )ree to move about the locality and had a say
in choosin+ her on husband5
2he !ayar marria+e ceremony, #a)banda),
comprised a sin+le reception and the presentation
o) a +i)t o) cloth )rom the bride+room to the bride5
7lthou+h liaisons did not have to be permanent,
there as considerable constancy5 Divorce as
easy, remarria+e as common, and polyandry
almost certainly occurred5 Aomen and their
children ere the responsibility o) the maternal
)amily, hose surname they retained5 >ree )rom
tyrannical husbands, child marria+e, sati, and
purdah, omen ere autonomous, sel)0reliant,
independent, and able to mana+e men and aDairs
)ar better than other omen in similar situations
elsehere in India5 2hey never, hoever, had )ull
e.uality ith men5
!ayar men ere soldiers and supervisors )or the
hi+hest level &indu Brahmin !ambudiri caste5 Its
men ; li9e those o) the second0level "shatriya
caste ; had access to !ayar omen throu+h
#a)banda) marria+e5 !ayar omen ere
responsible )or )amily domestic aDairs and child0
rearin+5 !ayar social or+ani?ation alloed the
omen considerable sexual )reedom and material
and social security5
Aith British coloni?ation, hoever, persistent
pressure, includin+ +overnment le+islation,
chan+ed much o) the matrilineal system5
Conse.uently, althou+h !ayar omen have
enFoyed hi+her levels o) autonomy and .uality o)
li)e than other omen in e.uivalent positions
elsehere in India, they have relatively less
personal )reedom and social security, today, than
their )emale ancestors5
/ource- 2homas 3#'1K4, "annabiran 3#'',4, and
HeDrey 3#''%4
Case St2d" %
The Tiwi women of north A2stralia
In a case study o) the contemporary social li)e o)
the 2ii o) 6elville Island, north 7ustralia, 65 "ay
6artin and Barbara Moorhies su++ested that the
social or+ani?ation o) these hunters and +atherers
has a dual structure- hereas inheritance and clan
membership are patrilineal, )amilies )re.uently
reside in their maternal camps, ith a man o)ten
marryin+ several dau+hters o) one mother, thus
ma9in+ matrilineal aCliation important to both
men and omen 36artin and Moorhies #'B545
2o compare male and )emale anthropolo+ical
perspectives on 7bori+inal omen, Ruby Rohrlich0
*eavitt, Barbara /y9es, and Lli?abeth Aeather)ord
surveyed various studies, includin+ some on the
2ii o) 7ustralia, and concluded that 2ii omen
enFoy partnership ith men and the same ri+hts,
sel)0respect, and di+nity 3Rohrlich0*eavitt et al5
#'B545 7lthou+h men are the social and political
leaders in 2ii society, omen play a crucial role in
their community=s economic survival5 2hey )ora+e
and hunt small +ame to provide most, sometimes
all, o) the )amily )ood supply, and they carry much
o) the load hen their nomadic bands travel5 2he
community )ully reco+ni?es the importance o)
omen=s contribution and their commensurate
participation in other institutions5
2ii society re.uires that all omen past the a+e o)
puberty marry and that husband and i)e enter
into real economic cooperation5 Both sexes +o on
Foint huntin+ and 8shin+ excursions5 2he tools the
omen ma9e and use satis)y most o) the essential
needs o) the +roup5 Because o) their economic
contribution, omen are respected and assured o)
Fust and +ood treatment5 2here is no simple
division o) labour by sex5 Both men and omen
practice huntin+ and +atherin+5 *and resources,
both plant and animal, are associated ith omen,
hereas air and sea resources are associated ith
men5 &oever, men hunt lar+er animals, such as
the allaby, hich re.uires particular stren+th,
speed, and close0ran+e dexterity ith spears5
Aomen have the ri+ht to on property and to
trade some o) their handior95 7mon+ themselves,
they also hold corroborrees8 secret ritual )estivals
and symbolic dances ; that help uni)y them and
+ive them, as the men=s rituals +ive them,
opportunities )or drama, recreation, and emotional
security5 *i9e the men, the omen practice sorcery
a+ainst undependable partners5
Goun+ people o) both sexes have casual premarital
aDairs, but )ull sexual intercourse is not sanctioned
be)ore puberty5 Ahen a +irl +ets pre+nant, her
betrothed becomes the child=s social )ather5
<sually, a betrothed be+ins to stay at the +irl=s
parents= camp be)ore puberty so that they ill +et
to 9no each other by the time she +oes to live in
his territory5
2he men 3)athers, brothers, and prospective
husband4 ma9e the marria+e arran+ements, but
the +irl=s mother plays a part in the ne+otiations5 7
man remains indebted all his li)e to his mother0in0
la, ho alone may void the contract i) she is
dissatis8ed ith the +i)ts he provides her5
Poly+amy is practiced, and men try to ac.uire as
many ives as they can5 $irls are usually much
youn+er than their 8rst husbands, but older idos
o)ten choose youn+er men5 /ome0times they a+ree
to exchan+e sons5 Both men and omen o)ten
have several spouses over a li)etime5 Aives are
economic assets to a man, as they can )ree him
)rom subsistence activity, enablin+ him to pursue
the public and ceremonial aDairs that brin+ him
poer and presti+e in the community5
/tron+ bonds o) special aDection and respect are
reco+ni?ed beteen omen and their biolo+ical
children, ho have close ties ith their mother=s
+roup5 Aomen share in the +i)ts +iven hen their
sons are initiated5 2hey visit and exchan+e +i)ts
ith their married dau+hters, and both sons and
dau+hters care )or their mother hen she is old5
Both omen and men have a deeply rooted belie)
in the totemic ancestors, and the e+alitarian
relationships beteen the sexes are reEected in
the myths that depict both sexes as existin+
to+ether )rom the 8rst5 In their creation myth, the
creator deity is )emale, as are the deities o) the sun
and the 6il9y Aay5
Aith increasin+ a+e, omen become more
assertive and ield more poer and authority5
2hey have tremendous inEuence throu+h their
mature sons5 Older omen teach the youn+er ones
economic s9ills, preside over omen=s rites and
secret corroborrees, and settle disputes5 *i9e their
male counterparts, they are the +uardians o)
myths and are responsible )or passin+ on tribal la
and custom5 7s such, they support the stability and
continuity o) tribal li)e5
/ource- &art and Pillin+ 3#'104, 6artin and
Moorhies 3#'B54, and
Rohrlich0*eavitt et al5 3#'B54
Case St2d" '
The Nile 6alle" civili;ation
he Ci(ili9ation o/ Ancient E.ypt, Paul Hohnson=s
3#'B84 study o) !ile Malley civili?ation )rom
neolithic times, cites the )undamental
characteristics o) the orld=s 8rst hi+hly strati8ed
nation0state as stability, permanence, and
isolationJ and the essence o) its culture as maFesty
and sel)0con8dence5 /tate, reli+ion, culture, and
land )ormed a creative unity lastin+ three
millennia, until the Christian eraJ it as a
civili?ation circumscribed by the desert and
dominated by the +reat river !ile5
7s L+ypt=s only 3and very dependable4 source o)
ater, the !ile provided the valley ith reliable
alluvial deposits, )ertility, and a transportation
route5 It enabled the very early hunter nomads o)
the valley to trans)orm themselves into )armers
and herders, and their exploitation o) the !ile
alloed them to develop a sound a+ricultural
economy5
7ncient L+ypt=s social or+ani?ation as patriarchal
and included a system o) social strati8cation5
7lthou+h inheritance came throu+h the maternal
line, men mana+ed their )amilies and occupied all
positions o) leadership5 2he sexual division o)
labour did not allo omen to ta9e part in trade or
expeditions or become secular oCcials5
!evertheless, omen ere aDorded hi+h status in
ancient L+yptian society, and a child=s status as
determined by that o) its mother5
Outside the domestic sphere, omen could
become temple dancers, sin+ers, attendants, or
hi+h0ran9in+ priestesses5 Peasant omen or9ed
in the 8elds, dre ater, and sometimes herded
livestoc95 Pictorial evidence also shos that
omen occupied positions o) authority ;
responsible positions, such mana+eress o) a dinin+
hall, superintendent o) a or9shop o) eavers,
head o) a i+ or9shop, or conductor o) the
sin+ers o) the royal harem5
&ealth care )or omen as important5
$ynaecolo+y as very advanced5 Aomen )rom
ealthy )amilies enFoyed ide property ri+hts and
could on slaves, servants, houses, and landJ they
retained these ri+hts hen they married5 Aomen
could inherit their )ather=s and husband=s estates
and could adopt children5 L+yptians ere
particularly )ond o) children and displayed their
aDection .uite openly5 In this poly+amous society,
men ere encoura+ed to be considerate and
)aith)ul to their ives5 <n)aith)ul ives, hoever,
ere put to death ith their lovers5 7uspicious
days )or lovema9in+ beteen husband and i)e
ere determined by the astrolo+er5
7mon+ the royalty, rulership as a male
prero+ative but +ained throu+h a )emale line5
"in+ship passed to the husband o) the )ormer
9in+=s eldest dau+hter or to the husband o) the
)ormer 9in+=s 8rst dau+hter ith his )avourite
senior i)e5 7lthou+h omen ere )orbidden by
la )rom becomin+ a rulin+ .ueen, some omen,
li9e Queen &atshepsut, did in )act rule, and these
omen intri+ued to have their dau+hters succeed
them5 2he poer o) L+ypt# s theocratic monarchy
as thus not entirely absolute, but there as little
)reedom to act a+ainst the la5 Get, the state=s
remar9able stability and order encoura+ed
tremendous development in a+riculture, the arts,
and science5 Lventually, hen L+ypt=s retreat into
the re+ulated collectivism o) its past proved
ineDective a+ainst persistent external invasion, the
country as overta9en, and ne people ith ne
reli+ions and lan+ua+es replaced its ancient
civili?ation5
/ource- Hohnson 3#'B84 and 6o9htar 3#''04
Concl2sion
2his chapter su++ests that the sexual division o)
labour in our society, today, may not be as 8xed as
e thin95 It su++ests that the subordination o)
omen and and the dominance o) men are neither
natural nor eternal5 7 chan+e toard a more
e+alitarian society is possible, a chan+e that could
)ul8ll the potentials o) all human bein+s ; omen
and men5
2his chapter also recommends that to chan+e
these diCcult relations beteen omen and men,
e have to examine and challen+e the systems o)
ine+alitarianism and subordination in our on
countries and throu+hout the orld- these could be
based on race or ethnicit", colour, class, a+e,
sexual orientation, or nationality5 In addition, e
need to consider the or+ani?ation o) or9 and the
eDects o) modern li)e and or9 on the
environment5
2he chapters that )ollo explore some o) these
issues in depth and introduce you to some o) the
theories and approaches developed to more )ully
understand the issues o) +ender and development5
*eferences
Bhasin, "5 S#''%T5 /ome thou+hts on
development and sustainable development5
Aomen in 7ction, #, #00#85
Blac9den, 65 #''%5 Paradi+m postponed-
+ender and economic adFustment in sub0
/aharan 7)rica5 &uman Resources and Poverty
Division, Aorld Ban9, Aashin+ton, DC, </75
7>2&R 2echnical !ote #%5
Boserup, L5 #'B05 Aomen=s role in economic
development5 7llen U <nin, *ondon, <"5
Bosman, A5 #'1B5 7 ne and accurate
description o) the coast o) $uinea5 >ran9 Cass
U Co5 *td, *ondon, <"5
Brandt, A5 #'805 !orth0/outh5 7 pro+ram )or
survival5 Report o) the Independent
Commission on International Development
Issues5 622 Press, Boston, 67, </75
Broo9s, D5 #''05 Beyond catch phrases- hat
does sustainable development really mean5
International Development Research Centre,
Ottaa O!, Canada5
Buenaventura0Posso, L5J Bron, /5L5 #'805
>orced transition )rom e+alitarianism to male
dominance- the Bari o) Columbia5 +n Ltienne
65J *eacoc9, L5, ed5, Aomen and coloni?ation5
Prae+er Publishers, !e Gor9, !G, </75
Dube, /5C5 #'885 6oderni?ation and
development- the search )or alternative
paradi+ms5 Ied Boo9s, *ondon, <"5
Ltienne, 65J *eacoc9, L5 #''05 Aomen and
coloni?ation- anthropolo+ical perspectives5
Prae+er Publishers, !e Gor9, !G, </75
>ontana5 #'885 >ontana dictionary o) modern
thou+ht5 &arperCollins Publishers, *ondon, <"5
>riedan, B5 #'1%5 2he )eminine mysti.ue5
!orton, !e Gor9, !G, </75
&art, C5A565J Pillin+, 75R5 #'105 2he 2ii o)
north 7ustralia5 &enry &olt and Company,
!e Gor9, !G, </75
&ulme, D5J 2urner, 65 #''05 /ociolo+y and
development- theories, policies and practices5
&arvester Aheatshea), &ert)ordshire, <"5
HeDrey, R5 #''%5 Politics, omen and ell0
bein+5 Ox)ord <niversity Press, !e Delhi,
India5
Hohnson, P5 #'B85 2he civili?ation o) ancient
L+ypt5 Boo9 Club 7ssociates, *ondon, <"5
"annabiran, "5 #'',5 2emple omen in south
India- a study in political economy and social
history5 Haaharlal !ehru <niversity, !e
Delhi, India5 PhD dissertation5
6artin, 65"5J Moorhies, B5 #'B55 >emale o) the
species5 Columbia <niversity, !e Gor9, !G,
</75
6ernissi, >5 #'8B5 Beyond the veil- male0
)emale dynamics hi Islamic society5 Indiana
<niversity Press, Bloomin+ton, I!, </7,
6o9htar, $5, ed5 #''05 $eneral history o)
7)rica D5- ancient civili?ations o) 7)rica
3abrid+ed ed545 <nited !ations Lducational,
/cienti8c and Cultural Or+ani?ation, Paris,
>rance5
Pantin, D5 #'8'5 Into the valley o) debt5
<niversity o) the Aest Indies, /t 7u+ustine,
2rinidad and 2oba+o5
Pen+uin5 #'BB5 Ln+lish dictionary 3,nd ed545
*ondon, <"5
Rohrlich0*eavitt, R5J /y9es, B5J Aeather)ord, L5
#'B55 7bori+inal omen- male and )emale
anthropolo+ical perspectives5 +n Reiter, R5, ed5,
2oard an anthropolo+y o) omen5 6onthly
Revie Press, !e Gor9, !G, </75 pp5 ##00#,15
/cott, H5A5 #'8'5 $ender- a use)ul cate+ory o)
historical analysis5 +n Rao, 75, ed5, Aomen=s
/tudies International- !airobi and beyond5 2he
>eminist Press at City <niversity o) !e Gor9,
!e Gor9, !G, </75
/hiva, M5 #'885 /tayin+ alive- omen ecolo+y
and development5 "ali )or Aomen, !e Delhi,
IndiaJ Ied Boo9s, *ondon, <"5
/nyder, 65J 2adesse, 65 #''55 7)rican omen
and development- a history5 Ied Boo9s,
*ondon, <"5
2homas, P5 #'1K5 Indian omen throu+h the
a+es5 7sia Publishin+ &ouse, Bombay, India5
ACLD 3Aorld Commission on Lnvironment
and Development45 #'8B5 Our common )uture5
Ox)ord <niversity Press, Ox)ord, <"5
Brandtland Commission report5 Aorsley, P5
#'B05 2he 2hird Aorld 3,nd ed545 2he
<niversity o) Chica+o Press, Chica+o, I*, </75
Goun+, "5 #'885 2he social relations o) +ender5
+n 6ohammed P5J /hepherd C5, ed5, $ender in
Caribbean development5 Aomen and
Development /tudies $roup, 6ona, Hamaica5
S2ggested reading
Brettel, C5J /ar+eant, C5 #''%5 $ender in
cross0cultural perspective5 Prentice0&all,
Ln+leood CliDs, !H, </75
Dic9enson, H5P5J Clar9e, C5$5J $ould, A525/5J
Prothero, R565J /iddle, D5H5J /mith, C525J
2homas0&ope, L565J &od+9iss, 75$5 #'8%5 7
+eo+raphy o) the 2hird Aorld5 6ethuen,
*ondon, <"5
Duley, 65J Ldards, 65 #'815 2he cross0
cultural study o) omen5 2he >eminist Press at
City <niversity o) !e Gor9, !e Gor9, !G,
</75
Ldholm, >5J &arris, O5J Goun+, "5 #'BB5
Conceptuali?in+ omen5 Criti.ue o)
7nthropolo+y, %3'0#04, #0#0#%05
$atens, 65 #'8%5 7 criti.ue o) sex:+ender
distinctions5 +n 7llen, H5J Patton, P5, ed5, Beyond
6arxismN Interventions a)ter 6arx5 7llen U
<nin, /ydney, 7ustralia5
&ardin+, /5 #'8'5 2he instability o) the
analytical cate+ories o) )eminism theory5 +n
6aison, 65J et al5, ed5, >eminist theory in
practice and process5 2he <niversity o)
Chica+o Press, Chica+o, I*, </75
&ill, P5 #'885 Development economics on trial-
the anthropolo+ical case )or the prosecution5
Cambrid+e <niversity Press, Cambrid+e, <"5
Hay "5/5, ed5 #'885 Retrievin+ omen=s history-
chan+in+ perspectives o) the role o) omen in
politics and society5 Ber+, Ox)ord, <"J <nited
!ations Lducational, /cienti8c and Cultural
Or+ani?ation, Paris, >rance5
Hoe9es, /5 #'8B5 Aomen in the orld economy5
International 2rainin+ and Research Centre )or
AomenJ Ox)ord <niversity Press, Ox)ord, <"5
"essler, /5J 6c"enna, A5 #'B85 $ender- an
ethnomethodolo+ical approach5 2he
<niversity o) Chica+o Press, Chica+o, I*, </75
*eacoc9, L5 #'8#5 6yths o) male dominance-
collected articles on omen cross0culturally5
6onthly Revie Press, !e Gor9, !G, </75
6alson, 65J O=Barr, H5J Aestphal0Aihl, /5J Ayer,
65 #'8'5 >eminist theory in practice and
process5 2he <niversity o) Chica+o Press,
Chica+o, I*, </75
6ies, 65 #'8,5 2he lace ma9ers o) !arsapur-
Indian houseives produce )or the orld
mar9et5 Ied Boo9s, *ondon, <"5
!ielsen, H565 #''05 /ex and +ender in society-
perspectives on strati8cation5 Aaveland Press,
Prospect &ei+hts, I*, </75
Pietila, &5J Mic9ers, H5 #''05 6a9in+ omen
matter- the role o) the <nited !ations5 Ied
Boo9s, *ondon, <"5
Rubin, $5 #'B55 2he traCc hi omen- notes on
the political economy o) sex5 +n Reiter, R5, ed5,
2oard an anthropolo+y o) omen, 6onthly
Revie Press, !e Gor9, !G, </75 pp5 #5B0,#05
/aid, L5 #'855 Orientalism5 Pen+uin Boo9s,
&armondsorth, <"5
/anday, P5 #'8#5 >emale poer and male
dominance- on the ori+ins o) sexual ine.uality5
Cambrid+e <niversity Press, Cambrid+e, <"5
/teady, >5, ed5 #'8#5 2he blac9 oman cross0
culturally5 /chen9man Publishin+ &ouse,
Rochester, M2, </75
<nited !ations5 #''#5 2he orld=s omen
#'B00#''0- trends and statistics5 <nited
!ations, !e Gor9, !G, </75
C8APTE* % FE.(N(S. AND
DE6E4OP.ENT& T8EO*ET(CA4
PE*SPECT(6ES
M. Patricia Connelly, Tania Murray Li, Martha
MacDonald, and Jane L. Parpart
(ntrod2ction
2his chapter explores the evolution o) theori?in+ on
+ender and development5 It introduces a number
o) )eminist theoretical )rameor9s and
development )rame0or9s and explains ho these
perspectives intersected to become to main
competin+ )eminist development )rameor9s-
omen in development 3AID4J and +ender and
development 3$7D45 2his chapter also examines
ho ne and excitin+ debates and criti.ues o)
glo1ali;ation, development, and )eminist
theori?in+ are chan+in+ the existin+ )rameor9s
and creatin+ ne ones5 2hese discussions hi+hli+ht
the importance o) theory in ho e understand
and act ithin our social orld5 2hey explain ho
these theoretical perspectives de8ne problems
diDerently and ho they su++est diDerent
solutions5
&ere are the obFectives o) this chapter-
2o explain the de8nition and use o)
theoretical )rameor9s and the importance
o) systematically thin9in+ about the social
orld to create social chan+eJ
2o explain the historical context )or the
emer+ence and evolution o) development
and )eminist )rameor9sJ
!B- 2he authors ould li9e to especially than9 Ludine Barriteau )or her maFor contribution to the
sections on blac9 )eminism and postmodernist )eminism as ell as the discussion in this chapter5 Ae
also ant to than9 other members o) the editorial team- Lli?abeth 6orris0&u+hes, Rhoda Reddoc9,
and 7nn Aal9er5 2he team met tice in !e Gor9 and provided insi+ht)ul comments on the entire
chapter5
2o concisely explain the emer+ence, main
ideas, .uestions raised )or research,
implications )or policy and action, 9ey
concepts, and relevant sources o) each o)
the development and )eminist )rameor9sJ
2o explain ho development and )eminist
)rameor9s intersect to become competin+
)eminist development )rameor9sJ and
2o explain ho debates and criti.ues
contribute to ma9in+ )rameor9s shi)t and
develop over time and lead to ne
)rameor9s5
2o accomplish these obFectives, this chapter has
the )olloin+ components-
!arrative discussion o) the historical context
o) theori?in+ about omen or +ender and
developmentJ
Outlines o) the development o) various
theoretical )rameor9sJ
Research .uestions and implications )or
policy and action, based on the outline o)
each )rameor9 3these are the 9inds o)
.uestions researchers, policyma9ers, and
practitioners or9in+ ithin that )rameor9
ould consider4J#
Lxcerpts )rom research done by a proponent
o) each )rameor9J and
Discussion .uestions about issues raised in
the excerpts, to +et you assessin+ and
thin9in+ critically about the )rameor9=s
ade.uacy and its relevance to your on
national context5
!hat is a theoretical framework#
>eminist theoretical )rameor9s and development
)rameor9s have inEuenced thin9in+ and policy5 7n
historical context is important to understandin+
development and )eminist thin9in+ and to
explainin+ hen and hy these )rameor9s
emer+e, ho they inEuence one another, and ho
they chan+e5
#
2hese outlines are not meant to be obFective or even critical observationsJ each )rame0or9 is
presented as i) it ere ritten by someone ho subscribes to its maFor tenets5
7 )rameor9 is a system o) ideas or conceptual
structures that help us @see@ the social orld,
understand it, explain it, and chan+e it5 7
)rameor9 +uides our thin9in+, research, and
action5 It provides us ith a systematic ay o)
examinin+ social issues and providin+
recommendations )or chan+e5
7 )rameor9 consists o) basic assumptions about
the nature o) the social orld and ho it or9s and
about the nature o) people and ho they act5 >or
example, some people assume that society is
basically harmonious and that harmony results
)rom a set o) shared values5 Others assume that
society is in conEict and that conEict is rooted in
class) race, and +ender stru++les over power and
access to and control over resources5
7 )rameor9 also indicates ho problems are
de8ned and the 9inds o) .uestions to be as9ed5 >or
example, accordin+ to one de8nition, ine.uality
results )rom the need to establish une.ual
incentives to motivate the most talented people to
do the most important Fobs eCciently in society5
7ccordin+ to another de8nition, it results )rom the
practice o) providin+ diDerential reards to 9eep a
less poer)ul or9in+ class )ra+mented by +ender
and race5
DiDerent )rameor9s also su++est diDerent
solutions to problems5 >or example, ineCciencies
in society can be ta9en care o) throu+h re)ormin+
or adFustin+ the status .uo in a +radual and
rational manner5 Or ine.ualities can be abolished
throu+h trans)ormin+ society to redistribute poer
and resources )airly5
Lach )rameor9 provides a set o) cate+ories or
concepts to be used in clari)yin+ a problem or
issue5 Concepts speci)y important aspects o) the
social orldJ they direct our attention5 >or
example, attention is directed to a 9ey issue by the
concept o) eCcienc" in the moderni?ation
)rameor9, class in a 6arxist )rame0or9, sexuality
in a radical0)eminist )rameor9, and reprod2ction
in a socialist0)eminist )rameor95
Ahy are there so many )rameor9sN Lach
)rameor9 represents an alternative ay o) loo9in+
at the social orld5 It is possible to hold diDerent
sets o) assumptions about the same aspects o)
social reality5 DiDerent assumptions lead people to
vie issues and problems diDerently5 >or example,
each development )rameor9 relies on its on
assumptions about the nature o) development and
ho and hy it does or does not occurJ each raises
its on .uestions and provides its on concepts )or
examinin+ the process o) developmentJ and each
su++ests its on strate+ies )or chan+e5
2he )eminist )rameor9s each rely on a uni.ue
assumption about the basis )or omen=s
subordinationJ each raises uni.ue .uestions and
provides uni.ue concepts )or examinin+ omen=s
ine.ualityJ and each su++ests .uite uni.ue
strate+ies )or chan+e5 >rameor9s do compete
ith each other, and some become dominant over
time5
2heoretical )rameor9s are dynamic and
continually evolve and chan+e, and this happens
)or a variety o) reasons-
People usin+ the )rameor9 may 8nd a ne
ay o) perceivin+ a problem, as a result o)
research 8ndin+sJ
2he )rameor9 may be revised to respond to
the users= criti.uesJ or
2he )rameor9 mi+ht chan+e as the
researchers, in response to criti.ues )rom
people usin+ other )rameor9s, rede8ne
hat the critics ere @really@ sayin+ and
incorporate that into their on )rameor95
In +eneral, it is diCcult to convince the adherents
o) a )rameor9 o) the validity o) another,
competin+ )rameor95 2his is somehat less true
o) )eminist theorists because they +enerally )eel
that )rameor9s are desi+ned to aid their
understandin+ o) omen=s subordination and
thereby end it5 /o they may be more open to vies
put )orard in many other theoretical )rameor9s5
In this chapter, e examine to competin+
development )rameor9s- moderni?ation and
dependency5 Ae also loo9 at seven )eminist
)rameor9s- liberal, 6arxist, radical, blac9,
socialist, postmodernist, and 2hird Aorld5 Ae
discuss ho development and )eminist )rameor9s
intersected to become the to main competin+
)eminist development )rameor9s, AID and $7D5
Ae also explore the excitin+ debates and criti.ues
that currently inEuence these )rameor9s and
could result in the emer+ence o) ne )rameor9s5
2he important point to remember is that
)rameor9s should be measured by their
use)ulness in buildin+ a better society5 Ae can all
contribute to ensurin+ that theoretical )rameor9s
reEect our interests and concerns5
8istorical conte/t of theori;ing a1o2t
women or gender and development
Research on omen0or +ender0and0development
issues re.uires a thorou+h understandin+ o) both
development and )eminist theoretical )rameor9s5
2heoretical )rameor9s )undamentally shape
research approaches and are there)ore an essential
underpinnin+ )or )eminist research5 2heory is not
isdomJ it is a set o) tools5 2heory should be
critici?ed and rede8ned in speci8c social contexts5
6ost )eminist and development theories have their
roots in the Aest and need to be tested and
rede8ned in other contexts5 &oever, one needs a
basic theoretical 9noled+e be)ore underta9in+ the
important process o) criti.ue and debate5
Chapter , noted that the history o) omen0or
+ender0and0development theory is interoven ith
the history o) policy interventions in developin+
countries and ith the history o) the omen=s
movement around the +lobe5 /ome o) these
activities ere explicitly in)ormed by theoretical
)rameor9s, hereas others ere more implicitly
+rounded in a orldvie5 2he experiences o)
policy0ma9ers and activists +ave rise to revised
theoretical )ormulations o) development and
)eminist concerns5 2he thin9in+ on these issues
and the operationali?ation o) policies over time
have dran on )eminist and development theories
and have contributed to the )urther development
and, sometimes, the inte+ration o) these theories5
6any individuals and or+ani?ations have or9ed
)or a very lon+ time to improve conditions )or
omen5 *ocal and international omen=s
or+ani?ations, such as the GAC7, have had a
len+thy presence in developin+ countries, as ell
as in the !orth5 2heir presence predates both the
concern ith development per se, hich
characteri?ed the postar period, and the ave o)
international )eminism o) the past .uarter century5
2hese +roups have been concerned at various
times ith meetin+ omen=s practical +ender
needs and their strate+ic +ender interests
36olyneux #'85J 6oser #'8'45 Practical +ender
needs relate to omen=s daily needs in carin+ )or
them0selves and their children, hereas strate+ic
+ender interests relate to the tas9 o) chan+in+
gender relations and challen+in+ omen=s
subordinate position5
Aomen=s or+ani?ations have or9ed )or social0
el)are causes, re)orm, and empoerment over
the last century in the /outh, Fust as they have in
the !orth5 7t times, they have espoused )eminist
causes but clothed them in el)are lan+ua+e5 In
the last ,5 years, the intertinin+ o) )eminist and
development concerns has +iven rise to a speci8c
plannin+ 8eld 36oser #''%45 7s e shall see,
alternatives have emer+ed in the conceptuali?ation
and operationali?ation o) development approaches
to omen5
The D%Es
7n historical approach to development is important
to understandin+ the evolution o) development
thin9in+ and policies5 Larly development initiatives,
hich had be+un to preoccupy economists and
colonial oCcials in the #'%0s, lar+ely i+nored
omen5 2hese approaches identi8ed development
ith moderni?ation and assumed the holesale
adoption o) Aestern technolo+y, institutions, and
belie)s5 Buttressed by their technical superiority,
Aestern development specialists de8ned
Aesterni?ation and moderni?ation as the same
thin+5 In this moderni?ation paradi+m, they posited
development as a linear process hereby
@bac9ard,@ tradition0bound peoples ould slou+h
oD their historic impediments and embrace modern
3that is, Aestern4 institutions, technolo+ies, and
values 3see @>rameor9 7- moderni?ation theory,@
under =2heoretical )rameor9s,@ later in this
chapter45 2he issue as not hether to )ollo this
route but ho to achieve this transition as .uic9ly
and thorou+hly as possible5
The D'Es and D+Es
Durin+ the #'K0s and #'50s, development
planners desi+ned proFects aimed to moderni?e
colonies all over the +lobe5 6any o) these proFects
)ailed, but this did little to undermine most
development experts= )aith in moderni?ation5 Ahen
colonial rule as sept aay by decoloni?ation,
be+innin+ ith India in the late #'K0s, the nely
independent +overnments hired many o) these
)ormer colonial development experts to help them
)ul8ll electoral promises, particularly the promise
that independence ould brin+ economic
development and prosperity )or all5 2he )ormulation
o) the moderni?ation paradi+m coincided ith the
emer+ence o) the <nited /tates as the he+emonic
poer o) the postar era5 2he <nited /tates
became the model )or countries pursuin+
moderni?ation5 </ dominance included intellectual
he+emony, hich as played out in scholarship,
policy0ma9in+, and research on developin+
countries5
The DFEs
Both 2hird Aorld leaders and Aestern development
specialists assumed that Aestern development
policies ould position )ra+ile 2hird Aorld
economies )or a <take>oG5< >e .uestioned
hether this prosperity ould extend e.ually to all
classes, races, and +ender +roups5 7s noted in
Chapter ,, Lster Boserup=s 3#'B04 $o)en0s Role in
Econo)ic !e(elop)ent investi+ated the impact o)
development proFects on 2hird Aorld omen5
Boserap discovered that most o) these proFects
i+nored omen and that many technolo+ically
sophisticated proFects undermined omen=s
economic opportunities and autonomy5 2rainin+ in
ne technolo+ies as usually oDered to men,
hich meant that most @modern@ proFects
improved male opportunities and technolo+ical
9noled+e but reduced omen=s access to both
technolo+y and employment5 Boserup=s study
seriously challen+ed the ar+ument that bene8ts
)rom development proFects ould automatically
@tric9le don@ to omen and other disadvanta+ed
+roups in 2hird Aorld nations5
Aomen involved ith development issues in the
<nited /tates lobbied to brin+ this evidence to the
attention o) </ policyma9ers5 2hese omen
challen+ed the assumption that moderni?ation
ould automatically increase +ender e.uality5 2hey
be+an to use the term &o)en in de(elop)ent 3see
@>eminist development theories- applyin+ A2D and
$7D@ later in this chapter4 in their eDorts to
inEuence the policies o) the <nited /tates 7+ency
)or International Development 3</7ID45 2heir
eDorts resulted in the Percy 7mendment in #'B%,
hich re.uired +ender0sensitive social0impact
studies )or all development proFects, ith the aim
o) helpin+ to inte+rate omen into the national
economies o) their countries5 2he emphasis on
eH2al opport2nit" )or omen came out o) liberal
)eminism 3see @>rameor9 C- liberal )eminism@45
ALD represents a mer+in+ o) moderni?ation and
liberal0)eminist theories5
"ey players in some donor a+encies tried to initiate
chan+es to encoura+e development planners to
rethin9 development policy and plannin+ ith
omen in mind5 2he Canadian, Dutch, and !ordic
donor a+encies made early advances in this 8eld5
>or the 8rst time, )eminist staD ere able to
or+ani?e to identi)y issues and a+endas5 /ome
a+encies created AID oCces, here ALD staD
or9ed to develop policies and trainin+ )or a+ency
staD5 $ains ere made, but resistance as
idespread5 2his limited the impact o) the ne
a+ency policies on proFect desi+n and
implementation5
A2D staD, alon+ ith the donor a+encies in
+eneral, continued to or9 ithin the
moderni?ation paradi+m5 2hat is, they assumed
that development as measured by the adoption
o) Aestern technolo+ies, institutions, and values5
2heir innovation as to be+in to as9 ho to include
omen in the development process5 2o enhance
omen=s access to development, these planners
called )or more accurate measurements o)
omen=s lived experiences 3that is, omen0
oriented statistics4 and )or improvements in
omen=s access to education, trainin+, property,
and credit and )or more and better employment5 2o
achieve these +oals, they maintained that omen
must be inte+rated into development proFects and
plans and have a say in policy desi+n and
implementation5 2hey ar+ued )urther that until this
happened, development policies ould continue to
undermine omen=s status in the 2hird Aorld5 2o
induce moderni?ation technocrats to pursue these
+oals, these experts promised that omen0
oriented policies ould enhance omen=s
eCciency and conse.uently enhance economic
development5
2he ALD approach, ith its determination to
inte+rate omen into development, sloly became
a concern o) many +overnments and donor
a+encies5 2he <nited !ations Decade )or Aomen
as launched in #'B5 ith the 6exico City
con)erence on the theme @L.uality, Development
and Peace5@ 2he Aorld Plan o) 7ction that emer+ed
)rom the con)erence and set the a+enda )or the
Decade )or Aomen established the +oal o)
inte+ratin+ omen into the development process
36oser #''%45 In conse.uence, many +overnments
set up oCces )or omen=s aDairs5 7s ell,
international aid a+encies, to prove their
commitment to omen=s advancement,
increasin+ly hired ALD experts5 2hese ere
si+ni8cant 8rst steps5
It is important to ac9noled+e that the AID
perspective has enhanced our understandin+ o)
omen=s development needs, particularly the need
to improve statistical measures o) omen=s or9
and to provide omen ith more opportunities )or
education and employment 3Overholt et al5 #'8K45
2he AID perspective has provided a chec9list )or
ensurin+ omen=s status in societies, a chec9list
that is both help)ul and accessible to development
technocrats5
&oever, the ALD approach has important
limitations that have tended to restrict its
trans)ormative capacity on many levels5 Because
this approach relies heavily on moderni?ation
theory, it +enerally assumes that Aestern
institutions hold most o) the ansers and it o)ten
i+nores the possible contribution o) indi+enous
9noled+e5 It also tends to see development as an
activity o) a +overnment0to0+overnment nature and
conse.uently +enerally re)rains )rom critici?in+
2hird Aorld +overnments5 It sees the state as a
solution, rather than a potential problem )or the
advancement o) omen,
Durin+ the course o) the decade, disappointments
arose hen national omen=s oCces 3initiated ith
much enthusiasm and o)ten .uite radical a+endas4
ere co0opted or )ound their roles and capacities
diminished throu+h inade.uate )undin+ and limited
political levera+e5 2hrou+hout this period, 2hird
Aorld )eminists tended to or9 independently o)
+overnment0sanctioned AID eDorts, or+ani?in+ at
the +rass0roots level on many issues o) concern to
omen and improvin+ communication amon+
omen5 2heir issues and tactics varied, but the
+oal as alays to support and stren+then omen,
sometimes )ocusin+ on practical needs but o)ten
mind)ul o) strate+ic interests to alter the
mechanisms o) omen=s subordination5
2he types o) activity amon+ non+overnmental
or+ani?ations 3!$Os4 increased durin+ this period,
includin+ outside0initiated, small +rass0roots,
or9er0based, service0oriented, research0based,
and speci8c0issue coalitions5 6uch o) the or9 as
either consciously shaped by a criti.ue o) the
h=beral0)eminist and AID )rameor9s or +enerated
by increasin+ dissatis)action ith mainstream
analyses5 2he )eminist debate on these issues
became intense amon+ activists, policyma9ers,
and academics5
Aedded to notions o) moderni?ation and eCciency,
the AID approach tended to preoccupy itsel) ith
omen=s roles as producers and to i+nore their
domestic labour5 It rarely addressed )undamental
.uestions about omen=s subordination5 2he AL4
approach +enerally i+nored the impact o) +lobal
ine.uities on omen in the 2hird Aorld and the
importance o) race and class in omen=s lives5
Other theoretical perspectives ere re.uired to
address some o) these )undamental issues5
/ome scholars sou+ht ansers )or omen=s
development issues in 6arxism, hich had
developed the most thorou+h criti.ue o) liberal
moderni?ation theory 3see @>rameor9 B- 6arxist0
dependency theory@45 &oever, this approach has
little to say about omen and )ails to .uestion the
importance o) moderni?ation5 6arxist scholars
have +enerally accepted >riedrich Ln+els=
ar+ument that omen=s subordination is a
conse.uence o) the development o) private
property and capitalism and that a success)ul class
stru++le and the demise o) the capitalist system
are there)ore re.uired be)ore +ender ine.uities can
be chan+ed5 6arxist thin9ers have put their
ener+ies into the stru++le a+ainst capitalism,
rather than tryin+ to attac9 patriarch", hich they
ar+ue is merely an out+roth o) the capitalist
system5
7lthou+h most 6arxists ere thus happy to i+nore
+ender, a number o) inEuential )eminists or9in+
ithin a 6arxist paradi+m expanded the debate
concernin+ omen and or9 to include a more
nuanced appreciation o) reproductive labour and
the role o) class in omen=s lives 3/ar+ent #'8#4
3see @>rameor9 D- 6arxist )eminism@45 2his
provided important analytical tools )or the
development o) a socialist0)eminist perspective
3see @>rameor9 >- socialist )eminism@45
7 related strand o) development thin9in+ dre on
the 6arxist criti.ue o) Aestern capitalism )or its
explanations o) 2hird Aorld poverty5 Based lar+ely
in *atin 7merica and the Caribbean, but inEuencin+
thin9ers in other re+ions, the dependency theorists
turned moderni?ation upside don, ar+uin+ that it
as the cause o) 2hird Aorld underdevelopment,
rather than the solution to 2hird Aorld problems5
Dependency theorists, most notably 7ndre $under
>ran9 3#'1', #'B'4 and /arnir 7min 3#'BK4, ar+ued
that the capitalist @metropole@ bene8ted )rom a
dependent, peripheral 2hird Aorld and that the
capitalist system as desi+ned to perpetuate this
dependency5 2hey called )or separation )rom the
metropole, a critical attitude toard Aestern
technolo+y, and a commitment to 2hird Aorld sel)0
reliance5
Developments in dependency theory have in some
ays paralleled those in radical0)eminist thin9in+ in
the Aest- both emer+ed durin+ a period o) serious
challen+e to existin+ poer structures, and both
advocated a de+ree o) separation )rom the sources
o) poer and domination5 2he radical0)eminist
criti.ue o) liberal and 6arxist )eminism ar+ued that
patriarchy exists in all societies and is the
)undamental source o) ine.uality5 Politically, this
su++ests the need to create alternative social
institutions, separate )rom men, ithin hich
omen can )ul8ll their needs 3see @>rameor9 L-
radical )eminism@45 Durin+ the #'B0s, this
approach inEuenced the thin9in+ and practice o)
some academics and activists 3primarily in !$Os4,
ho called )or omen=s proFects that ere
completely separate )rom men=s5 2hey ar+ued )or a
development approach to omen that reco+ni?ed
the dan+ers o) inte+ratin+ omen into a
patriarchal orld, and they sou+ht instead to
create @omen0only@ proFects, care)ully
constructed to protect omen=s interests )rom
patriarchal domination5 2his approach has
sometimes been re)erred to as omen and
development 3A7D4 3Parpart #'8'J Rath+eber
#''045
2he A7D paradi+m stresses the distinctiveness o)
omen=s 9noled+e, omen=s or9, and omen=s
+oals and responsibilities5 It ar+ues )or reco+nition
o) this distinctiveness and )or ac9noled+ment o)
the special roles that omen have alays played in
the development process5 >or example, the A7D
perspective +ave rise to a persistent call to
reco+ni?e that omen are the mainstay o)
a+ricultural prod2ction in many areas o) 7)rica,
althou+h their contribution has been systematically
overloo9ed and mar+inali?ed in national and donor
development plans5 2his concern as captured in
the slo+an @$ive credit here credit is due5@
Campai+ns desi+ned to chan+e policies and place
omen=s issues and concerns on national and
international a+endas have been a 9ey area o)
activity )or people or9in+ ithin this paradi+m,
and disseminatin+ in)ormation has been an
important strate+y5 LDorts to or+ani?e have been
oriented both to ma9in+ mainstream bureaucracies
more responsive to omen=s needs and to
stren+thenin+ bonds amon+ omen throu+h
active, autonomous local +roups and netor9s5
2heorists and activists or9in+ ithin this
paradi+m have debated the issue o) inte+ration 3in
mainstream a+encies and pro+rams4 versus
separate oman0)ocused or+ani?in+5 2hey
reco+ni?e that mainstream a+encies carry the ris9
o) domination by patriarchal interests, hereas
autonomy carries the ris9 o) )urther mar+inali?ation
and inade.uate )undin+ imposed by the small scale
o) many omen0only proFects and initiatives5 6uch
o) the theori?in+ o) people or9in+ ithin the A7D
perspective is undocumented because active
en+a+ement at the policy and community levels
has been the maFor, alays pressin+, priority5
7lthou+h the A7D perspective has oDered an
important corrective to AID=s too0ready
assumption that male0dominated states can be
used to alter +ender ine.uities, it also has its
ea9nesses5 7s noted above, mar+inali?ation and
smallness o) scale have limited the trans)ormative
potential o) omen0only or+ani?ations, althou+h
+ains have been made in raisin+ consciousness,
publici?in+ omen=s concerns, and brin+in+ them
into the policy arena5 2he A7D approach is also
inclined to see omen as a class, donplayin+
diDerences amon+ omen, particularly alon+ racial
and ethnic lines, and at times assumin+ that
solutions to problems aDectin+ the orld=s omen
can be )ound in the experiences and a+endas o)
one particular +roup5
Durin+ the #'B0s, in the context o) on+oin+ social
movements challen+in+ authority, the ar+uments
o) the dependency school and the +roin+ concern
ith 2hird Aorld poverty inEuenced liberal
development thin9in+5 OCcials at the International
6onetary >und 3I6>4 and the Aorld Ban9
committed their institutions to a+in+ a ar on
poverty and providin+ basic human needs )or all5
AID specialists also adopted this approach,
tar+etin+ poor omen and their basic human
needs as the primary +oals o) AID policies5 7s
6oser 3#'8'4 pointed out, this antipoverty
approach reco+ni?ed, and tried to serve, omen=s
practical +ender needs by )ocusin+ on improvin+
omen=s access to income throu+h such eDorts as
small0scale, income0+eneratin+ proFects5 2hus, in
the #'B0s, radical and orthodox development
thin9ers and planners a+reed on the centrality o)
poverty alleviation, althou+h they diDered on ho
to brin+ it about 3Ha.uette #'8,45
The DIEs
In the mid0#'80s, political conservatism
predominated in Aestern +overnments and donor
a+encies5 7 +roin+ preoccupation ith economic
mismana+ement and underdevelopment in 2hird
Aorld economies be+an to replace the concern
ith basic human needs5 Compounded by to oil
crises and hu+e international debts, the +lobal
recession hit many 2hird Aorld countries hard,
revealin+ structural Eas and ea9 economies5
Ahere dependency theorists sa debt as a
component o) the lon+0term capital Eos drainin+
ealth )rom poorer to richer countries, the
international development a+encies, particularly
the I6> and Aorld Ban9, dre a conclusion
consistent ith the moderni?ation approach- 2hird
Aorld economies re.uired structural adFustment to
revive themselves and Eourish5
/tructural0adFustment pro+rams 3/7Ps4 ere
desi+ned to reduce +overnment expenditure and
increase the poer o) mar9et )orces in 2hird Aorld
economies, thereby increasin+ their productivity
and eCciency5 Once a+ain, the assumptions o)
liberal development thin9in+ dominated the /7Ps,
includin+ the assumption that economic prosperity
3hich is an assumed outcome o) /7Ps4 ould
bene8t omen as ell as men5 In this context, the
emphasis has been on increasin+ omen=s
economic contribution to increase overall economic
eCciency and brin+ about e.uity )or omen
36oser #'8'J Llson #'',45 7 )e development
specialists or9in+ on omen=s issues in the
oCcial a+encies have be+un to .uestion the
underlyin+ assumption that structural adFustment
ould, in the lon+ run, bene8t everyone5 /ome
have reco+ni?ed that omen and children have
suDered )rom the short0run dislocations caused by
the /7Ps, a reco+nition that has resulted in the
implementation o) special pro+rams to alleviate
the short0term eDects o) the /7Ps on vulnerable
+roups 3omen, children, the a+ed, and the
disabled45
/ome )eminists and development theorists have
remained unconvinced by both the AID and the
A7D approaches, ar+uin+ that neither addresses
the )undamental )actors that structure and
maintain +ender ine.ualities5 2hese scholars and
activists have turned to the $7D perspective 3see
the @$7D perspective,@ under @>eminist
development theories- applyin+ ALD and $7D,@ in
this chapter4, hich emer+ed in the #'80s as an
alternative to AID and A7D5 2his )rameor9 is also
re)erred to as the @empoerment approach@ or
@+ender0aare plannin+5@
2his approach emer+ed )rom the +rass0roots
or+ani?ational experiences and ritin+s o) 2hird
Aorld )eminists and has been most clearly
articulated by a +roup called Development
7lternatives ith Aomen )or a !e Lra 3D7A!45
2he process o) developin+ this ne paradi+m
be+an in the early #'80s5 D7A! as launched
publicly at the #'85 !airobi international !$O
)orum 3an event attended by #5 000 omen
activists and held parallel to the oCcial Aorld
Con)erence on Aomen45 D7A! called )or an
approach to omen=s development that reco+ni?es
the importance o) +lobal and +ender ine.uities
3/en and $ron #'8B45
2he $7D approach also emer+ed )rom the
experiences and analysis o) Aestern socialist
)eminists 3see @>rameor9 >- socialist )eminism@4
interested in development issues 3Goun+ et al5
#'8#J 6oser #'8'J Llson #'',45 2he $7D
perspective calls )or a synthesis o) the issues o)
materialist political economy and the radical0
)eminist issues o) patriarchy and ideolog"
?patriarchal ideolog"@5 Drain+ on the socialist0
)eminist perspective, the $7D approach ar+ues
that omen=s status in society is deeply aDected
by their material conditions o) li)e and by their
position in the national, re+ional, and +lobal
economies5 $7D also reco+ni?es that omen are
deeply aDected by the nature o) patriarchal poer
in their societies at the national, community, and
household levels5 6oreover, omen=s material
conditions and patriarchal authority are both
de8ned and maintained by the accepted norms
and values that de8ne omen=s and men=s roles
and duties in a particular society 3/en and $ron
#'8B45
$7D adopts a to0pron+ed approach to the study
o) omen and development, investi+atin+ omen=s
material conditions and class position, as ell as
the patriarchal structures and ideas that de8ne and
maintain omen=s subordination5 2he )ocus is on
relationships beteen omen and men, not on
omen alone5 $ender relations are seen as the 9ey
determinant o) omen=s position in society, not as
immutable reEections o) the natural order but as
socially constructed patterns o) behaviour ; the
social constr2ction of gender ; hich can be
chan+ed i) this is desired5 2he $7D approach
)ocuses on the interconnection o) +ender, class,
and race and the social construction o) their
de8nin+ characteristics5 Aomen experience
oppression diDerently, accordin+ to their race,
class, colonial history, culture, and position in the
international economic order 36oser #''%45 2hese
points are 9ey in the approaches o) blac9 and 2hird
Aorld )eminism 3see @>rameor9 $- blac9
)eminism@ and @Current debates and criti.ues@ in
this chapter45 $7D reco+ni?es the diDerential
impacts o) development policies and practices on
omen and men and sees omen as agents, not
simply as recipients, o) development5 2his
perspective thus calls into .uestion both +ender
relations and the development process5
Aithin the $7D perspective, a distinction is dran
beteen omen=s interests 3a biolo+ical cate+ory
that assumes homo+eneity4 and +ender interests
3a socially constructed set o) relations and material
practices45 7s su++ested above, +ender interests
can be either practical or strate+ic 36olyneux
#'8545 Practical +ender needs arise out o) concrete
conditionsJ these are immediate perceived needs,
such as the need to provide )ood, shelter,
education, and health care5 /trate+ic +ender
interests arise out o) an analysis o) omen=s
subordination and re.uire chan+es in the
structures o) +ender, class, and race that de8ne
omen=s position in any +iven culture5 /trate+ic
interests include the +oal o) +ender e.uality5
2he politici?ation o) practical needs and their
trans)ormation into strate+ic interests constitute
central aspects o) the $7D approach, as does the
empoerment o) omen 3and sympathetic men4 to
achieve this +oal 3see @>eminist development
theories- applyin+ AID and $7D@45 2he $7D
approach provides a ay to analy?e policies and
or+ani?ational eDorts to determine hich ones ill
both meet short0term practical needs and help to
chan+e the structures o) subordination5 In the
#'80s, donor a+encies and state machineries
consolidated their AID activities, but the $7D
perspective increasin+ly shaped the interests and
activities o) )eminist !$Os and as in turn shaped
by those experiences5
The DDEs
Aithin the !$O sector, a rich diversity o)
paradi+ms continued to inEuence development
practice5 2he A7D approach remained particularly
stron+, as omen continued to or+ani?e at the
+rass0roots level and throu+h broader netor9s to
increase reco+nition and support )or omen=s
special contributions to national development5 2he
continuous pressure applied by or+ani?ed omen=s
+roups remained si+ni8cant, )orcin+ +overnments
and other a+encies to ta9e omen seriously and
address their concerns5 7ctivists also challen+ed
)eminist scholars and academics to stren+then the
lin9s beteen theory and practice and to revise
theories to accommodate ne )orms, o) analysis
arisin+ )rom experience5 7lthou+h some shi)ts
occurred in rhetoric and practice, AL4 remained
the dominant approach o) +overnments, relie) and
development a+encies 3both <nited !ations
a+encies and !$Os4, and bilateral donor a+encies5
In some cases, policies and pro+rams that clearly
continued to or9 ithin the AID paradi+m 3as
de8ned in this chapter4 adopted $7D as their
neer, perhaps more )ashionable, label5 Ironically,
althou+h the $7D )rameor9 actually +oes )arther
than AID in challen+in+ patriarchal structures,
some a+encies adopted the term .ender or $7D to
reassure men that their interests and concerns
ere not bein+ overloo9ed or undermined by an
excessive )ocus on omen5 /ome a+encies that
still use the lan+ua+e o) AID have moved 3usually
in response to the pressure o) )eminist staD
members4 toard ma9in+ more )ar0reachin+
criti.ues o) the structure o) +ender relations and
toard promotin+ policies and pro+rams that
challen+e )undamental ine.ualities5 *abels
there)ore no lon+er provide a clear +uide to
identi)yin+ the theoretical paradi+m underlyin+
policies and pro+ramsJ one also needs to examine
their content more closely5
2his chapter outlines a number o) theoretical
paradi+ms and 9ey concepts )or the analysis and
criticism 3i) appropriate4 o) the complex and o)ten
contradictory assumptions behind policies and
pro+rams5 2he section entitled @>eminist
development theories- applyin+ AID and $7D@
provides a practical introduction to the tas9 o)
applyin+ ALD and $7D )rameor9s5 Chapter K
analy?es in more detail the implications o) these
various theoretical )rameor9s )or policy, research,
and action5
2he #''0s brou+ht a ne round o) criti.ue and
debate to challen+e ho e thin9 about both
development and )eminism5 2he next section
explores the cuttin+ ed+e o) thin9in+ on
+lobali?ation, development, and )eminism5
C2rrent de1ates and critiH2es
Glo1ali;ation
The changing world economic realit"
2he #''0s ere considerably diDerent )rom the
postar era, hich spaned moderni?ation and
dependency theories, policy, and practice5
6oderni?ation and dependency theories ere
+rounded in the economic realities o) the #'50s,
#'10s, and early #'B0s5 2remendous orldide
economic restr2ct2ring occurred a)ter the early
#'B0s5 2he symptoms o) chan+e included the rise
o) the nely industriali?in+ countries 3!ICs4 in 7sia,
the debt crisis in other parts o) the /outh, and the
end o) the postar boom in much o) the
industriali?ed !orth5
Restructurin. became a bu??ord )or the chan+in+
orld economyJ this ne reality as o)ten
characteri?ed by the term .lobali9ation5 7lthou+h
the idea o) a orld economy is not ne, this use o)
.lobali9ation hi+hli+hts the more intense
inte+ration o) the +lobal economy in the #''0s5
Companies and states increasin+ly thou+ht in
terms o) +lobal mar9ets and competition5 7ttention
as dran to +lobal capital and the tremendous
poer o) transnational corporations 32!Cs45
Capital mobility reached ne hei+hts, and 2!Cs
be+an to plan orldide production, investment,
and distribution strate+ies across continents and
nation0states5 2he !orth itnessed a loss o) Fobs as
multinationals )rom the !orth moved production to
the /outh, creatin+ a @+lobal assembly line5@
2echnolo+ical chan+e as rapidJ improvements in
communications and transportation eliminated
economic barriers o) distance and )acilitated this
+lobali?ation process5 Computeri?ation also altered
production processes and enabled 8rms to move
around the orld in search o) cheaper labour5
In the context o) hei+htened international
competition and rapid technolo+ical chan+e,
capital strove )or more <Je/i1ilit")< another
bu??ord o) the #''0s5 2he increase in the
mobility o) capital as most dramatic, but some
chan+es also occurred in the international mobility
o) labour5 6i+ration )rom the /outh to the !orth ;
both permanent 3le+al and ille+al4 and temporary
3+uest or9ers4 ; increased5 &ousehold economic
strate+ies no spanned !orth and /outh in many
cases, as )amilies depended on the remittances o)
mi+rant or9ers5 Aith the inEux o) immi+rants
)rom the /outh, racial tensions escalated in the
!orth, and much o) this tension as over
competition )or a perceived declinin+ number o)
Fobs5
7lthou+h some countries have bene8ted )rom this
restructurin+, many others in the !orth and /outh
have seen their economies )alter5 Countries such as
Canada, the <nited "in+dom, and the <nited
/tates lost much o) their manu)acturin+
employment, althou+h employment improved in
the #''0s ith the +roth o) services5 In the
/outh, the debt crisis has aDected many countries,
and reversals have occurred in many economic
indicators5 7)rica and *atin 7merica have been
particularly hard hit5 2he old orld order has been
altered as Hapan, $ermany, and /outheast 7sia
challen+e economic leadership, 7merican and
many Luropean economies )alter, and the
Communist bloc disinte+rates5
Chan+in+ orld economic realities have put
pressure on policy5 *iberal @)ree0mar9et@ economic
policies have been the order o) the day in many
stru++lin+ countries, includin+ reduced trade
barriers 3throu+h the $eneral 7+reement on 2ariDs
and 2rade S$722T and bilateral a+reements4,
dere+ulation o) mar9ets, /7Ps, and privati?ation o)
+overnment enterprises5 $enerally, these policies
have supported the un)ettered mobility o)
transnational capital5 &oever, state capitalism
has characteri?ed the success)ul economies o)
$ermany, Hapan, and /outheast 7sia, althou+h the
7sian crisis in the #''0s has thron some doubt on
this model5 One area in hich increased re+ulation
and intervention in the mar9et have had some
orldide currency is the environment5 It has also
become @+lobal5@
(mplications for women
2hese ne economic realities and the political
reactions to them 3that is, policies o) structural
adFustment, )ree trade, export0led industriali?ation,
etc54 have had diDerent implications )or omen
and )or men5 >or example, $uy /tandin+ 3#'8'4
ar+ued that there as a )emini?ation o) the labour
)orce throu+hout the #'80s in industriali?in+
countries5 Aith the /7Ps comes pressure on
+overnments to dere+ulate5 Aith employers
see9in+ to improve their competitive position
throu+h Eexible labour practices, more Fobs have
become @)emini?ed@- they have ta9en on the
characteristics o) insecure, lo0payin+ Fobs ith
)e prospects )or advancement5 2his accounts, in
part, )or the increase in )emale labour0)orce
participation, as men are less illin+ to ta9e these
Fobs5 In many countries, )emale unemployment
rates in the #'80s declined relative to male
unemployment rates5 /tandin+ blamed this trend
on the )emini?ation o) labour# and the employers=
desire to have a cheaper, more disposable or
Eexible labour supply5
Lxport0led industriali?ation has also contributed to
the +roth o) lo0a+e )emale employment in
developin+ countries, particularly in the e/port>
processing ;ones 3LPIs45 Durin+ the #'10s and
#'B0s, corporations developed LPIs as part o) a
strate+y to loer costs by reor+ani?in+ production
on a +lobal scale5 2!Cs decrease their production
costs by trans)errin+ lo0s9ill Fobs to LPIs to ta9e
advanta+e o) lo0cost labour5 Lxport processin+ is
particularly suitable )or hi+hly competitive
industries in hich labour costs constitute a lar+e
share o) the operatin+ bud+et, such as in the
textile and +arment and electronics industries5
Aomen ma9e up the maFority o) or9ers in these
industries 32iano #''04, as they are considered
more patient and more prepared to do the tedious
and monotonous Fobs 3$ladin #''%45 Aomen are
perceived as bein+ cheaper to employ, more
passive, and less li9ely to unioni?e5
7s the developin+ orld adFusts to the economic
crisis, )e Fobs are bein+ created in the )ormal
sector, ith the exception o) the LPIs5 Aith )eer
)ormal0sector Fobs available, unemployed or9ers
and ne entrants in the labour )orce are compelled
to enter the in)ormal sector to survive5 In addition,
many )ormal0sector Fobs are @in)ormali?ed@ as
employers use subcontractin+ to increase Eexibility
and decentrali?e the production process5 >or
example, recent research has shon that much o)
the or9 in LPIs is not direct a+e or9 but
indirect and unrecorded or9 subcontracted to
omen in their homes 3Beneria and >eldman
#'',45 2his labour0intensive, lo0payin+ or9
involves no overhead or other labour costs to
employers and appears to be on the rise as
structural adFustment increases the pressure to
become more competitive5
7s more people enter the in)ormal sector, avera+e
a+es )all5 Aomen )orm the lar+est part o) the
or9 )orce in the in)ormal sector and are
concentrated in the more precarious and loest
payin+ Fobs, such as household help5 Aomen also
en+a+e in small0scale manu)acturin+ and
transport, retail trade, @sel)0production@ 3+ardens,
cooperative child care, labour exchan+e )or house
construction4, and ille+al or .uasi0le+al activities
3beer0brein+, smu++lin+, be++in+, dru+
cultivation4 3Cornia et al5 #'8BJ Mic9ers #''#45 2hey
+enerally earn less than the minimum a+e and
less than men, even hen they have similar
occupations5 Income diDerences beteen omen
and men are lar+er in the in)ormal sector than in
the )ormal one 32o9man #'8'45
7s real a+es )all, prices rise, and social services
and social0security systems contract, the number
o) omen see9in+ an income has been increasin+5
Aomen=s domestic activities have increased, that
is, +atherin+ )uel and ater, carin+ )or children and
the elderly, buyin+ and processin+ )ood, preparin+
and servin+ meals, doin+ the laundry, 9eepin+ the
house clean, nursin+ the sic9, and +enerally
mana+in+ the household5 On avera+e, omen in
developin+ countries are or9in+ lon+er days and
puttin+ in lon+er hours than men5
In most countries, the number o) )emale0headed
households has been +roin+ in both rural and
urban areas 3Brydon and Chant #'8'J <nited
!ations #''#45 2his increase has been a result o)
many )actors, includin+, si+ni8cantly, male
mi+ration to see9 employment5 6i+ration o) men
leaves )emale0headed households relyin+ on
insuCcient and unstable remittances5 /urveys on
poverty alays sho that )emale0headed
households are disproportionately represented
3C/L$A/7 #'8'45 2his is not surprisin+, as omen
earn, on avera+e, less than men and have )eer
assets and less access to employment and
production resources, such as land, capital, and
technolo+y5 Aomen also retain responsibility )or
domestic activities and child care5 7ll o) these
)actors contribute to the )emini?ation o) poverty5
2hese ne economic realities are also havin+
ne+ative eDects on omen in the !orth5 2he
)emini?ation o) the labour )orce is happenin+ in
industriali?ed countries as ell as the !ICs
37rmstron+ #''%45 Aith the advent o) )ree trade,
the introduction o) ne technolo+ies, and
increased use o) Eexible mana+ement strate+ies,
employment has shi)ted )rom the +oods0producin+
sector to the service sector and )rom )ull0time to
nonstandard Fobs 3part time, part year, temporary,
casual45 6ore Fobs have the characteristics o)
)emale Fobs- short term ith lo pay, no possibility
o) advancement, and )e i) any bene8ts5 7lthou+h
men continue to +et more than their )air share o)
the better Fobs, more men are havin+ to move into
this @)emini?ed@ or95
/ome Fobs are movin+ )rom the !orth to the /outh5
>or example, as the !orth 7merican >ree 2rade
7+reement 3!7>274 +oes into eDect,
manu)acturin+ Fobs 3especially labour0intensive
ones such as in textiles and electronics4 are
movin+ )rom Canada and the <nited /tates to
6exico, here labour, especially )emale labour, is
cheaper5 7s unemployment increases and )ull0time
unioni?ed Fobs disappear, the poer o) trade
unions to bar+ain collectively )or bene8ts and
a+es declines5 7s Fobs become more diCcult to
8nd, 8rms 8nd it easier to +ain a+e and other
concessions )rom or9ers5 7s a result, the
conditions o) or9 are erodin+ and the standard o)
livin+ is droppin+5 >amilies 8nd they need to have
more than one income earner, and married omen
ith youn+ children have been enterin+ the labour
)orce in +reater numbers5 7lthou+h or9in+
conditions are bad )or many or9ers, they are
particularly bad )or omen5 6ost omen not only
are +hettoi?ed into lo0payin+, lo0s9ill, part0time
Fobs but also have a second, unpaid Fob, carin+ )or
a )amily household5 7lthou+h this describes the
impact o) restructurin+ on the maFority o) omen,
some omen in the /outh and in the !orth are
doin+ .uite ell5 2o o) the results o) restructurin+
observed in many countries are polari?ation o)
incomes and a decline in the number o) people in
middle0income +roups5 In other ords, a )e
people become better oD and many become orse
oD5
2he maFority o) omen in the industriali?ed orld
are or9in+ or loo9in+ )or or9 outside the home,
and most have a second Fob o) carin+ )or children
and a household5 2he division o) labour ithin the
household has not chan+ed si+ni8cantly in most
countries, and omen continue to do most o) the
or95 Aomen are concerned about child care,
household mana+ement, and care o) the sic9,
elderly, or disabled5 2he burden o) these tas9s on
omen is increasin+ as restructurin+ o) the el)are
state occurs5 7s the state restructures, it cuts bac9
on health care and education costs5 It
deinstitutionali?es people throu+h early hospital
dischar+es and closures o) nursin+ homes and
)acilities )or the disabled5 It also saves money by
closin+ hospitals and cuttin+ school pro+rams5
Lmphasis is increasin+ly placed on volunteerism,
sel)0help, and community care, all o) hich have
stron+ implications )or omen and their or9load,
because omen provide much o) this or9 on an
unpaid basis5
Aomen not only increasin+ly provide unpaid
services as the state cuts bac9, they also 8ll the
maFority o) state08nanced Fobs in health, social
services, and education5 2hese state Fobs provide
omen ith a+es and employment conditions
better on avera+e then those in the private sectorJ
hoever, ith state restructurin+, a+es are )ro?en
and Fobs disappear5 Aomen and men are becomin+
unemployed or )orced into loer payin+ Fobs in the
private sector or the )ast0+roin+ in)ormal
economy5
/ocial needs must be met5 Aith the increase in
omen=s participation in the labour )orce, the need
)or child care is enormous5 7s the population a+es,
care is also increasin+ly needed )or the elderly5
>emale0headed sin+le0parent )amilies are on the
increase, and so are their needs, as their real
incomes are decreasin+5 I) people cannot aDord to
meet their needs throu+h the mar9et and i) the
state or employer does not meet them either, then
the household 3and that usually means omen4
must meet them5 7s the state cuts bac9 social
services it implicitly assumes a +ender division o)
labour in hich omen in the household or in the
community are expected to carry out these
activities and meet these needs ithout pay5 2he
+overnment=s divestin+ itsel) o) many o) the
el)are state=s responsibilities implicitly assumes
the availability o) omen in the home to provide
these services5 Restructurin+ and adFustment
increase omen=s or9load, perpetuate the
traditional +ender division o) labour, rein)orce
+ender relations, and maintain the notion that
omen are naturally suited )or carin+ or95
7lthou+h omen=s @position@ and @condition@ in the
/outh diDer )rom those in the !orth, adFustment to
the ne economic realities in both re+ions appears
to depend on the assumption o) +ender
diDerences5, People ta9e it )or +ranted that
omen=s a+es ill be lo i) they or9 )or pay and
that their house0hold or9 is elastic and can be
stretched to cover costs no lon+er covered by
employers or the state 36oser #'8'45 Aith the
implementation o) adFustment, the or9in+ day
has become lon+er )or omen5 /ome omen can
handle their increased or9load by hirin+ help, but
the vast maFority o) omen cannot do this5 7 sin+le
income is not enou+h to support a )amily, and
more omen and youths
,
Aomen=s
condition
re)ers to the material conditions o) their everyday lives as omen
experience them, hereas their
position
re)ers to their social status relative to that o) men
36oDat et al5 #''#45 /ee @2ools o) $7D analysis,@ under @>eminist development theories- applyin+ AID
and $7D,@ later in this chapter5
have had to 8nd employment5 2his is particularly
the case in sin+le0parent )amilies headed by
omen, and the number o) these )amilies is
increasin+ all over the orld5 Aomen in almost
every society are paid less than men in both the
)ormal and in)ormal economies5 7s a+es decline,
omen are under pressure to increase their hours
o) or95 Aith prices risin+ and )ood subsidies bein+
eliminated in the /outh and ith household
incomes declinin+ in the !orth, omen=s unpaid
or9 in the home is increasin+ as omen try to
stretch their resources to meet their )amilies=
needs5
Theoretical de1ates
7lthou+h .lobali9ation and restructurin. are idely
used to describe the current economic context,
they connote no particular theory o) economic
development5 2hey are labels used by all sides in
the current debate5 $lobali?ation has motivated
the analyses o) countless national and international
reports on economic policy )rom all points o) vie
on the political spectrum5
$lobali?ation is used to Fusti)y a hands0oD policy
approach in many countries ; the theoretical
assumption is that the mar9et itsel) is no
brea9in+ don distinctions beteen the !orth and
/outh and ill lead to economic growth in the
/outh, i) this is pro8table5 2his can be interpreted
as consistent ith neoclassical economics and the
moderni?ation approach to development, in hich
developin+ countries are expected to )ollo the
path o) those in the industriali?ed orld5 2he
example o) the /outheast 7sian !ICs has been
used to inspire con8dence in this interpretation 3or
misinterpretation4, as they are thou+ht to
demonstrate that developin+ countries can achieve
sel)0sustainin+ +roth5 2he 7sian crisis in the late
#''0s undermined this ar+ument, but the return o)
prosperity to much o) the re+ion has rein)orced
neoclassical economic policies, albeit ith a
+reater concern )or social capital5 2he barriers to
development most )ocused on by neoclassical
economics continue to be those created by ell0
intentioned +overnment inter)erence- mar9et0price
supports, trade restrictions, and so on5 2he /7Ps
are desi+ned to remove those barriers5
7lthou+h the expression )oderni9ation theory may
no lon+er be in vo+ue, the spirit o) the analysis,
drain+ on neoclassical )ree0mar9et economics, is
alive and ell5 2he economic analysis o)
development that )ocuses on an un)ettered, )ree
+lobal mar9et no dominates economic policy in
much o) the !orth and /outh5 2he Hapanese model,
in contrast, involves an active role )or the state in
industrial policy, hich in )act diDers )rom the
el)are0state model that many Aestern countries
are tryin+ to escape5 Debates continue to ra+e on
ho to synthesi?e these to models5
$lobali?ation also dominates discussion on the le)t5
2heorists )rom the traditions o) 6arxism,
dependency theory, and political economy are
+rapplin+ ith ho to understand the chan+ed
economic realities5 2heir debate is about ho
)undamental the trans)ormation is and hether
they need ne tools o) analysis5 7t one extreme
are those ho see a dramatic recon8+uration o)
orld capitalism5 Piore and /abel 3#'8K4 called this
recon8+uration a @second industrial divide,@ similar
in si+ni8cance to the industrial revolution5 Piore
and /abel=s approach to the analysis has been
labeled @Eexible speciali?ation,@ as they have
ar+ued that chan+es in technolo+y and mar9ets
have brou+ht an end to the dominance o) @mass
production@ and have increased the possibility o)
much more decentrali?ed, cra)t0based production5
In terms o) development, this ould mean ne
opportunities )or previously developin+ re+ions and
countries to compete +lobally5
Aritin+ )rom a more explicitly 6arxist perspective,
analysts o) the >rench re+ulationist school have
ar+ued that Fordism, the dominant mode of
prod2ction and re+ulation in the postar era, has
under+one a crisis and that e are no in an era o)
post>Fordism, ith a reali+nment o) capital0
labour relations, nationally and internationallyJ
chan+es in capital accumulation, re.uirin+
corporations to adopt ne, more Eexible strate+ies
3in both the labour process and the product
mar9et4J and the re.uisite chan+es in the
institutional0re+ulatory environment to meet the
ne re.uirements o) capital5 Both the Eexible
speciali?ation and re+ulationist analyses o)
restructurin+ ori+inated in the experience and
perspectives o) the !orth5 Considerable debate
)ocuses on ho to apply this approach in
understandin+ developments in the /outh5 6any
political economists are +rapplin+ ith the
dynamics o) the ne orld economic order and its
implications )or development in the /outh5 /ome
political economists reFect the notion that the ne
orld economy is a ne system, ar+uin+ that the
underlyin+ dynamics o) capitalism are unchan+ed
and that the existin+ analytical tools can, ith
modi8cation, be used to understand the ne
conFuncture 3Biene)eld #''%45
7ll riters in the political0economy and 6arxist
traditions are critical o) hands0oD policies, ar+uin+
that such policies )avour capital and do not
necessarily lead to any sustainable development
)or the bul9 o) the population5 /uch riters see an
important role )or the state in both the /outh and
the !orth 3Biene)eld #''%45
Both )ree0mar9et and political0economy
interpretations o) +lobali?ation reco+ni?e the
increasin+ complexity o) the relationships beteen
!orth and /outh, in contrast to the ays their
relationship is depicted in the ori+inal
moderni?ation and dependency theories5 2he
moderni?ation )rameor9 sees the basic
relationship as one o) the !orth @helpin+@ the
traditional /outh to climb the ladder o)
development and become li9e the modern !orth5
Dependency theory sees the !orth as havin+
created a situation o) dependency in the /outh that
the !orth uses to enrich itsel)5 On this vie, the
!orth increases its on development by
maintainin+ and exploitin+ the dependency o) the
/outh5 &oever, current economic realities call
both o) these interpretations into .uestion5 Ahat
e no see is a more complex series o)
relationships, a more complex orld5
2!Cs are more ealthy and more poer)ul than
many individual nations in either the !orth or the
/outh5 2heir control and alle+iance 9no no
national boundaries5 7lthou+h !orth0based 2!Cs
may continue to enrich themselves, this no lon+er
necessarily translates into investment or Fob
+roth in !orthern countries5 /ome nations in the
/outh, such as the emer+in+ !ICs, are
experiencin+ rapid economic +roth, and some
nations in the !orth are experiencin+ ne+ative or
static +roth5
7lthou+h it is important to understand the
complexity o) the chan+es occurrin+ at the +lobal
level, it is also important to understand ho these
chan+es are aDectin+ people=s lives5 Rather than
seein+ these chan+es in terms o) an evolutionary
process ; that is, in terms o) ho societies move
3or are 9ept )rom movin+4 )rom an underdeveloped
to a developed state ; e must as9 hat people
do to construct their political, social, and economic
lives and ho they adapt to or resist chan+es in
the conditions con)rontin+ them5 Ae must consider
not simply the lar+er structures and institutions but
also the local culture and 9noled+e, as ell as the
importance o) lan+ua+e, in our analysis5
2hese aspects are emphasi?ed in recent
postmodernist and poststructuralist criti.ues o)
socioeconomic theory5 2heir criti.ues have led to
ne thin9in+ about development 3as discussed in
the next section, @Rethin9in+ historical chan+e,
deconstructin+ developmentalism@4 and )eminism
3see @>rameor9 &- postmodern )eminism@45
Both the moderni?ation and 6arxist approaches to
development +re out o) Luropean enli+htenment
thou+ht, hich emphasi?ed universal @truth,@
rational scienti8c thou+ht, and the belie) in
pro+ress5 2he development enterprise, hether
drain+ on moderni?ation or 6arxist perspectives,
is lar+ely rooted in this idea o) pro+ress toard a
@modem@ ideal, pro+ress conceived as a linear
process in)ormed by scienti8c economic theory5
/ome scholars on the le)t are adoptin+ a @post0
6arxist@ approach to development5 7c9noled+in+
the limitations o) classical 6arxist analysis,
particularly its economistic, linear character, these
scholars have emphasi?ed, instead, the Euid,
contin+ent nature o) capitalist development, the
importance o) human a+ency, and the complexity
o) social trans)ormation 3Corbrid+e #''0J
/chuurman #''%J /later #''%45 /cholars ho dra
more on the postmodernist perspective have
challen+ed the very essence o) mainstream and
le)tist development discourse, .uestionin+ the
universal pretensions o) modernity and callin+ )or a
ne approach to development that ac9noled+es
diDerences and searches out previously silenced
voices and 9noled+e5
K2estions raised for research
#5 Ahat impact has restructurin+ had on omen=s
paid and unpaid or9N
,5 Ahat are the conditions o) or9 and incomes in
the in)ormal economyN
%5 &o does mi+ration aDect the householdN
K5 2o hat extent has restructurin+ created
polari?ation and increased ine.uality o) earnin+s
and incomesN >or menN >or omenN >or
householdsN
55 Ahat strate+ies are 2!Cs usin+ to increase
competitivenessN &o have Eexible
mana+ement strate+ies aDected )emale and
male or9ersN
(mplications for polic" and action
#5 $lobali?ation brin+s an emphasis on )reer trade,
hich is resultin+ in multilateral chan+es in trade
policy 3throu+h $7224 and the )ormation o)
re+ional tradin+ blocs, such as the Luropean
Community and !7>275
,5 /ocial policies are subordinate to economic
policies, and the )ormer, it is o)ten ar+ued,
hinder competition and are unaDordable5
%5 LPIs and export0oriented policies are aimed at
)acilitatin+ +lobal capitalism and increasin+ a
nation=s exposure to the orld mar9et5
K5 $roups such as trade unions and omen=s
or+ani?ations are tryin+ to resist deterioratin+
or9in+ conditions and levels o) social services5
55 2he ability o) nation0states to )orm policy is
severely restricted by international institutions
such as the I6> and by the poer o) 2!Cs5
7o/
Glo1al femini;ation thro2gh Je/i1le la1o2r
2he supply0side economic model implies a +lobal strate+y to stimulate economic +roth by openin+ up economies and
liberali?in+ trade5 Aith this model, export0led +roth is the only )easible strate+y )or development5 Cost competitiveness
is elevated to utmost si+ni8cance, and labour0mar9et re+ulations are considered @ri+idities@ that raise costs and loer
livin+ standards and employment5 7n irony is that in the #'80s many o) the previous obFectives o) economic +roth,
notably a hole set o) labour and social ri+hts, became increasin+ly perceived as costs and ri+idities5
2he +oal o) @rollin+ bac9 the state@ emphasi?es reards )or merit and combines 8scal re)orm ith a minimalist rather
than @redistributive@ el)are stateJ poverty alleviation and universal social security are no lon+er priorities5 7
conse.uence o) increasin+ @selectivity@ or @tar+etin+@ has been that )eer people are entitled to state bene8ts in
industriali?ed countries5 2his has +iven a boost to @additional0or9er@ eDects 3pushin+ more omen into the labour
mar9et4, the in)ormal economy, and precarious )orms o) or9in+ 3those ithout ri+hts to bene8ts have been obli+ed to
8nd hatever income0earnin+ or9 they can45 It is scarcely an exa++eration to say that the leaders have become the
led5 International competition )rom lo0income countries ith loer labour costs and )e labour ri+hts has ea9ened the
ri+hts and bene8ts o) those in the lo end o) the labour mar9et o) many industriali?ed economies5 2his has undermined
or9ers= income security, and the suDerin+ is most li9ely to be )elt in the economically and socially vulnerable +roups5
2he supply0side model reFects neocorporatist state plannin+ and policies )or income security but puts its )aith in mar9et
mechanisms instead5 2his has eroded the stren+th o) @insiders@ in the labour mar9et ; notably unioni?ed 3male4 a+e
or9ers and puts pressure on +overnments to dere+ulate labour mar9ets, ea9enin+ both employment0security
le+islation and customary practices preservin+ Fob security5 In country a)ter country, includin+ many developin+
countries, +overnments have made it easier )or employers to dismiss or9ers or reduce the si?e o) their labour )orce5 >or
example, the Philippines plans to introduce le+islation to exempt most enterprises )rom various labour las5
$overnments have thus encoura+ed more Eexible Fob structures, ma9in+ it easier )or 8rms to alter Fob boundaries and
the technical division o) labour5 2his has reduced the ri+hts o) existin+ employees and increased the use o) so0called
external labour mar9ets, alloin+ employers to substitute loer0cost labour5 Hob Eexibility has also decreased the value
to employers o) employment continuity and on0the0Fob experience5
/upply0side economics can aDect income security even more directly5 $overnments have been ur+ed to remove or
ea9en minimum0a+e le+islation on the +rounds that such a+es reduce employment5 One mi+ht .uestion the lo+ic o)
that ar+ument ; a li9ely conse.uence o) ea9er a+e protection is a +roth in Fobs payin+ @individual@ rather than
@)amily@ a+es5 Research shos that hen such lo0a+e Fobs spread, they are mostly 8lled by omen5 Lven in many
developin+ countries here minimum0a+e le+islation as only ea9ly en)orced, it at least
demonstrable eDects5 Dere+ulation sanctions and encoura+es bad practices5
2he structural0adFustment policies imposed on developin+ countries by the International 6onetary >und, the Aorld Ban9,
and other international and national donor a+encies are another )acet o) the supply0side a+enda5 2o assess hat is
happenin+ to omen in the labour mar9et, e must appreciate hat this orthodox strate+y involves-
2he overhelmin+ emphasis is on trade liberali?ation and export0led industriali?ation5 2his has meant cuts in subsidies
)or domestic @nontradeable@ products, o)ten staple )ood items 3ith such eDects as len+thenin+ a oman=s or9in+
day45
It has meant macroeconomic deEation to reduce domestic consumption or livin+ standards so that resources can be
shi)ted to export industries, o)ten adversely aDectin+ the lo0income omen ho produce basic consumer +oods5
It )ocuses on cost0cuttin+ to increase international competitiveness5 In practice, this means loerin+ unit labour costs,
hich o) course means that 8rms ill employ or9ers prepared or )orced to ta9e lo0a+e Fobs5
It o)ten leads to ne production techni.ues, althou+h usually as part o) the search )or least0cost methods5 2his, no
doubt, has increased the scope )or more re8ned technical divisions o) labour5
In sum, supply0side economics pressures +overnments to repeal labour0mar9et re+ulations, cut the public sector, and
privati?e public enterprises and services, ith the intention o) improvin+ eCciency and renein+ +roth, but these
measures erode employment security and ultimately reduce employment5
In the context o) this +lobal supply0side perspective, and stimulated by ne technolo+y, more a++ressive international
competition 3)rom Hapan and the nely industriali?ed countries4, dere+ulation, erosion o) union stren+th, and
international economic instability, enterprises everyhere are see9in+ to reduce the 8xed costs o) labour5 7 reduced
reliance on )ull0time salaried or9ers ith )rin+e bene8ts is a +lobal trend5 Private0and public0sector enterprises in both
developed and developin+ economies are thus ma9in+ +reater use o) casual, temporary, part0time, and contract
or9ers5 7nd this practice )urther undermines or9ers= employment and income security5
7 shi)t has occurred, particularly in industriali?ed countries, )rom direct to indirect )orms o) employment- lar+er 8rms are
subcontractin+ to smaller units o) production, netor9in+, and usin+ @homeor9ers@ and other )orms o) outsourcin+ that
are not covered by labour or other re+ulations and bear the ris9s and uncertainty o) Euctuatin+ demand5 But these
trends have also been occurrin+ in industriali?in+ economies, here until recently one assumed that the lon+0term trend
o) industrial development ould involve a shi)t )rom unre+ulated, in)ormal labour to secure, re+ular employment5
2his is the context in hich to assess the chan+in+ labour0mar9et positions o) both men and omen in many parts o) the
orld5
K2estions on e/cerpt ?7o/ @
#5 Ahat does /tandin+ mean by a @supply0side
a+enda@N
,5 &o have or9ers been hurt by this supply0side
a+endaN
General disc2ssion H2estions
#5 &o has your country been aDected by
economic restructurin+N
,5 &o do people experience restructurin+ on a
daily basis in your countryN
%5 &ave Fobs become )emini?ed in your countryN
K5 7re there LPIs in your countryN I) so, hat are
their hirin+ practices and conditions o) or9N
55 &o can a+es and or9in+ conditions be
maintained or improved hile capital is so
mobile and countries are so concerned ith
competitivenessN
*ethinking historical change)
deconstr2cting developmentalism
2he dictionary de8nition o) de(elop)ent, discussed
in Chapter ,, re)erred to a process o) un)oldin+,
maturin+, and evolvin+5 Ahen applied to plants
and other or+anisms, the evolutionary implications
o) the term are unproblematic- a )ully developed
plant, an adult animal, or even a human animal
has certain ell0de8ned and )ully predictable
characteristics5 I) it lac9s these characteristics, e
are Fusti8ed in sayin+ that the or+anism is
underdeveloped or undeveloped5
<sin+ de(elop)ent in re)erence to human societies
is much more problematic5 7s noted in the previous
section, societies do not actually )ollo a linear
path o) pro+ress, contrary to the assumptions o)
both moderni?ation and 6arxist theorists5 /ocieties
can be restructured, deindustriali?ed, and all too
easily dislocated, culturally and materially, )rom
the course they have set )or themselves5 !or does
+lobal capitalism produce +lobal uni)ormity ithin
or amon+ nations5 $lobali?ation produces, instead,
a characteristic unevenness as advances ta9e
place in some nations, re+ions, +enders, ethnic
+roups, and classes hile others encounter ne
)orms o) subordination and +enerate ne )orms o)
resistance5
2his chapter outlines some o) the theoretical issues
and debates arisin+ )rom criti.ues o) the concept
o) development5 2hese include the reco+nition o)
developmentalism as bein+ an ideolo+y +enerated
in the context o) the persistent ine.ualities o) the
postcolonial orld5 Lxcitin+ ne areas )or research
arisin+ )rom these criti.ues include reexaminin+
local histories and diversity as products o) our
common +lobal history and scrutini?in+ the
lan+ua+e and practice o) development as modes o)
domination5
In Chapter , and earlier in this chapter 3and also
see @>rameor9 7- moderni?ation theory@4, e
revieed the sta+es0o)0development model
espoused by moderni?ation theorists5 2his model is
based on the dichotomies underdeveloped0
developed and traditional0modern5 2he 6arxist
)rameor9, li9eise, depends on the evolutionary
assumption that all societies ill pro+ress )rom
precapitalism to capitalism and 8nally to socialism,
the inevitable endpoint5 7s e sa, both
)rameor9s explain a )ailure to evolve in the
expected ays as bein+ caused by o1stacles to
growth or barriers that distort the normal process5
In the past to decades, a number o) riters have
.uestioned the evolutionary assumption underlyin+
moderni?ation theory and much o) 6arxist
analysis5 2hey have challen+ed the idea that
human history is a movement toard a prede8ned
@hi+her@ state5 2he alternative theories that have
emer+ed )ocus on people as the a+ents or creators
o) their on histories, rather than on
@development@ as a natural un)oldin+ o) events
that no one controls5 2he idea that people are the
a+ents o) history applies not only to people=s
explicit plans and pro+rams but also to the
ordinary activities o) everyday li)e that sustain or
reshape the cultural ideas, economic practices, and
institutions ma9in+ up the status .uo 3Bourdieu
#'BBJ $iddens #'B'45
Aithin anthropolo+y, the challen+e to the
evolutionary, or sta+es, model o) historical chan+e
has led to a reexamination o) the orld system and
a criti.ue o) earlier studies portrayin+ certain
societies as @primitive,@ as i) they had someho
remained hole, pristine, static, and isolated hile
the rest o) the orld made drastic chan+es5 >or
example, )or a lon+ time anthropolo+ical studies
portrayed the bushpeople o) the "alahari as
exemplary primitives- e+alitarian, sel)0suCcient,
@traditional@ hunters0+atherers5 6ore recent studies
that ta9e history and political economy into
account have shon that these people ere
actually pushed by colonial authorities into remote
areas o) the desert and mar+inali?ed )rom the
tradin+, a+e labour, and other more varied
economic activities in hich they had previously
en+a+ed5 Both their primitivism and their
@traditional@ practices ere, in )act, creative
adaptations to the constraints and pressures o)
colonialism and the +lobal economy 3Pratt #'81J
Ailmsen #'8'45
2hus, central to the current rethin9in+ o) historical
chan+e is the reco+nition that all currently existin+
societies are contemporaneous- they have all
existed )or the same duration o) time, and they
have all chan+ed and adapted 3Aol) #'8,45
Contrary to moderni?ation models, no society has
been le)t behind or stuc9 in the past, and there are
no pure, traditional societies Fust aitin+ to evolve
into modern ones5 !or are any societies
@precapitalist,@ as 6arxist evolutionary theories
ould su++est- all societies have been deeply and
)undamentally aDected by +lobal capitalism, and
)or several centuries none have operated
independently o) the +lobal economy5 Quite
evidently, +lobali?ation has not meant that all
societies have become the same, economically or
culturally5 Diverse local histories have emer+ed
)rom particular interactions o) the local and the
+lobal as people have accommodated, and
resisted, the conditions they encountered and have
pursued their daily activities in culturally
meanin+)ul ays5
Reco+ni?in+ that a capitalist mode o) production in
one sector and re+ion and a noncapitalist mode o)
production in another sector and re+ion ere both
created by the same historical movement
3Roseberry #'8'4 is a maFor challen+e to the
moderni?ation )rameor95 2his challen+e dras on
dependency theory but +oes beyond it in its
emphasis on culture and people as the a+ents o)
their on histories5 Dependency theorists o)ten
portray local communities as passive victims, ith
their development pro+ressively undermined by
rich countries, and thus these theorists have )ailed
to reco+ni?e the diverse ays that +lobal
capitalism has intruded on the local scene and the
particular ays local practices and resistance have
shaped and reshaped capitalism5
Rethin9in+ historical chan+e there)ore implies that
people commonly described as @primitive,@
@traditional,@ @bac9ard,@ or @underdeveloped@ are
not )ro?en in a static past 3as in moderni?ation
models4 but represent particular local, creative
adaptations to economic and cultural conditions5
*ocal histories are uni.ue and o)ten @convoluted@
3Ailber and Hameson #'8K45 2hey do not represent
the steady march o) pro+ress5 2hey are neither
passive reEections o) unitary orld0capitalist )orces
3as in dependency models4 nor yet autonomous
)rom them, as hole and unchan+in+ @cultures@
outside o) history 3as in some moderni?ation
models45
2he reexamination o) local histories has become an
important )ocus o) current research5 Researchers
ho reFect evolutionary models no lon+er rely on
+enerali?ations to explain development or its
)ailure but try to understand the more speci8c,
local reasons leadin+ to the ays people construct
their social and economic li)e and their adaptations
to, and stru++les over, the material and cultural
conditions o) their existence 3&ill #'81J Pred and
Aatts #'',45
7 )urther line o) research emer+in+ )rom the
criti.ue o) moderni?ation and other evolutionary
theories has been a closer scrutiny o) the ori+ins
and eDects o) developmentalism, the ideolo+y or
orldvie underlyin+ moderni?ation 3*on+ and
*on+ #'',J /achs #'',J /chuurman #''%45 2his
ideolo+y le+itimi?es the persistent ine.ualities o)
the postcolonial era5 7s an ideolo+y,
developmentalism had its roots in Luropean
ethnocentrism5 It incorporated, almost unchan+ed,
the static representations o) the past and o) the
traditional 3and in)erior4, unchan+in+ @other@ that
had characteri?ed and Fusti8ed the @civili?in+@
mission o) centuries o) colonialism 37sad #'B%J
/aid #'8545
6oderni?ation in the postcolonial period has been
perhaps more insidious than colonialism, as it
seems to imply that i) people in poor countries
or9ed harder and )olloed appropriate policies
their countries ould eventually @catch up@ and
become li9e the dominant nations5 It thus places
the blame more s.uarely on their )ailures and
shortcomin+s, hereas colonial re+imes had been
more prepared to admit that their on presence in
the colonies made it impossible, not to say
inappropriate, )or any such emulation to occur5 2he
attempt to understand the historical creation o) the
ideolo+ies supportin+ colonialism, moderni?ation,
and @development@ has involved turnin+ the mirror
bac9 on Aestern culture and 9noled+e and
examinin+ its on assumptions and biases 3/aid
#'85J Bernal #'8BJ Roseberry and O=Brien #''#J
ComaroD and ComaroD #'',45
In addition to examinin+ the ideolo+y underlyin+
the moderni?ation )rame0or9, critics have
reexamined the practices throu+h hich Aestern
nations have imposed moderni?ation on, and
exerted control over, the /outh in the postcolonial
era5 2hese practices include la1eling, that is,
usin+ terms such as back&ard and
underde(eloped: and deployin+ experts, proFects,
and pro+rams that assert that moderni?ation is
possible i) certain prescriptions are )olloed5
/ometimes described as @postmodern,@ one strand
in the criti.ue o) the practices o) moderni?ation0
style development ta9es its principal theoretical
orientation )rom the or9 o) 6ichel >oucault5 &e
examined the or9in+s o) state poer throu+h the
process o) @normali?ation5@ 2his is the process
throu+h hich a citi?enry is reor+ani?ed and
labeled accordin+ to bureaucratically imposed
cate+ories that privile+e or punish accordin+ to
certain standards and rationales5 2he arbitrary
nature o) these standards is dis+uised, so they
come to appear normal and sel)evident5 >or
example, once a community is labeled
@traditional,@ everythin+ about it comes to appear
less rational and less relevant than the attributes
o) a @modern@ community, as i) the label itsel)
provided the dia+nosis o) a problem and proposed
a solution- no )urther investi+ation needed5 2he
label @)emale0headed household@ is similarly
problematic- it appears to name a cate+ory o)
households ith a similar @problem@ ; no man
present ; hen actually the experiences,
resources, and cultural contexts o) these
households imply diverse predicaments, and lac9
o) a male may not be the 9ey characteristic5
2hrou+h the process o) labelin+ and normali?ation,
individuals, classes, +enders, ethnic +roups, and
even nations are rede8ned accordin+ to one0
dimensional labels that simpli)y and there)ore belie
their complex histories and motivations5 2hey are
portrayed as passive @clients,@ @victims,@
@participants,@ @tar+et0+roup members,@ or @cases@
in pro+rams apparently intended )or their bene8t
3Lscobar #'8KJ Aood #'85J >er+uson #''0J DuBois
#''#45
7 related strand o) criti.ue has )ocused on
development a+encies and the experts ho impose
Aestern cate+ories and technical 9noled+e that
displace local 9noled+e and expertise5 /ome
national elites in the /outh, city bred and trained in
Aestern educational systems, are e.ually +uilty o)
such impositions5 2hey may even have more
diCculty reco+ni?in+ the value o) indi+enous
9noled+e, as their class status and privile+e,
unli9e those o) the )orei+n expert, are based on
sustainin+ the distinctions they can dra beteen
themselves and the poorer masses 3Chambers
#'8%45 2he move to reco+ni?e and value
indi+enous 9noled+e is +roin+ amon+
development practitioners 3Chambers #'8%, #''BJ
Ldards #'8'J !indi #''0J 6oore #'',45
>eminist theori?in+ about the operation o) poer in
the production 3and silencin+4 o) 9noled+e and
the si+ni8cance o) startin+ )rom the experiences
and standpoints o) omen 3and other oppressed
+roups4 has provided a maFor contribution to the
criti.ues and rethin9in+ o) standard research
methodolo+ies based on a hierarchy beteen the
researcher and the researched 3&ardin+ #'8BJ
6a+uire #'8BJ "irby and 6c"enna #'8'45 >eminists
and others concerned ith liberation, such as the
educator Paolo >reire, have developed and shared
techni.ues such as popular theatre, participatory
action research, and other participatory strate+ies
to address the problems o) hierarchy, to )acilitate
the sharin+ o) 9noled+e rather than imposin+ it,
and to lin9 research directly to movements )or
social chan+e5 In this area, eDective practices are
harder to achieve than is su++ested in theories o)
popular education, conscienti?ation, and
participation 3Rahnema #''045 7t times, these
participatory methodolo+ies have been co0opted to
serve the interests o) the people in poer5 Co0
optation can be very subtle, as poer and
hierarchy so easily reassert themselves5
/ometimes, inadvertently, the sel)0appointed
liberators end up imposin+ their on a+endas-
But the enthusiasm )or liberatin+ others has
only in)re.uently been matched by any
respect )or the cate+ories, particularly the
native @hal) ba9ed@ theories o) oppression
used by others5 >or, to accept such home0
breed theories is in eDect to cut out the role
o) the experts on revolution and de0expertise
dissent5555 Ideolo+ues are alays embarrassed
by their tar+eted bene8ciaries, alle+edly stuc9
in an earlier sta+e o) history and disinclined to
sho much interest in the +ood turn +oin+ to
be done to them5 555 &uman nature bein+ hat
it is, hile everyone li9es to be a social
en+ineer, )e li9e to be the obFects o) social
en+ineerin+5 555 2o survive beyond the tenure
o) the modem 9noled+e systems, the
lan+ua+e o) liberation ill have to ta9e into
account, respect)ully, the .uests )or )reedom
hich are articulated in other lan+ua+es and
other )orms, sometimes even throu+h the
lan+ua+e o) silence5
; !andy 3#'8', p5 ,B#4
/timulated by such criti.ues, )eminists and others
have tried to identi)y the modes o) resistance that
oppressed people use to counter the process o)
normali?ation and contest the imposition o) labels,
pro+rams, and practices that disadvanta+e them5
Larlier +enerations o) 6arxist scholars loo9ed
)orard to a revolution as the principal mode o)
resistance a+ainst class oppression5 6any )eminists
have pinned their hopes on collective action and
the mass or+ani?ation o) omen to counter +ender
oppression5 But the recent or9 o) 6arxists and
)eminists reco+ni?es resistance in its more subtle
)orms5 2hose oppressed because o) their class,
race, or +ender ; o)ten m2ltiple :eopardies ;
may be unable to ta9e the ris9 o) overt and
collective action 3/cott #'8545 2his does not
necessarily mean they are passive or i+norant o)
the )orces that oppress them5 2hey do not suDer
)rom )alse consciousness, and many have no need
)or @consciousness0raisin+5@ It is simply that
outsiders concerned about liberation, loo9in+ )or
more dramatic rebellions, have o)ten )ailed to
notice covert and indirect strate+ies o) resistance5
7lthou+h these strate+ies are perhaps lo 9ey,
they are nevertheless eDective in re+isterin+
dissent and hittlin+ aay at conditions o)
oppression to the extent that circumstances allo5
>eminists have documented many strate+ies o)
omen=s resistance, some o) hich have existed
)or centuries and others o) hich have been
+enerated more recently to meet ne conditions
3Risseeu #'88J 7bu0*u+hod #''045 In the
development 8eld, examples o) resistance mi+ht
include sabota+e and +eneral non0compliance,
poor participation in @participatory@ schemes
imposed )rom above, re)usal o) technical advice
and input Fud+ed by poor )armers as bein+
inappropriate to their needs, and preservation o)
shamanism and other spiritual practices that put
the he+emony o) scienti8c lo+ic into .uestion
3Bernstein #'B'J !andy #'8'J >er+uson #''0J
/cott #''045 Dominant +roups attribute many
)orms o) omen=s and men=s resistance to
i+norance, bac9ardness, la?iness, and irrelevant
traditionalism5
Ahat are )armers really sayin+ hen they state
that they are @too busy@ to attend extension
meetin+sN Or hen, apparently daydreamin+, they
are a )e seconds late doCn+ their hats to the
landlordN Or Fust a triEe slo to obey an orderN
Ahat are omen sayin+ hen they state that
)orms o) birth control imposed on them by ell0
meanin+ population planners @don=t a+ree@ ith
their systems or are contrary to their traditionsN Or
hen they 9eep their savin+s hidden )rom their
husbands but don=t directly challen+e the
husband=s authority to determine household
spendin+N Or hen they insist to their male 9in
that it is the spirits ho )orbid the sale o) land to
outsidersN Or hen they state to urban or Aestern
)eminists that )eminism is not )or themN
In situations in hich direct challen+es to systems
o) poer ould be punished, perhaps severely,
indirect )orms o) resistance 9eep the oppressor
+uessin+5 Ahat do they really meanN @One can
never be sure and the stren+th o) resistance lies in
the )act that one can never be sure@ 3!andy #'8',
pp5 ,180,1'45 I) neither oppressors nor sel)0
appointed liberators can ever be sure, this poses
problems that ne theories and practices must
address5
Postmodern approaches to development studies
)ocus on unpac9in+ the poer relations and hidden
a+endas implicit in lan+ua+e and disco2rse5 2his
type o) analysis ; also 9non as deconstr2ction
; provides poer)ul analytical tools e.ually
applicable to the discourse o) oCcial a+encies and
institutions, the discourse o) those see9in+ to
promote radical chan+e, and the discourse o)
everyday li)e, hich is used to articulate both
poer and resistance5 One can see this entire
chapter, even this hole manual, as an exercise in
deconstruction, because e are examinin+ hidden
assumptions behind particular bodies o) theory and
practice5 7 clear ay to demonstrate the uses o)
deconstruction is to examine 9ey ords and the
ays their meanin+ shi)ts as they are deployed in
varyin+ contexts in the service o) speci8c a+endas5
Ae have seen ho the term de(elop)ent is
deployed by theorists and practitioners ho dra
on .uite diDerent conceptual )rameor9s, ith
diDerent processes and +oals5 Other 9ey terms
meritin+ closer scrutiny include e2uity,
participation, and sustainable de(elop)ent5 2hese
ords, separately and in combination, are used to
re)er to vastly diDerent scenarios5 7s critics
3Chambers #''BJ *ele #''#J 6oore #'',4 have
pointed out, the diversity o) meanin+s attributed to
these 9ey terms is not simply a matter o)
con)usion5 7mbi+uity is actually a 9ey aspect o) the
eDective deployment o) these ords to meet
speci8c a+endas5 Lveryone, hatever their political
persuasion, can a+ree that e.uity, participation,
and sustainability are desirable5 People may thin9
that policies and pro+rams couched in these terms
reEect a broad consensus on the +oals and
processes o) development, but this practice mas9s
maFor diDerences and reduces the scope o) critical
debate to the issue o) selectin+ the most eCcient
delivery mechanisms5 *abels, lan+ua+e, and
discourse in +eneral have political eDects in the
orld and have strate+ic potential to bene8t or
harm certain +roups hen deployed in particular
ays5
Aithin a moderni?ation )rameor9, e2uity re)ers to
e.ual le+al ri+hts to participate in an ever0
expandin+ +lobal capitalist system 3sustained
+roth45 L.uity does not, in this )rameor9, imply
e.ual eDective opportunity to participate5 2he
moderni?ation )rameor9 does not reco+ni?e the
systemic class, race, or gender 1arriers that
ne+ate the idea o) an open society in hich every
individual ma9es pro+ress accordin+ to his or her
merits5 Participation, here, does not imply ma9in+
any choices about +oals or li)estyles ; it assumes
that one can be modern in only one ay5 !o
ecolo+ical or temporal limits and no reco+nition o)
the uneven costs and bene8ts o) the +lobal
economy accompany the idea o) sustained +roth5
Aithin the institutional )rameor9 o) development
a+encies, these same terms have a diDerent set o)
meanin+s and carry diDerent assumptions5 E2uity
becomes the e.ual ri+ht and obli+ation to
participate in development pro+rams and proFects
determined by outside a+encies 3+overnment,
non+overnmental, national, international45
!onparticipation is ta9en as evidence o)
bac9ardness, as these pro+rams and proFects are
desi+ned by @experts@ to @develop@ local economic
and political systems5 /ustainability in this context
is o)ten associated ith the ideas o) eCciency and
lo cost5 I) the pro+rams have been ell desi+ned
and participation is hi+h, they are supposed to
continue inde8nitely, ith minimal resources )rom
+overnment5 Lxamples include centrally desi+ned
community health0care systems that are intended
to reduce the need and demand )or hi+h0.uality
medical services or road improvements to be
underta9en and maintained by villa+ers5
7 third set o) meanin+s )or these same terms can
be dran )rom a more radical )rameor9, ith
empoerment as its central obFective5 E2uity, in
this case, means e.ual eDective poer
3overcomin+ race, class, and +ender barriers4 to
participate in de8nin+ the +oals and a+enda o)
development processes that meet every human=s
need )or a secure and decent livelihood, both )or
present and )or )uture +enerations 3sustainable
development45 2he startin+ point )or achievin+
these +oals has to be the reco+nition o) diDerences
3alon+ +ender, race, and other dimensions45
/ensitivity to diDerence 3race, class, +ender,
re+ion, history, etc54 is an essential component o)
attempts to develop ne visions and plan )or
chan+e- one +roup=s liberation or @development@
may otherise cause another +roup to be
ne+lected or, orse still, )urther oppressed5 2hird
Aorld )eminists and those identi)yin+ ith
postmodernism have made maFor contributions to
criti.ue and ne theori?in+ on .uestions o) poer
and diDerence5 2heir or9 is examined in the next
section 3@Rethin9in+ +ender, race, and identity in a
+lobal context@45
K2estions raised for research
#5 Ahat can be learned about conditions o)
inte+ration into the orld economic system )rom
examinin+ re+ional precolonial and colonial
historyN
,5 Ahat material and cultural stru++les are
reEected in daily li)e as it can be observed
todayN
%5 Ahat are the principal terms and labels used to
describe the process o) development and to
represent the ays o) li)e o) those apparently in
need o) developmentN
K5 2hrou+h hat )orms o) practice 3belie)s, speech,
actions, modes o) or+ani?ation, etc54 is resistance
expressed by subordinated +roups, and hy
does it ta9e these )ormsN
55 Ahat is the vision o) @development@ or pro+ress
held by a particular social +roupJ hat are the
members o) this +roup tryin+ to improve about
their lives and conditionsJ and hat start can be
made on the local and +lobal chan+es needed to
achieve their +oalsN
(mplications for polic" and action
#5 *iberated )rom the idea that development
involves pushin+ or pullin+ people don a
preestablished path, development practitioners
can )ocus on understandin+ the variety o) +oals
that people in particular places and times are
tryin+ to achieve and can or9 ith them to
explore and over0come the constraints that
)rustrate them5
,5 /ensitivity to diDerences 3race, class, +ender,
re+ion, history, etc54 is an essential component o)
attempts to develop ne visions and to plan )or
chan+e- one +roup=s liberation or @development@
may cause another +roup to be ne+lected or
)urther oppressed5
%5 &oever severely a social +roup may be
oppressed, it is not ithout its on analysis o)
the causes and nature o) the oppression and its
on strate+ies o) resistance5 Chan+es promoted
by outsiders ithout a )ull understandin+ o)
these strate+ies and conditions can undermine
the ell0bein+ o) the people they are intended to
help5 Caution, consultation, creativity, and a
illin+ness to learn and adapt, rather than
impose, are 9ey characteristics o) eDective
development partnerships5
K5 *abels, lan+ua+e, and discourse in +eneral have
political eDects and strate+ic potential to bene8t
or harm certain +roups5 2his aspect needs
care)ul attention in policy and action a+endas5
7OL $
Dilemmas of development disco2rse& the crisis of developmentalism and the comparative method
Ahat these pairs o) perspectives ; modernisation theory and 6arxism, development thin9in+ and dependency theory ; have in common
is economism, centrism and teleolo+y- economism because economic +roth is the centrepiece o) social chan+e, teleolo+y in that the
common assumption is +oal0oriented development, centrism because development 3or underdevelopment, accordin+ to the dependency
vie4 is led )rom here it is )urthest advanced ; the metropolitan orld5 7s such they are variations on a theme5 2his testi8es to the
stren+th and complexity o) developmentalism as a paradi+m5 Part o) this stren+th is that developmentalism is a layered, composite
discourse hich combines several discourses- liberal and radical, secular and reli+ious5 555
<niversali?in+ )rom estern experiences developmentalism created an ahistorical model o) chan+e hich, on the one hand, created a
@third orld@ hich as but an historical construct, and on the other, constructed @the Aest@ hich had no basis in historical reality either5
2he actual modernisation paths o) estern countries diDered amon+ themselves 3e5+5, early, late industriali?es4 and diDered )rom the
ideolo+y o) @development5@ DiDerent countries applied diDerent combinations o) mercantilism and )ree trade, varyin+ accordin+ to periods
and contexts5 2hus, ethnocentrism to characteri?e the bias o) developmentalism ould not even be a correct term5 2he diver+ence amon+
estern countries is much lar+er than the ideolo+y o) modernity and development su++ests5 7 concept such as democracy does not carry
the same meanin+ even amon+ estern countries5 555
Postmodernism is a estern deconstruction o) estern modernism, and to address the problem o) developmentalism, more is re.uired5
Ahat matters most and comes across least in many analyses o) development discourse is the complexity and @holism@ o) estern
developmentalism5 Developmentalism is not merely a policy o) economic and social chan+e, or a philosophy o) history5 It reEects the ethos
o) estern culture and is intimately intertined ith estern history and culture5 <ltimately, the problem o) developmentalism cannot be
settled in terms o) political economy, not in terms o) social philosophy, the criti.ue o) ideas or the dissembly o) discourse- it re.uires a
pro)ound historical and cultural revie o) the estern proFect5 2his tas9 e mi+ht term the deconstruction o) the Aest 3usin+ a )ashionable
term but also extendin+ its use, )or deconstruction re)ers to the analysis o) texts45
2he deconstruction o) the Aest is about returnin+ the Aest to orld history5 2his )ollos )rom the lo+ic o) decoloni?ation5 It also )ollos
)rom the crisis o) the estern development model, not least in the Aest itsel)5 2his may yield a basis )or reopenin+ the debate on
rationality and values5 &ere I ill only indicate brieEy hat directions the deconstruction o) the Aest mi+ht ta9e5
2he deconstruction o) the Aest can be ta9en as a historical as ell as a conceptual proFect5 2a9en as a historical proFect the 9ey .uestion
is- to hat extent is hat e call @estern civili?ation@ actually a universal human herita+e, hich comes to us, )or historical and
+eo+raphical reasons, in the +uise o) a estern synthesisN In this context, certain )orms o) bein+ @anti0estern@ are as irrelevant as, )or
instance, bein+ anti0al+ebra, hich in the 8rst place is not estern but 7rabic in ori+in, and in the second place does not ma9e sense5 In a
conceptual sense this translates into the .uestion o) hat, in @estern@ contributions, is particularist and hat is universal, hat is culture
speci8c and hat is +eneral or +enerali?abie5555
2he analysis o) estern discourses is important, but ider cultural con)rontation is also re.uired- the analysis o) co+nitive patterns
underlyin+ discourse, o) estern icono+raphy and art, o) estern popular culture5 &ere e approach the point o) reversal- the ersthile
model examined as a problem5 Part o) the proFect o) analysis o) the Aest in terms )ormerly reserved )or history=s bac9aters5 2he analysis
o) estern )etishism, not as a )ad but as an act o) therapy5555
2hese en.uiries pave the ay )or a more speci8c proFect- the deconstruction o) @development5@ 2his a+ain can be ta9en in several modes5
It can be ta9en in the sense o) the deconstruction o) development discourse5 2his approach has been adopted in this essay in a historical0
interpretative )ashion5 It may be ta9en also in a stricter sense o) deconstruction development policies and ta9e the )orm o) the
disa++re+ation o) policy )ormulations, )or example, beteen those that are 3a4 inevitable, 3b4 necessary, 3c4 desirable or acceptable under
certain speci8ed conditions, and 3d4 nonsensical and reEectin+ estern biases and ethnocentrism5 7ccordin+ly, the deconstruction o)
development is the prere.uisite )or its reconstruction5 2his cannot be a sin+le reconstruction but should be, +iven varyin+ itineraries and
circumstances in diDerent countries, i5e5, polycentric reconstructions5
K2estions on e/cerpt ?7o/ $@
#5 Ahat is the problem ith usin+ a traditional0
modem dichotomy in tal9in+ about
developmentN
,5 Ahy is it necessary to deconstruct the Aest and
reexamine its history and cultural ethosN
7o/ %
The politics of development>polic" la1eling
By de8nition, then, such processes 3i) hich @labellin+@ is one4 do not appear si+ni8cant 555 yet5 Ae start )rom the premise that they are5 It
is there)ore our current proFect to convince others throu+h the )olloin+ case studies that such @deep@ structures should occupy a more
prominent position in the analysis o) the state, and the politics o) development policy in particular5 It is a pro+ramme o) reco+ni?in+ the
political in the apparently non0political5 It also becomes a ay o) understandin+ the state throu+h an examination o) certain practices o)
intervention and a+ency involvement in development5555
/o the issue is not hether e label people, but hich labels are created, and hose labels prevail to de8ne a hole situation or policy
area, under hat conditions and ith hat eDectsN 555
7 central )eature o) this labellin+ process is the diDerentiation and disa++re+ation o) the individual, and the individual=s subse.uent
identi8cation ith a principal label such as @landless,@ @sharecropper,@ or, in another context, @sin+le parent5@ Individuals are over0
determined in this ay5 2he list o) such labels can be continued more or less inde8nitely5 7s su++ested above, labels li9e @re)u+ee,@
@youth,@ or @oman@ loo9 inevitable, +iven, benevolent, or natural5 &oever, they are evidence that choices have been made beteen
hich desi+nation o) people to adopt5 Remember that it is not hether, but hich, by hom, under hat conditions, )or hat purpose,
ith hat eDectsO 2he process hereby the individual is diDerentiated is hi+hly si+ni8cant to our theme5 2he principle is )amiliar )rom
structural0)unctional sociolo+y or role theory, or )rom the discussion in public administration o) compartmentali?ation, the case,
precedents and standardi?ation5555
*abellin+ then re)ers to the ei+htin+ applied to such diDerentiated elements5 @Problems@ re.uirin+ attention and policy are constructed
and de8ned in this ay, leadin+ to one label or element representin+ the entire situation o) an individual or a )amily5 2a9e, )or example, the
desi+nation @landless,@ hich is prominent in Ban+ladesh +overnment and development a+ency rhetoric5 It appears both uncontroversial
and benevolent5 2hat is to say, it is diCcult to dispute no that a rapid increase in rural landlessness constitutes a problem, and that it
si+ni8es +ood intentions to devise policies )or the landless as a tar+et +roup5 &oever, this desi+nation relies upon a diDerentiation
beteen a poor person=s 3or a )amily=s4 many roles and the choice to )ocus on one o) them5 2o be ithout suCcient land )or )amily
subsistence is clearly very important in rural Ban+ladesh, but the circumstances o) possession o), access to or ri+hts over land are very
complex and variable5 7lthou+h the term @landless@ appears to re)er to a suCciently stron+ cate+ory upon hich to predict a ran+e o)
behaviour, it is not true that the desi+nation has uni)orm implications )or the people thus labelled5 It does not reveal ho such people
actually survive5 It relies upon the crude, over0simpli8ed variable o) nonpossession o) land to tell this story o) the varied relationships
throu+h hich survival is arran+ed5555
7nother approach to this process o) diDerentiation and ei+htin+ is to distin+uish beteen the notions o) @case@ and @story5@ 2he @case@
3i5e5, a compartmentali?ed aspect abstracted )rom a person=s total situation or @story@4 is institutionali?ed over time throu+h labels most
)amiliarly, o) course, throu+h stereotypin+5 $overnment pro+rammes trans)orm people into obFects ; as recipients, applicants, claimants,
clients, or even participants5 It ill be necessary to ma9e si+ni8cant conceptual distinctions beteen some o) these terms, but )or the
moment they can to+ether be re+arded as evidence o) de0lin9in+ ; the separation o) people )rom the @story@ and their representation as a
@case5@ In some discussions, this mi+ht be reco+ni?ed as the )amiliar process o) bureaucratic alienation and even re+arded as the
inevitable, necessary cost 3or, )or some, ris94 o) maintainin+ administrative Fustice5
6ore is involved, hoever5 2here are )undamental political conse.uences o) such de0lin9in+, both contemporary and historical connections
are either severed or re0interpreted5 Identities 3)amily, 9in, clan, nei+hbourhood, a+e +roup4 are bro9en, to be re0established on the basis
o) a person=s relationship to an actual or potential cate+ory o) state activity5 2he desi+nation thereby ac.uires a lo+ic in hich speci8ed
9inds o) behaviour and interaction are demanded5555
7t the same time, separation o) case )rom story 3i5e5, the tendency aay )rom sel)0evidence4 is an index o) poer )or the possessor o) the
case5 2o remove people )rom their on story as a precondition )or their access to publicly mana+ed resources and services is a central
)eature o) the political disor+ani?ation o) subordinated classes5 7uthoritative labellin+, de8nin+ the boundaries o) competence or relevance
in policy 8elds and bureaucratic encounters, has this )unction5 Aithin the donative discourse o) development policy, pro+rammes are
directed toards activity hich is ea9ly lin9ed or de0lin9ed by ideolo+ical representation or practice to multidimensional systems o)
exchan+e or social structural history5 2he donative discourse brin+s the notion development very close to relie) and charity ; people
become @re)u+ees,@ @itinerants,@ @slum dellers,@ @va+rants,@ and so on5
K2estions on e/cerpt ?7o/ %@
#5 I) labels are only ords, hy do they matterN
,5 Ahat connections are bein+ dran here beteen
poer, 9noled+e, and dominationN
General disc2ssion H2estions
#5 7re the terms traditional and )odern used in
development discourse in your countryN Ahat
political messa+es do they carryN Ahich +roups,
re+ions, or activities are labeled @traditional@ or
@modern@N
,5 Ahat attempts have been made in your country
to articulate alternative visions o) developmentN
Ahose interests do these visions serveN
%5 2o hat extent are indi+enous )orms o)
9noled+e, hich are based in experience rather
than in )ormal education, valued in your countryN
Ahat are the )orums in hich it is expressedN
K5 Ahat )orms o) resistance to imposed cate+ories
and a+endas are )ound amon+ oppressed +roups
in your countryN
55 &o have activists, includin+ )eminists, or9ed
to overcome the barriers to sharin+ that are
created by une.ual poer beteen themselves
and those they see9 to understand and assistN
15 Ahat meanin+s do the terms e2uity,
participation, and sustainability currently have in
your country=s or or+ani?ation=s policies and
pro+ramsN
*ethinking gender) race) and identit"
in a glo1al conte/t
Respondin+ to considerable pressure )rom omen
around the orld, the <nited !ations declared
#'B5 as International Aomen=s Gear5 2hat year, the
8rst <nited !ations0sponsored inter+overnmental
con)erence on omen opened, ith much )an)are
and optimism, in 6exico City5 2he participants
came to+ether to celebrate and stren+then +lobal
sisterhood5 7lthou+h the con)erence or+ani?ers
ac9noled+ed diDerences amon+ the orld=s
omen, they con8dently expected that the
common bonds beteen omen, particularly their
oppression by men, ould provide the +lue needed
to )oster +lobal sisterhood 3Pietila and Mic9ers
#''0J 2in9er #''045
&oever, this con)erence, alon+ ith an
international con)erence on omen and
development held at Aellesley Colle+e in the
<nited /tates in #'B1, revealed some important
divisions amon+ omen in the /outh and !orth5
2he vision o) an easy +lobal sisterhood )ell to
pieces as omen )rom the /outh voiced their
concerns about the domination o) research
a+endas and publications by omen )rom the
!orth5 2hey .uestioned the relevance )or omen in
the /outh o) much !orth0based )eminist research5
2hey pointed to the speci8c problems o) the /outh
; particularly their disadvanta+ed position in the
orld economy and the destructive le+acy o)
colonialism, racism, and imperial capitalism ; and
called )or )eminist research on omen=s lives in the
speci8c context o) /outhern problems and
possibilities 3Aon+ #'8#45
/cholars and activists in the /outh increasin+ly
turned their attention to the speci8c problems and
preoccupations o) their re+ions, particularly the
impacts o) race, colonialism, and +lobal
ine.ualities on omen5 Drain+ on their on
experiences and those o) )eminist activists and
theorists in the /outh, alon+ ith the ritin+s o)
blac9 and minority scholars in the !orth, o)
dependency theorists, and o) some 6arxist
)eminists, a 2hird Aorld, or indi+enous, )eminism
be+an to emer+e, distin+uishin+ itsel) )rom much
)eminist research in the !orth5 7lthou+h scholars
or9in+ ithin this emer+in+ perspective
reco+ni?ed the complexity o) 2hird Aorld @realities@
and the +ender ine.ualities o) the /outh, they
initially emphasi?ed the @commonality and poer
o) the +lobal economic and political processes that
set the context )or diverse national and re+ional
experiences, and o)ten constrain the possibilities
)or alternative strate+ies and actions@ 3/en and
$ron #'8B, p5 '45 Considerable debate occurred
about hich approach to ta9e5 /ome scholars
remained committed to the liberal perspective and
thus )ocused on )amily, 9inship relations, and
omen=s place in the home and in the or9place
3/udar9asa #'B%J 6u9herFee #'B8J Oppon+ #'8%45
Others stood more s.uarely in the radical tradition
and conse.uently emphasi?ed the role o) class and
international capitalism in omen=s subordination
and political action 3Helin #'80J 7ri?pe and 7randa
#'8#J "ishar and Manita #'8KJ 6bilinyi #'8KJ !+
#'8545 &oever, 2hird Aorld scholars +enerally
a+reed on the need to )ocus on the poor, especially
poor omenJ on the importance o) +lobal economic
ine.ualitiesJ and on the need to +round solutions to
omen=s problems in the realities and experiences
o) omen in the /outh5 !evertheless, most
scholars and activists in the /outh, li9e their
counterparts in the !orth, @did not entirely
relin.uish the )ascination o) 8ndin+ +lobal
explanations to the subordination o) omen@
3Mar+as #'',, p5 ,00J see also /en and $ron
#'8BJ Bor.ue and Aarren #''0J 6a?umdar and
/harma #''045
Institutions )or research and activism blossomed in
the /outh and played a 9ey role in these debates5
2he 7ssociation o) 7)rican Aomen )or Research and
Development, launched in #'BB, sponsored
netor9in+ amon+ 7)rican researchers and
publication o) articles on methodolo+y and
development )or omen in 7)rica 377AORD #'8%45
2he research carried out by the Institute o) /ocial
and Lconomic Research and by the Aomen and
Development <nit o) the <niversity o) the Aest
Indies has provided both theoretical and
methodolo+ical insi+hts into Caribbean omen=s
lives 3Barriteau #'',45 2he Center )or the
Development o) Bra?ilian Aomen, )ounded in #'B5,
has provided an umbrella )or Bra?ilian )eminists
lar+ely concerned ith the economic dimensions o)
omen=s subordination 37lvare? #'8'45 7 series o)
meetin+s called *atin 7merican and Caribbean
>eminist Lncounters has been held since #'8#,
+ivin+ )eminists )rom the re+ion an opportunity to
discuss both substantive and or+ani?ational
concerns 3Mar+as #'',45 2he $ender and
Development <nit o) the 7sian and Paci8c
Development Center, the Paci8c and 7sian
Aomen=s >orum, and the 7sian Aomen=s Research
and 7ction !etor9 have stimulated important
research on omen in the re+ion5 6anushi, in
India, hich started in #'B', has provided a vehicle
)or Indian )eminists to develop their on brand o)
)eminist theori?in+ and action 3"ishar and Manita
#'8K45 Indian )eminism Eoered in the #'80s,
inspirin+ the creation o) or+ani?ations such as the
Lconomists Interested in Aomen=s Issues $roup
and the Centre )or Aomen=s Development /tudies,
in !e Delhi5 D7A!, a 2hird Aorld omen=s
or+ani?ation, +re )rom a small seed planted in
Ban+ladore, India, into an international )orum )or
omen in the /outh concerned ith development
strate+ies, policies, theories, and research5 It has
been concerned particularly ith the impact o)
development on poor people, especially omen
3/en and $ron #'8B45
2he Eoerin+ o) research institutions and research
in the /outh provided a plat)orm )rom hich
)eminists in the /outh and the !orth could be+in to
share concerns and ideas on a more e.ual )ootin+5
2he )ocus on +lobal political economy and the
interaction beteen +ender and class resonated
ith, and inEuenced, )eminists in the !orth
or9in+ ithin the socialist0)eminist perspective5 In
the #'80s, )orums such as the mid0decade <nited
!ations meetin+ in Copenha+en and the #'85 !$O
)orum, held alon+side the 8nal meetin+ o) the
<nited !ations Decade )or Aomen, in !airobi,
provided a meetin+ +round )or )eminists or9in+
ithin this perspective in the /outh and the !orth5
Both a+reed on the centrality o) economic and
political )actors and the importance o) class,
+ender relations, and the sexual division o) labour,
particularly omen=s productive and reproductive
labour 3Goun+ et al5 #'8#J 6ies #'8'45 &oever,
2hird Aorld and blac9 )eminists )ocused more
speci8cally on issues o) race, ethnicity, and culture
and called )or a socialist )eminism ith these
elements at the centre o) its analysis 3/en and
$ron #'8B45
In recent years, some scholars in the /outh have
become sceptical about Aestern0based @solutions@
and theories, hether based on liberal0)eminist or
6arxist0socialist0)eminist perspectives5 2his
scepticism has no doubt been rein)orced by +lobal
restructurin+ 3ith its blurrin+ o) the !orth0/outh
divide4, the limits imposed on economic +roth by
+roin+ environmental de+radation, and the
demise o) socialism as a )easible alternative to
liberal, neoclassical, economic0mar9et0oriented
@solutions@ to the orld=s development problems5
2his scholarship has contributed to, and dran on,
postmodernist thou+ht, ith its emphasis on
9noled+e, lan+ua+e, and poer and its
scepticism about the grand theor", particularly
Aestern he+emony over the de8nition o)
modernity 3/aid #'85J >oucault #'8045 It has also
dran on standpoint )eminism, ith its )ocus on
omen=s lived experiences 3&ardin+ #''#4, and
postmodernist )eminism, hich adopts a
postmodernist stance toard diDerence, discourse,
and +rand theory, ithout abandonin+ )eminism=s
commitment to +ender e.uality 3>lax #''0J
!icholson #''0J &ennessy #''%J Parpart #''%45
One strand in this criti.ue has )ocused on !orthern
scholars and development experts=
representation o) 2hird Aorld peoples5 Drain+
on the literature on deconstruction and the
postcolonial criti.ues o) /aid 3#'854, /piva9
3#''04, and others, scholars such as *a?re+ 3#'884,
On+ 3#'884, 6inh0ha 3#'8'4, and /an+ari and Maid
3#'8'4 have shon ho !orthern representations
o) 2hird Aorld omen as the vulnerable, helpless,
bac9ard @other@ have reEected and perpetuated
deeply held Aestern biases5 Indeed, 7iha On+
3#'88, p5 804 insisted that @)or )eminists loo9in+
overseas, the non0)eminist Other is not so much
patriarchy as the non0Aestern omen5@
2his criti.ue o) colonial0postcolonial representation
has aroused considerable interest in the
relationship beteen poer, 9noled+e, and
lan+ua+e and discourse5 >eminist scholars in the
/outh have become increasin+ly vocal about the
need )or studies to +ive voice to the complex,
diverse, and multilayered realities o) 2hird Aorld
omen5 2he importance o) recoverin+ omen=s
previously silenced voices and 9noled+es has
inspired studies such as the diary o) Ri+oberta
6enchu 3Bur+os0Debray #'8K4, the li)e stories o)
Ben+ali omen 3"ale9ar #''#4, and the story o) a
rural 2an?anian oman 36bilinyi #'8'45
Lnvironmentalists such as Mandana /hiva 3#'884
and Bina 7+aral 3#''#4 have emphasi?ed the
complex, sophisticated environmental 9noled+e
o) poor omen in the /outh and the potential it
holds )or sustainable development5 /cholars have
also be+un ma9in+ more liberal use o) direct
.uotes in their ritin+s to let in)ormants spea9 )or
themselves 3On+ #'8BJ Bo??oli and !9otsoe #''#J
O9e9e #''K45 2he )ocus on indi+enous 9noled+e
and recovery o) previously subFu+ated 9noled+es
continues to be an important theme amon+
/outhern researchers5
2he +roin+ scepticism about the universal claims
o) Aestern theories, especially their control over
the de8nition o) modernity, has undermined the
search )or universals and shi)ted the )ocus o) many
/outhern scholars to spatially and culturally
speci8c local studies5 Community studies have
provided in0depth analyses o) omen=s daily lives
in the /outh5 *atin 7merican scholars have
emphasi?ed the urban poor 3Helin #''0J >indFi
#'',4, and 7)rican scholars have more o)ten
)ocused on rural communities 3see the articles in
6omsen and "innaird #''%45 Lnvironment, +ender,
and community have been o) maFor interest to
scholars and activists in all parts o) the /outh5
Mandana /hiva 3#'884 in India and Aan+ari 6athaii
in "enya, )or example, have )ocused on 2hird Aorld
omen=s special relationship to and 9noled+e o)
the environment5 7lthou+h this literature is not
alays sensitive to diDerence, especially alon+
class lines, it does emphasi?e the material and
spatial contexts o) the lives o) omen in the /outh,
especially poor omen 37+aral #''#45
2his )ocus on context and 9noled+e has spaned
an increasin+ reco+nition o) the importance o)
identit" and diDerence5 Increasin+ly, scholars in
the /outh have abandoned the search )or the
=2hird Aorld oman@ and turned their attention to
the many diDerences amon+ omen in the /outh5
In *atin 7merica and the Caribbean, )or example,
recent >eminist Lncounters have had to
ac9noled+e omen=s diversity in the re+ion and
the need to adopt a more democratic and
pluralistic approach to omen=s issues 3Mar+as
#'',45 /tudies o) reli+ious, cultural, ethnic,
national, and other identities have blossomed as
scholars reco+ni?e the stren+th o) these constructs
on both omen=s 3and men=s4 sel)0perceptions and
actions5 Reli+ious )undamentalism, ith its
patriarchal tendencies, has been a persistent
theme in /outhern )eminist scholarship 36eraissi
#'8BJ Imam #''KJ "umar #''KJ 6umta? #''K45
2he role o) race in omen=s lives, particularly in
post0colonial societies, has become a maFor
scholarly preoccupation 3Barriteau #'',45
Lthnicity, once associated ith premodern
@tradition@ and thus rele+ated to the purvie o)
historians and anthropolo+ists, has resur)aced and
been ac9noled+ed as a crucial element in
present0day societies in the /outh 3and !orth45 2he
recovery and stren+thenin+ o) local traditions have
been seen as a ay to challen+e destructive
Aestern representations o) 2hird Aorld omen and
to create institutions and value systems rooted in
one=s on history5
&oever, this process is a to0ed+ed sord, as
many local traditions are sexist and see9 to
maintain omen=s subordination5 &indu culture, )or
example, has @a poer)ul traditional discourse that
values oman=s place as lon+ as she 9eeps to the
place prescribed@ 3!arayan #'8', p5 ,5'45 Get,
these same traditions have provided a basis )or
criti.uin+ destructive colonial discourses5 2o
undermine such traditions is no easy tas95
!evertheless, youn+ scholars in the /outh are
increasin+ly illin+ to challen+e cultural traditions
that perpetuate omen=s subordination
37madiume #'8BJ Mar+as #'',J 6u9abi0"abiria et
al5 #''%J O9e9e #''K45 2his scholarship is an
important reminder that positivism and modernity
are not the only )orces or9in+ a+ainst omen=s
interests5
2he )ocus on identity, diDerence, and culture has
undermined the notion that a )e universal
divisions 3such as class or race4 can identi)y and
determine people=s lives5 /cholars )rom the /outh
3and !orth4 are increasin+ly aare o) the
complexity o) people=s daily existence5 Aomen=s
lives in the /outh are built around multiple axes ;
such as race, class, +ender, culture, a+e, and
ethnicity ; hich interact in complex and o)ten
unexpected ays, over both time and place5 In
*atin 7merica, the search to understand this
process has led to a reco+nition o) the plurality o)
omen=s experiences and
the possibility o) multiple representations and
identities5 555 2he ac9noled+ment o) these
multiple and diverse rationalities re)utes the
idea o) an emancipatory process that
articulates aspirations ithin one dynamic
only and throu+h an exclusive and privile+ed
axis5
; Me+a 3#'88, p5 ,84
7)rican and 7sian scholars have also be+un to
)ocus on the multiple identities and oppressions o)
omen in their re+ions and on the need to
underta9e a more nuanced, complex, and
contextual analysis o) omen=s daily lives 3On+
#'8BJ RaFan #''%J O9e9e #''K45
/cholars in the /outh en+a+ed in the current
debates on diDerence, culture, and identity are
callin+ )or )undamental rethin9in+ o) omen=s
position in re+ard to economic and political issues5
Lconomic development, especially the economic
problems )acin+ omen, continues to be a central
preoccupation )or )eminist scholars and activists in
the /outh5 6uch o) their ritin+ is still deeply
inEuenced by either liberal moderni?ation
perspectives 32homson and /ari9ahputi #'8'J
Misanath #''#4 or socialist0)emimst analysis
3&eyser #'8BJ 6eena #''#J Lviota #'',J Pere?0
7leman #'',45 &oever, scholars )rom the /outh
are increasin+ly ar+uin+ )or a ne approach to
development, one that ta9es omen=s multiple,
Euid identities and their local 9noled+e into
account5 Providin+ the ansers to development
problems is less and less seen as the prero+ative o)
the !orth5 /cholars in the /outh are increasin+ly
demandin+ that development policies and plans be
embedded in the speci8c, complex, and diverse
realities o) their on societies, rather than bein+
@coo9ed up@ by mainstream development @experts@
in the !orth 3On+ #'8BJ Bunch and Carillo #''0J
Barriteau #'',J 2adria #''%45 7s Bina 7+aral
pointed out, the /outh needs
an alternative trans)ormational, approach to
development SthatT ould 555 concern both
ho +ender relations and relations beteen
people and the non0human orld are
conceptualised, and ho they are concretised
in terms o) the distribution o) property, poer
and 9noled+e5
; 7+aral 3#''#, p5 584
2he )ocus on diDerence, multiple identities, and
discourse has also aDected the study o) omen=s
political action, both at the level o) the state and in
social movements5
>eminist scholars in the /outh, althou+h concerned
that the )ocus on diDerence and multiple identities
could undermine )eminist politics and rarely
sympathetic to the extreme relativism o) @hi+h
postmodernism,@ are also increasin+ly aare o) the
need to ac9noled+e the implications o) diDerence
and discourse )or omen=s resistance and
collective action5 7s Mar+as pointed out,
2he *atin 7merican omen=s movement
shos that it is no lon+er possible to spea9 o)
omen=s identity, anchored and built on their
experiences as a subordinate +ender5 555 Ae
are livin+ in a time, not only in *atin 7merica,
characteri?ed by the simultaneous emer+ence
o) ne social subFects, multiple rationalities
and identities, expressed in the social
movements5
; Mar+as 3#'',, p5 #'14
7s Mar+as also pointed out, *atin 7merican
)eminists have reali?ed that the )eminist
movement
cannot be based only on a sin+le dynamic or
on an exclusive, privile+ed axis, but must be
+rounded in the articulation o) diDerences, o)
the multiple and diverse rationalities already
present ithin it5
; Mar+as 3#'',, p5 ,#,4
>or this to happen, omen must reco+ni?e and
elcome competin+ identities and discourses and
discover ays to turn them into a basis )or political
action5 In "enya, )or example, )eminists have
placed the +endered character o) culture and
lan+ua+e at the centre o) their stru++le )or
omen=s democratic ri+hts 36u9abi0"abira et al5
#''%J !?omo #''%45
Identity has become a political battle+round5
Reli+ious, ethnic, and cultural identities compete
)or omen=s political alle+iance, sometimes to
reduce their participation and sometimes to
mobili?e it5 Both the ne discourse o) identity and
@traditional@ claims to 9noled+e and authority
inEuence omen=s political activities5 In Pa9istan,
)or example, )undamentalist 6uslim +roups are
pushin+ omen out o) politics 36umta? #''K4, and
in northern !i+eria a 6uslim omen=s or+ani?ation
is attemptin+ to rede8ne omen=s political ri+hts
ithin Islam5 Other omen are cau+ht beteen
their 6uslim herita+e and a desire to mobili?e
omen a+ainst patriarchal traditions 3Imam #''K45
Culture, lan+ua+e, and identity have thus become
central issues in the study o) omen=s political
action in the /outh, both )or mobili?ation and )or
resistance5 7nd they promise to remain so
3RadcliDe and Aestood #''%45
2he ritin+s o) scholars and activists in the /outh
have inEuenced, and been inEuenced by,
scholarship in the !orth5 6inority scholars in the
!orth, especially blac9 omen, have )ound the
)ocus on diDerence and multiple representation
particularly important5 2heir devastatin+ criti.ues
o) Aestern scholarship, ith its claims to @9no@
omen in the /outh and minority omen in the
!orth, have rein)orced /outhern scholarship5 Both
minority scholarship in the !orth and scholarly
ritin+ in the /outh have undermined !orthern0
)eminist he+emony and set the sta+e )or a more
considered approach to diDerence 3hoo9s #''#J
6ohanty et al5 #'',45 /cholarship on the multiple
oppressions o) blac9 and minority omen in the
!orth 3"in+ #'88J Hames and Busia #''%4 has
rein)orced studies )rom the /outh 3and !orth4 that
point to the crucial roles played by race, class,
ethnicity, and +ender in omen=s lives5 2he issue
o) multiple identities and diDerences, the
importance o) lan+ua+e and discourse and their
connection to poer, and the need to recover
omen=s voices and 9noled+e have become core
elements in current )eminist thin9in+5
2he )ocus on diDerence, identity, and discourse has
played itsel) out in diverse ays ithin )eminist
scholarship in the !orth5 6any )eminists have
incorporated elements o) this thin9in+ into their
analysis but remain basically tied to established
)eminist perspectives5 /andra &ardin+ 3#'',4, )or
example, has accepted the implications o) multiple
identities and the constructed subFect ithout
abandonin+ her commitment to standpoint
)eminism5 6any socialist )eminists continue to
rite on issues o) political economy but o)ten ith
a ne emphasis on culture, lan+ua+e, and
diDerence 3Beneria and >eldman #'',J 6ies and
/hiva #''%45 /ome )eminists in the !orth have
been dran to postmodern thin9in+, hich
spaned many o) the current debates5 7 )e
)eminist postmodernists, such as *uce Iri+aray
3#'854, place postmodern ideas at the centre o)
their analysis5 Others adopt a more synthetic
approach5 /ome o) these postmodernist )eminists
; most notably Hane Rax 3#''04 and Hudith Butler
and Hoan /cott 3#'',4 ; have believed that
postmodernist thin9in+ can be readily incorporated
into )eminist theory and politics5 Others ; such as
!ancy >raser and *inda !icholson 3#''04,
Rosemary &ennessy 3#''%4, and "athleen Cannin+
3#''K4 ; have called )or a strate+ic en+a+ement
o) )eminist and postmodernist thou+ht, but one
that trans)orms both perspectives, rather than
simply creatin+ an alliance beteen the to5 >raser
and !icholson believed that the to approaches
complemented each other-
Post0modernists oDer sophisticated and
persuasive criticisms o) )oundationalism and
essentialism, but their conceptions o) social
criticism tend to be anemic5 >eminists oDer
robust conceptions o) social criticism, but they
tend at times to lapse into )oundationalism
and essentialism5
; >raser and !icholson 3#''0, p5 ,04
2hey called )or a critical en+a+ement beteen the
to, one that combines @a postmodernist
incredulity toard metanarratives ith the
social0critical poer o) )eminism@ 3>raser and
!icholson #''0, p5 %K45
Clearly, the encounter beteen )eminists in the
!orth and /outh, as ell as amon+ )eminists ith
diverse approaches and perspectives, is on+oin+,
indeterminate, and Euid5 2his contested terrain ill
no doubt continue to )oster debate and
ne+otiation5 It is becomin+ +lobal, drain+ on the
thin9in+ and ritin+ o) scholars all over the orld5
>eminism, one hopes, has arrived at a point at
hich diDerences and ambi+uities can be
celebrated, ithout sacri8cin+ the search )or
broader, richer, more complex, and
multilayered )eminist solidarityJ the sort o)
solidarity hich is essential )or overcomin+
the oppression o) omen in its @endless
variety and monotonous similarity5@
; >raser and !icholson 3#''0, p5 %54
Questions raised )or research
#5 Do the speci8c realities o) omen in the /outh
3and o) many omen in the !orth4 ; particularly
colonialism, poverty, and culture ; raise issues
that are not ade.uately addressed in existin+
)eminist theoryN
,5 &o do race, class, and +ender intersect to
inEuence omen=s livesN
%5 &o do the construction and representation o)
omen by those ho control the dominant
discourse aDect omen=s livesN
K5 Ahy is it important to search )or omen=s voices
and 9noled+e, particularly those that have
been hidden )rom history or silenced alto+etherN
Ahat can these voices add to )eminist
theori?in+N
55 Ahat is the connection beteen lan+ua+e and
poerN Ahat do e learn by analy?in+ the ords
people use in describin+ one another and them0
selvesN &o do ords and discourse aDect
actionN
implications )or policy and action
#5 >eminist riters in the /outh ar+ue that policies
should be +rounded in the material, spatial,
ideolo+ical and discursive contexts o) omen=s
lives5
,5 It is important to create and stren+then
institutes and or+ani?ations in the /outh that can
build the capacity o) /outhern researchers and
activists and to )oster a research and action
a+enda that is based on the priorities and
concerns o) omen in the /outh5
%5 Policyma9ers must reco+ni?e that 9noled+e is
)ound on many levels and that the voices and
opinions o) the less poer)ul and less educated
may oDer more relevant solutions to
development problems than all the @experts@ in
the !orth5
K5 &idden assumptions embedded in policies and
pro+rams are a vehicle )or the exertion o) poer
over others and should be exposed5
55 Policies should emer+e )rom a participatory
process that includes the voices o) all omen
concerned5
7o/ '
The inadeH2ac" of the dominant research methodolog"
Despite decades o) research activity in 7)rican societies, social and economic problems are orsenin+ and several 7)rican countries are on
the brin9 o) economic collapse5 Aomen are particularly aDected since many o) the policies and historical processes desi+ned to inte+rate
7)rica into the orld economic system have been detrimental to them5 2he diDerential inte+ration o) 7)rican men and omen into the
orld economic system resulted in the deterioration o) the status o) 7)rican omen and is an aspect o) the political economy o) Luropean
patriarchy5 7s a conse.uence o) Luropean penetration into 7)rica, the devaluation and ne+lect o) the productive and reproductive labour o)
omen ithin subsistence economies continues to determine the position o) the maFority o) 7)rican omen5 Instead o) studyin+ the impact
o) these processes on 7)rican societies, most research has concentrated on producin+ essentially descriptive and useless data5
One o) the most serious constraints to research on omen=s issues in 7)rica is related to the matrix o) the dominant research methodolo+y
inEuencin+ 7)rican social science research5 Developed and controlled by Luropeans, the methodolo+y cannot be separated )rom the
political, economic, and cultural domination o) 7)rica by Lurope and the subse.uent mar+inalisation o) the maFority o) 7)rican omen5
7s a product o) the value maintainin+ institutions o) imperialism, this methodolo+y reEects ine.uality in the poer relations beteen
7)rican countries and Luropean countries and also ithin these countries5 "noled+e and scholarship are de8ned in estern terms
promotin+ the premises, value systems, and philosophies o) Luropean societies5
>or the most part, this methodolo+y has had a ne+ative and disruptive eDect on 7)rican systems o) 9noled+e, science, technolo+y, art,
production, reproduction, etc5 It has also sustained a process o) economic exploitation, underdevelopment, and ine.uality5 Luropean
interests in 7)rican social systems stemmed )rom and resulted in conceptual orientations, perspectives, methodolo+ies, and research tools
that rein)orced this une.ual relationship5
Positivism, social Darinism, structural0)unctionalism, acculturation, development theory, etc5 have all been spaned )rom theoretical
)rameor9s hich imposed Luropean superiority, stressed stability and order as a means o) maintainin+ Luropean colonialism, and vieed
=civili?ation= as pro+ress throu+h unilineal sta+es o) evolution5 Dichotomous models )urther mysti8ed reality by stressin+ unrelatedness
rather than holeness5 2he poer)ul or+anic lin9s beteen entities ere i+nored and represented in conceptual )rameor9s as
dichotomies, such as rural:urban, )ormal:in)ormal, public:private, traditional:modem, developed:developin+5 2hese are presented as
mutually exclusive rather than or+anically lin9ed5 Lven the continent o) 7)rica had its +eo+raphical inte+rity dichotomi?ed into to or three
separate ?ones5
In this matrix, the ideolo+y o) racism has played and continues to play a very important role5 Cate+orisin+ 7)ricans as a subspecies o)
humanity as sustained by @scienti8c research@ and Fusti8ed Luropean domination5 2his ideolo+y helped structure the international money
economy and in multi0racial societies in Lurope, the 7mericas, 7ustralia, and 7)rica, color or descent )rom color became an important
determinant o) socio0economic status and access to presti+e and political poer5
2he exploitation o) 7)rica as not restricted to mineral and ve+etable resources or the cheap labour and mar9ets5 Research also had an
exploitative commercial )unction5 Ra data became part o) the @car+o@ extracted )rom 7)rica )or processin+ and expropriation in the Aest5
*i9e most money0ma9in+ international business activities, research o)ten represents interests and priorities that are more bene8cial to
non07)ricans than to 7)ricans5 6ost research pro+rams desi+ned and executed by outsiders are o) theoretical and academic importance to
)orei+n researchers5 2hey o)ten )ul8ll PhD re.uirements at Luropean and 7merican universities or cover salaries o) scholars ; so called
@experts@ and advisers )rom non07)rican institutions5 /ome o) these research activities are components o) development proFects costin+
millions o) dollars and bene8tin+ pro8t0ma9in+ development a+encies in Lurope and the <nited /tates5
6ost o) the research on 7)rican omen belon+s to this tradition and reEects a structure very much in 9eepin+ ith the une.ual structure o)
the orld economic system5 Data on omen in 7)rica )acilitated the exploitation o) 7)rican omen as +uinea pi+s, consumers, and cheap
sources o) labour5 O) e.ual importance has been the overridin+ interest in )ertility data on 7)rican omen inspired by neo06althusian
proFections used to Fusti)y tar+etin+ 7)rican omen )or a++ressive population control activities5

7o/ +
Development crises and alternative visions
>or many omen problems o) nationality, class, and race are inextricably lin9ed to their speci8c oppression as omen5 De8nin+ )eminism
to include the stru++le a+ainst all )orms o) oppression is both le+itimate and necessary5 In many instances +ender e.uality must be
accompanied by chan+es on these other )ronts5 But at the same time the stru++le a+ainst +ender subordination cannot be compromised
durin+ the stru++le a+ainst other )orms o) oppression or be rele+ated to a )uture hen they may be iped out5
6any third orld omen are acutely conscious o) the need )or this clari8cation and sel)0aCrmation5 2hrou+hout the Decade they have
)aced accusations )rom to sides- )rom those ho dismiss them as not bein+ truly @)eminist@ because o) their unillin+ness to separate
the stru++le a+ainst +ender subordination )rom that a+ainst other oppressions and )rom those ho accuse them o) dividin+ class or
national stru++les and sometimes o) uncritically )olloin+ omen=s liberation movements imported )rom outside5 2his is hy e stron+ly
aCrm that )eminism strives )or the broadest and deepest development o) society and human bein+s )ree o) all systems o) domination5
/uch a +lobal vision has been articulated be)ore particularly at strate+y sessions in Ban+9o9 in #'B' and at /tony Point !e Gor9 in #'805
2his boo9 builds on those earlier initiatives, sharpens our analysis and stren+thens our attempts at chan+e5 Ahile e re)er to this as a
@third orld@ perspective it includes all those ho share our vision- )rom the /outh countries, )rom oppressed and disadvanta+ed +roups
and sectors o) the omen=s movement ithin the !orth and all others ho are committed to or9in+ toards its )ul8llment5
In this context e believe that it is )rom the perspective o) the most oppressed 3i5e5 omen ho suDer on account o) class, race and
nationality4 that e can most clearly +rasp the nature o) the lin9s in the chain o) oppression and explore the 9inds o) actions that e must
no ta9e5 /uch a perspective implies that a development process that shrin9s and poisons the pie available to poor people and then
leaves omen scramblin+ )or a lar+er relative share is not in omen=s interest5 Ae reFect the belie) that it is possible to obtain sustainable
improvements in omen=s economic and social position under conditions o) +roin+ relative ine.uality i) not absolute poverty )or both
omen and men5 L.uality )or omen is impossible ithin the existin+ economic, political and cultural processes that reserve resources,
poer and control )or small +roups o) people5 But neither is development possible ithout +reater e.uity )or and participation by omen5
Our vision o) )eminism has at its very core a process o) economic and social development +eared to human needs throu+h ider control
over and access to economic and political poer5 2he substance o) this boo9 evolved out o) the experience o) omen ho have attempted
in practical and analytical ays to come to +rips ith the implications o) such a vision5 Our purpose as not to expand or present ne
data or research results but rather to place the diverse body o) micro0level case studies, proFects and or+ani?in+ attempts in a ider and
more uni8ed context5 Ae hope thereby, throu+h the collective process that this boo9 represents, to move toard a )rameor9 that can
re9nit the )abric o) development theory and action by drain+ to+ether the strands o) improved livin+ standards, socially responsible
mana+ement and use o) resources, elimination o) +ender subordination and socioeconomic ine.uality, and the or+ani?ational restructurin+
that can brin+ these about5
K2estions on the e/cerpts ?7o/es ' and +@
#5 &o is the oppression o) omen lin9ed to
problems o) nationality, class, and raceN
,5 /hould )eminism be de8ned to include the
stru++les a+ainst all )orms o) oppressionN &o
can that be achieved, particularly )or omen in
the /outhN
%5 7re research methods created in the !orth
appropriate )or studyin+ the lives o) omen in
the /outhN
General disc2ssion H2estions
#5 &o has )eminist theori?in+ been inEuenced by
the )ocus on identity, speci8city, and
experiences o) omen around the orldN
,5 6any )eminists believe poverty is a crucial issue
)or omen and, indeed, that it is the prism
throu+h hich omen=s oppression should be
analy?ed5 &as )eminist theory ade.uately
addressed this issueN
%5 /hould research on omen in the /outh be
carried out only by omen )rom the /outhN Ahat
about menN Ahat about sympathetic )emale 3or
male4 researchers )rom the !orthN
K5 Discuss the ay omen in the /outh have been
represented by !orthern scholars and activists,
as ell as by their on elites5 !ote the use o)
terms such as (ulnerable .roups5 &o does such
lan+ua+e and discourse aDect policies
concernin+ omen in both the /outh and the
!orthN
55 Ahy do postmodernist )eminists believe that
existin+ social0science theories exclude the
experience o) omenN 7re there other )eminist
approaches that ar+ue alon+ similar linesN
15 Can a postmodernist0)eminist approach )oster
)eminist theori?in+ that is inclusive, celebrates
diversity and diDerence, and yet maintains a
commitment to +ender e.ualityN Can this
approach oDer ne insi+hts or tools )or )eminist
scholars and activists around the orldN
Concl2sion
$rounded in an increased sensitivity to the diverse
material and cultural realities o) everyday li)e,
current debates in )eminist theory and
development theory reEect common concerns ith
the politics o) identity5 Both reco+ni?e the need to
en+a+e in )undamental @revisionin+,@ althou+h the
mechanisms to underta9e such a proFect on neutral
or +lobal +rounds remain elusive5 Poer relations
pervade the contexts in hich visions o) a better
orld are +enerated5 2hey also pervade the
contexts in hich theoretical )rameor9s are
routinely produced and in hich research and
practice are underta9en5 2his does not mean,
hoever, that e should +ive up the attempt to
communicate ith each other and cooperate in
buildin+ a better orld5 Increasin+ +lobal lin9s
amon+ )eminist theorists, activists, and
practitioners indicate that dialo+ue is possible and
productive5 In the lon+ run, it may not be the
racial, national, or !orth0/outh diDerences, but the
class diDerences beteen educated urban omen
and poorer rural or urban omen )acin+ a daily
stru++le )or survival, that prove to be more diCcult
to overcome5 2his means that each o) us needs to
approach the tas9s o) theori?in+, researchin+,
developin+ policies, and or9in+ )or chan+e ith
+reater humility than has o)ten been the case5
In an increasin+ly +lobal but une.ual and uncertain
orld, it is more crucial than ever to ma9e the
eDort to understand here an individual or +roup is
@comin+ )rom@J ho they are situated in relation to
a speci8c historical, cultural, and economic
contextJ their existin+ patterns o) li)e and
resistanceJ and the priorities that stem )rom them5
2his certainly implies a maFor step aay )rom the
+rand schemes and blueprints o) moderni?ation
policies and )rom the revolutionary, re)ormatory, or
even educational ?eal characteristic o) movements
)or radical chan+e, hether socialist or )eminist in
orientation5
/trate+y is becomin+ increasin+ly important to
action a+endas- en+a+in+ in patient, consultative
or9 to determine hen and ho to intervene to
support and stren+then, rather than criti.uin+ or
underminin+, the eDorts o) omen strivin+ to
improve their situation5 Research, i) it is to support
action a+endas, needs to be more inte+rated than
it has o)ten been in the pastJ less )ocused on one
issue or sectorJ and more adept at identi)yin+ the
relations beteen poer, meanin+, practices,
resources, and constraints in the con8+urations
that present themselves at particular places and
times5 2his also implies that research and action
should be more closely lin9ed and that more
research should be carried out by, and )or, those
hose situation it is intended to improve5 /uch
or9, alon+ ith that o) )eminist activists in
+eneral, has provided crucial sources o) insi+ht
that inEuence the development o) theory and
practice on a broader scale5
2his chapter revies )eminist and development
theories and those that combine concerns ith
omen or +ender and development5 Lach o) the
)rame0or9s and approaches presented here
continues to evolve, developin+ ne lines o)
.uestionin+ as hori?ons shi)t and ne issues
emer+e5 Lach has been open to the insi+hts
oDered by other )rameor9s hile maintainin+ a
uni.ue )ocus5 Lach has made, and continues to
ma9e, a contribution to 9noled+e and
understandin+, policy, and action5 >or example,
blac90)eminist and 2hird Aorld0)eminist criti.ues
have oDered insi+hts to those or9in+ ithin the
socialist0)eminist and $7D )rameor9s and have
re.uired them to pay more serious attention to
race and other diDerences amon+ omen5 7t the
same time, the socialist0)eminist insistence on the
centrality o) +ender and class has been an
important counterbalance to some postmodern
approaches that hi+hli+ht issues o) diDerence but
do not alays +ive sustained attention to the
political and economic .uestions o) ho bene8ts
and ho loses )rom the ays that diDerences are
lin9ed to poer and resources5 2he postmodern
attention to lan+ua+e has, nevertheless, been very
productive in hi+hli+htin+ some o) the ays poer
actually pervades our everyday lives and the
institutions surroundin+ us5 Lach )rameor9 has its
stren+ths and ea9nesses, its areas o) insi+ht, and
its areas o) blindness5
2heoretical )rameor9s have a positive role to play
in all research and action a+endas, su++estin+ a
particular line o) .uestionin+ and helpin+ the
analyst identi)y here to start, hat to )ocus on,
and ho to relate one issue to another in the
attempt to +enerate a )ull understandin+ o) a
problem5 7s e have seen, )rameor9s are not
static but shi)t and evolve over time, althou+h their
underlyin+ assumptions usually endure, and these
enable us to distin+uish one )rameor9 )rom
another, even hen some elements are common to
more than one )rame0or95 It is the collective or9
o) activists, scholars, researchers, and riters that
leads to the emer+ence o) ne theoretical
approaches over time5
6uch o) the empirical research and development
policy and pro+ramin+ underta9en by +overnment
and non+overnmental a+encies ta9es place ithout
any explicit re)erence to theory5 !evertheless,
certain assumptions about the nature o) social
problems and their solutions underlie their or95 It
is important to be able to identi)y such
assumptions so that one can examine and, i)
necessary, criti.ue them5 One ould then be in a
position to propose alternative approaches based
on diDerent assumptions and en+a+e in ne
theori?in+ that ma9es explicit the assumptions,
concerns, and social visions on hich alternatives
could be based5
Both reco+ni?in+ the assumptions underlyin+
theory and en+a+in+ in our on theori?in+ are
important to the process o) brin+in+ about social
chan+e5 <nac9noled+ed or hidden assumptions
embedded in research, policy, and pro+rams
constitute a vehicle )or exertin+ poer over others5
6a9in+ the assumptions under0lyin+ our on +oals
and visions explicit is a means to empoerment,
invitin+ others to en+a+e in critical debate,
openin+ up to many voices, and stren+thenin+ the
potential )or collective revisionin+ on an open and
e.ual basis5
2he application o) theoretical )rameor9s in policy
and pro+ramin+ is )urther examined in the next
section5
Theoretical frameworks
Framework A& moderni;ation theor"
6oderni?ation theory emer+ed in the #'%0s, ith
the early development initiatives o) colonial rulers
and economists, and +ained momentum in the
postar and post0colonial periods5 Aestern
economists and sociolo+ists be+an to theori?e in
the #'50s about ho to promote @development@ in
the nely independent countries, and development
planners desi+ned proFects to moderni?e @less0
developed@ countries all over the +lobe5
6oderni?ation aimed to turn these economies and
societies into ima+es o) the industriali?ed, hi+h
mass0consumption, democratic societies o) the
Aestern orld5 Obstacles to +roth ere identi8ed
in traditional cultural practices and values, as ell
as in social and economic in)rastructures5
Observable, cultural, economic, and political
diver+ence )rom the model provided by the Aest
as enou+h to identi)y a country and its
institutions and practices as @premodern@ and in
need o) immediate chan+e 3see Chapter ,45
*eadin+ moderni?ation riters in sociolo+y in the
#'50s and #'10s, such as 2alcott Parsons and
Daniel *emer in the <nited /tates 3see )or
example, Parsons #'5#J *erner #'584, dre on the
early analyses o) social chan+e conducted by Lmile
Dur9heim and 6ax Aeber at the turn o) the
century5 In economics, the moderni?ation approach
has been closely tied to mainstream neoclassical
economics, hich dominates economic policy in
the <nited "in+dom and the <nited /tates and
emphasi?es the bene8ts o) the )ree mar9et, usin+ a
model o) @rational@ choice5 Prominent early riters
o) this school included Aalter Rosto and 7rthur
*eis5 6oderni?ation as the dominant approach
underlyin+ development research and policy in the
postar period and continues to +uide
development eDorts today5
2he basic idea o) moderni?ation is that
development is a natural, linear process aay )rom
traditional social and economic practices toard a
Aestern0style economy-
It is possible to identi)y all societies, in their
economic dimensions, as lyin+ ithin one o)
the 8ve cate+ories- the traditional society, the
preconditions )or ta9e0oD, ta9e0oD, the drive
to maturity:and the a+e o) hi+h mass
consumption5
; Rosto 3#'10, p5 K4
2he measures o) success include +ross national
product 3$!P4, income levels, employment rates,
education levels, and industrial structure, and all o)
hich emphasi?e the adoption o) Aestern
economic institutions, technolo+ies, and values5
2he challen+e is to identi)y barriers to sel)0
sustainin+ +roth5 2hese barriers may be
technolo+ical, educational, or cultural5
Intervention, accordin+ to the proponents o) this
approach, is needed to overcome obstacles that
tend to be in the country itsel), rather than in the
)unctionin+ o) the international economy5 Aays are
sou+ht to inte+rate developin+ economies into the
international mar9et5 /ome riters emphasi?e a
dual economy, ith coexistin+ traditional and
modern sectors5
7 number o) assumptions operate in moderni?ation
theory-
Lconomic +roth ill bene8t all members o)
society throu+h tric9le0don eDects and
other @spread@ 3indirect, multiplier4 eDectsJ
7ccess to cash and mar9ets ill improve
conditions )or peopleJ
6acroeconomic policies are +ender neutral
and bene8t all o) societyJ and
6odern technolo+y is superior to traditional
technolo+ies 3nonmar9et processes tend to
be i+nored in the economic analysis45
6oderni?ation theory has been the dominant +uide
to the policies o) the main international 8nancial
institutions, such as the I6> and the Aorld Ban9, as
ell as the main aid or+ani?ations, such as
</7HDD5 6oderni?ation theory can be used to
Fusti)y either a laisse9-/aire approach to
development policy 3emphasis on the mar9et4 or
an economic0plannin+ approach in hich
intervention is thou+ht to be needed to remove
obstacles and create industriali?ation5
K2estions raised for research
#5 Ahat are the obstacles to Aestern0style +rothN
,5 Ahat macroeconomic policies and sectoral
policies ould )oster +rothN Ahat are the
impacts o) various policies, in terms o) +roth,
incomes, and employment levelsN
%5 &o can the diDusion o) Aestern education and
technolo+y be )acilitatedN
(mplications for polic" and action
#5 Policies may be needed to )acilitate the
development o) modern economic institutions
and the extension o) the cash economy 3)or
example, policies to provide credit and 8nancin+
)or income0+eneratin+ proFects45 Policies are
needed to improve basic human and physical
capital 3literacy, education, health, roads, etc545
,5 Policies should be tailored to promote the
development o) leadin+ sectors, hich ould
then create spread eDects5 2he emphasis ill
chan+e over time as various approaches are
tried and )ound to )ail5 2he approaches include
industriali?ation via import substitution,
emphasis on capital0+oods production, emphasis
on buildin+ in)rastructure, emphasis on external
trade 3exports4, and emphasis on basic needs5
%5 Policies in current moderni?ation thin9in+
emphasi?e structural adFustment- the mar9et,
debt reduction, export0led +roth, and the
elimination o) price subsidies5
7o/ ,
The stages of economic growth& a noncomm2nist manifesto
The preconditions for take>oG
2he second sta+e o) +roth embraces societies in the process o) transitionJ that is, the period hen the preconditions )or ta9e0oD are
developedJ )or it ta9es time to trans)orm a traditional society in the ays necessary )or it to exploit the )ruits o) modem science, to )end oD
diminishin+ returns, and thus to enFoy the blessin+s and choices opened up by the march o) compound interest5
2he preconditions )or ta9e0oD ere initially developed in a clearly mar9ed ay in Aestern Lurope o) the late seventeenth and early
ei+hteenth centuries as the insi+hts o) modern science be+an to be translated into ne production )unctions in both a+riculture and
industry, in a settin+ +iven dynamism by the lateral expansion o) orld mar9ets and the international competition )or them5 But all that
lies behind the brea90up o) the 6iddle 7+es is relevant to the creation o) the preconditions )or ta9e0oD in Aestern Lurope5 7mon+ the
Aestern Luropean states, Britain 3)avoured by +eo+raphy, natural resources, tradin+ possibilities, social and political structure4 as the
8rst to develop )ully the pre0conditions )or ta9e0oD5
2he more +eneral case in modern history, hoever, sa the sta+e o) preconditions arise not endo+enously but )rom some external
intrusion by more advanced societies5 2hese invasions ; literal or 8+urative ; shoc9ed the traditional society and be+an or hastened its
undoin+J but they also set in motion ideas and sentiments hich initiated the process by hich a modern alternative to the traditional
society as constructed out o) the old culture5
2he idea spreads not merely that economic pro+ress is possible, but that economic pro+ress is a necessary condition )or some other
purpose Fud+ed to be +ood, be it national di+nity, private pro8t, the +eneral el)are, or a better li)e )or the children5 Lducation, )or some at
least, broadens and chan+es to suit the needs o) modern economic activity5 !e types o) enterprisin+ men come )orard ; in the private
economy, in +overnment, or both ; illin+ to mobili?e savin+s and to ta9e ris9s in pursuit o) pro8t or modernisation5 Ban9s and other
institutions )or mobili?in+ capital appear5 Investment increases, notably in transport, communications, and in ra materials in hich other
nations may have an economic interest5 2he scope o) commerce, internal and external, idens5 7nd, here and there, modem
manu)acturin+ enterprise appears, usin+ the ne methods5 But all this activity proceeds at a limited pace ithin an economy and a
society still mainly characteri?ed by traditional lo0productivity methods, by the old social structure and values, and by the re+ionally
based political institutions, that developed in conFunction ith them5
In many recent cases, )or example, the traditional society persisted side by side ith modern economic activities, conducted )or limited
economic purposes by a colonial or .uasi0colonial poer5
The take>oG
Ae come no to the +reat atershed in the li)e o) modem societies- the third sta+e in this se.uence, the ta9e0oD5 2he ta9e0oD is the
interval hen the old bloc9s and resistance to steady +roth are 8nally overcome5 2he )orces ma9in+ )or economic pro+ress, hich
yielded limited bursts and enclaves o) modern activity, expand and come to dominate the society5 $roth becomes its normal conditions5
Compound interest becomes built, as it ere, into its habits and institutional structure5
K2estions on e/cerpt ?7o/ ,@
#5 Ahat social and political chan+es ould Rosto
say are essential to economic pro+ressN
,5 Ahat is the implicit attitude toard traditional
society and its valuesN
General disc2ssion H2estions
#5 <sin+ the moderni?ation approach, hat policies
ould you ur+e on your +overnment )or reducin+
rural povertyN
,5 Ahat does your country hope to achieve by
educationN Is this aim consistent ith a
moderni?ation approachN
%5 Ahat 9ind o) data ould a moderni?ation
economist use in evaluatin+ the impact o) the
/7PsN Ahat in)ormation do you thin9 ould be
neededN
K5 Can you thin9 o) policies used in your country
that 8t the moderni?ation approachN Ahat as
their impact on the ell0bein+ o) omenN
55 Do you thin9 development is possible ithout
imitatin+ Aestern culturesN
Framework 7& .ar/ist>dependenc"
theor"
"arl 6arx provided many o) the concepts and
analytical tools commonly used to discuss
ine.uitable social relations5 &e believed that
diDerin+ material interests, based on one=s
economic position and the ay one earned a livin+,
resulted in diDerin+ perceptions o) social reality
and rele+ated individuals and )amilies to social
classes5 ConEict beteen these classes as seen
as the drivin+ )orce underlyin+ political and social
stri)e5 6arx believed that the contradictions ithin
capitalism ould eventually lead to
overproduction, underconsumption, depression,
and the overthro o) capitalism by the or9in+
class5 Get, capitalism continued to Eourish, albeit
ith periodic depressions, and, indeed, it +radually
established a he+emony across the +lobe5
Mladimir *enin, in an eDort to explain this,
concluded that imperial expansion enabled
capitalism to temporarily circumvent the problem
o) overproduction5 2he colonies served as captive
mar9ets to absorb both surplus production and
capital5 &e predicted that 8nance capital ould
become increasin+ly crucial to this process and
ould eventually control the +lobal economy5
In the #'10s, continuin+ underdevelopment in
*atin 7merica inspired some social scientists, ho
dre on *enin=s explanation o) imperialism, to
explore the impact o) this une.ual relationship on
the economies and peoples o) the /outh5 2hey
reFected the liberal assumption, central to the
moderni?ation approach, that underdevelopment
as due to inade.uate national policies and
insuCcient understandin+ o) Aestern technolo+y in
the /outh, ar+uin+ instead that underdevelopment
as lar+ely a result o) une.ual and exploitative
economic relations beteen the dominant poers
in the !orth 3the metropole@ and their client
states in the /outh 3the peripher"@5 2hey
examined patterns o) trade or exchan+e beteen
developin+ and industriali?ed countries and
concluded that
Lconomic underdevelopment is created by a
persistent outEo o) economic surplusJ
2he prospects )or economic development in
any one country are deter0mined by its
position in the international economy, and
that position is historically determinedJ
Present0day underdeveloped and developin+
countries cannot expect to pass throu+h the
same phases o) economic development as
advanced capitalist countries because
internal conditions are diDerentJ and
Industrially advanced countries at various
sta+es o) development have been able to
use underdeveloped economies as sources
o) cheap ra materials, as mar9ets )or their
+oods, and as outlets )or surplus capital5
2his vie, called dependency theory, dominated
le)tist development scholarship in the late #'10s
and early #'B0s5 2he perpetuation o) these
une.ual relations, it as ar+ued, is mana+ed by a
clientele class in the /outh ?Comprador class@
that collaborates ith the dominant capitalist class
in the !orth5 6ar9et and technolo+y trans)ers are
thus structured to perpetuate underdevelopment in
the /outh and domination by the !orth5 2o
overcome this, dependency theorists called )or the
overthro o) this clientele class, an end to lin9s
ith the !orth, and a )ocus on sel)0reliant
development5 2his perspective and its prescriptions
attracted many intellectuals 3and some
policyma9ers4 in the /outh, ho sa in it both an
explanation )or their le+acy o) underdevelopment
and a means to overcome that le+acy5
6ost liberals and neoclassical economists, or9in+
ithin a moderni?ation paradi+m, reFected the
dependency approach outri+ht5 /ome ; such as
proponents o) the Lconomic Commission )or *atin
7merica and the Caribbean model, led by Raul
Prebisch ; reco+ni?ed that deterioratin+ terms o)
trade in the periphery aDected accumulations o)
capital and conse.uently the rate o) economic
+roth 3Blomstrom and &ettne #'8K45
/ome 6arxists raised .uestions as ell5
Dependency theorists, accordin+ to their critics,
had simply turned moderni?ation on its head,
ar+uin+ a+ainst capitalism and technolo+y
trans)ers5 /cholars such as Colin *eys pointed out
that the roles o) classes and interest +roups in the
/outh had been i+nored5 6arxists such as Bill
Aarren 3#'804 )ound the prospects )or capitalist
development relatively +ood in many
underdeveloped countries5 Capitalism, he ar+ued,
did not cause underdevelopment5 Classes and
contradictions ithin 2hird Aorld nations and their
impact on relations ith the !orth must be
understood i) one is to properly evaluate 2hird
Aorld development5 In the late #'B0s and #'80s,
the )ocus o) the 6arxist literature on development
as on ho the capitalist mode o) production
articulated ith other modes o) production,
particularly social )ormations5 2his mode o)
analysis supplanted dependency theory in the
#'80s5
7lthou+h dependency theory no lon+er dominates
political economy or 6arxist analysis o)
development, remnants are still )ound in the
emer+in+ political0economy interpretations o)
recent +lobal economic chan+es 3see
@$lobali?ation,@ under @Current debates and
criti.ues,@ earlier in this chapter45
K2estions raised for research
#5 Ahat are the capital Eos, technolo+y trans)ers,
and economic relations beteen the /outh and
the !orthN
,5 Ahat role do 2hird Aorld elites play in
development 3or underdevelopment4 in the
/outhN
%5 &o have classes and contradictions ithin 2hird
Aorld countries aDected their relations ith the
!orthN Ahat have been the conse.uences o)
those relations )or developmentN
K5 &o does the capitalist mode o) production
interact ith other modes o) production, such as
independent commodity production 3)or
example, on small )amily )arms4N
(mplications for polic" and action
#5 Policyma9ers should consider cuttin+ lin9s ith
the !orth and )osterin+ sel)0reliant development5
,5 Policies should be desi+ned to encoura+e people
in the /outh to build internal developmentJ and
policies should permit local elites to challen+e
the domination o) capital )rom the !orth5
%5 7ction should be directed to developin+
alternatives to capitalism5
K5 6odes0o)0production theorists )ocus on the
+roth potential o) the indi+enous business class
and see the members o) this class as better
leaders o) development than the )orei+n
business oners5
7o/ F
Development theor" in transition
The cr"stalli;ed theor" of dependence
7ndrV $uilder >ran9 Foined the circle o) *atin 7merican dependentistas
one o) the drivin+ )orces behind the early development o) the dependency school5 &e became internationally 9non )or his criti.ue o) the
established development theory5 555 it should be mentioned that outside *atin 7merica the dependency school has been more or less
identi8ed ith >ran95
>ran9 as one o) the 8rst in *atin 7merica to or9 ith an alternative theory o) the *atin 7merican economic development5 2he earliest
results )rom this attempt ere presented in a boo9 entitled Capitalis) and *nderde(elop)ent in Latin A)erica,
boo9, hich as an analysis o) the economic history o) Bra?il and Chile, he came to the conclusion that @development and
underdevelopment are to sides o) the same coin5@ 2hus, accordin+ to >ran9, it as the incorporation into the orld capitalist system that
led to development in some areas and underdevelopment in others5
>olloin+ Baran, >ran9 stressed that it as the utili?ation o) the economic surplus that had caused development and underdevelopment5
>ran9=s analysis accentuated the monopolistic structure o) capitalism arid its eDects on the real and the potential surplus5 2he orld
capitalist system as characteri?ed by a metropolis0satellite structure, here the metropolis exploited the satellite5 Ahile this had
)acilitated the expropriation o) lar+e portions o) the underdeveloped countries= actual surplus, it had also prevented these countries )rom
reali?in+ their potential surplus5 2he monopoly structure as )ound at all levels, i5e5, the international, the national, and the local level, and
created a situation o) exploitation hich, in turn, caused the @chain0li9e@ Eo o) the surplus )rom the remotest *atin 7merican villa+e to
Aall /treet in !e Gor95
2he monopoly capitalist structure and the surplus expropriation:appropriation contradiction run throu+h the entire Chilean economy, past
and present5 Indeed, it is this exploitative relation hich in chain0li9e )ashion extends the capitalist lin9 beteen the capitalist orld and
national metropolises to the re+ional centres 3part o) hose surplus they appropriate4, and )rom these to local centres, and so on to lar+e
landoners or merchants ho expropriate surplus )rom small peasants or tenants, and sometimes even )rom these latter to landless
laborers exploited by them in turn5 7t each step alon+ the ay, the relatively )e capitalists above exercise monopoly poer over the
many belo, expropriatin+ some or all o) their economic surplus and, to the extent that they are not expropriated in turn by the still )eer
above them, appropriatin+ it )or their on use5 2hus at each point, the international, national and local capitalist system +enerates
economic development )or the )e and underdevelopment )or the many5
K2estions on e/cerpt ?7o/ F@
#5 Ahy does >ran9 believe development and
underdevelopment are to sides o) the same
coinN
,5 &o does the metropolis exploit the satellite, or
2hird Aorld, countriesN
%5 Do you have to understand the +lobal capitalist
system to understand the causes o)
underdevelopment in the 2hird AorldN
General disc2ssion H2estions
#5 &as the dependency approach been used in your
countryN Ahat have been its stren+ths and
ea9nesses hen applied in your countryN
,5 &o is your country lin9ed to international
capitalism 3trade, exchan+e rate, industry
onership, )orei+n investment4N
%5 Ahat has your country +ained and lost )rom
these lin9a+esN
K5 Ahy did /outhern intellectuals 8nd the
dependency school so attractiveN
Framework C& li1eral feminism
*iberal )eminism is rooted in the tradition o) #1th0
and #Bth0century liberal philosophy, hich )ocused
on the ideals o) e.uality and liberty5 2he liberal
conception o) e.uality as based on the belie) that
all men had the potential to be rational and that
any ine.uality had to be Fusti8ed in rational terms5
2he liberal conception o) liberty meant that people
ere +overned only ith their consent and only
ithin certain limits, +enerally de8ned in terms o)
the p21lic and private spheres 3the )ormer the
+overnment can re+ulateJ the latter it cannot45
*iberals continue to debate Fust here the line
should be dran beteen the to spheres, but
they a+ree that it must be dran to preserve
liberty5 2hese ideas are important under0pinnin+s o)
liberal0)eminist thou+ht5
2he 8rst Aestern )eminist theorist, 6ary
Aollstonecra)t, in A Vindication o/ the Ri.hts o/
$o)an &ith #trictures on Political and Moral
#ub7ects, ar+ued that omen=s capacity to reason
as e.ual to that o) men and that biolo+ical sex
diDerences ere irrelevant to the +rantin+ o)
political ri+hts 3Aollstonecra)t #B',45 /he ar+ued
that the reason omen appeared to be
intellectually in)erior as due to their in)erior
education and, there)ore, as a result o) ine.uality,
rather than a Fusti8cation )or it5 2entieth0century
liberal )eminists have also used this distinction
beteen biolo+ical )acts and social norms hen
they dra the distinction beteen sex 3biolo+ical4
and +ender 3historical, social, and cultural4
diDerences beteen omen and men5 *iberal
)eminists see omen=s subordination as resultin+
)rom +endered norms, rather than )rom biolo+ical
sex, and aim to chan+e these norms5 *iberal
)eminists ar+ue that the ine.uality o) omen and
men cannot be Fusti8ed on rational terms and trust
that rational men can be convinced o) the )olly o)
perpetuatin+ that ine.uality5
*iberal )eminists )ocus on e.ual opportunities )or
omen and men5 2heir concern that omen should
receive e.ual opportunities in education and be)ore
the la has motivated orldide campai+ns )or
omen=s votin+ and property ri+hts5 2hese
)eminists are also concerned that Fob opportunities
be e.ually open to omen so that omen can
achieve positions o) poer in +overnment and
business5 *iberal0)eminist activists are concerned
ith ensurin+ that las and policies do not
discriminate a+ainst omen and that omen have
e.ual opportunities in all aspects o) li)e5
Contemporary liberal )eminists, li9e other liberals,
dra a distinction beteen the public and private
spheres o) li)e5 2hey ar+ue that omen should
have the ri+ht to choose on issues such as
abortion, porno+raphy, and prostitution5 2his
commitment to the existence o) public and private
spheres distin+uishes liberal0)eminist theory )rom
other )eminist theories5 &oever, it should be
noted that liberal0)eminist theorists dra the line
beteen public and private diDerently than other
liberal theorists5 Because they concentrate on such
issues as domestic violence and the economic
vulnerability o) homema9ers, they ar+ue that some
re+ulation o) domestic li)e is needed to protect
omen=s sa)ety and ell0bein+5
K2estions raised for research
#5 Ahat are the barriers to omen=s e.ual
participation in the economic, social, and cultural
li)e o) their communities and countriesN
,5 &o can these obstacles be removedN &o can
attitudes, las, and practices be chan+edN
%5 &o are omen aDected by various policiesN Do
policies hinder or )acilitate omen=s ell0bein+
and opportunitiesN
(mplications for polic" and action
#5 *iberal0)eminist theory has been the dominant
+uide )or settin+ up special omen=s
departments and machinery in +overnment5
2hese departments promote the interests o)
omen ithin the existin+ socioeconomic
system5
,5 Policies are proposed to remove discriminatory
practices in institutions, or actions are ta9en to
create alternative institutions that support
omen5 >or example, i) omen have une.ual
access to credit, then ban9 policy can be
chan+ed or special pro+rams can be set up )or
omen=s credit5
%5 *iberal )eminists are interested in increasin+ the
proportion o) omen in elected and appointed
+overnment positions5
K5 *iberal )eminists are interested in re)orms that
ill improve the condition o) omen and are less
concerned ith issues o) empoerment and
chan+in+ the position o) omen5
7o/ I
Feminist politics and h2man nat2re
*iberal )eminists believe that sex discrimination is unFust because it deprives omen o) e.ual ri+hts to pursue their on sel)0interest5 Aomen as a +roup are
not alloed the same )reedoms or opportunities +ranted to men as a +roup5 In a discriminatory situation, an individual oman does not receive the same
consideration as an individual man5 Ahereas man is Fud+ed on his actual interests and abilities, a oman=s interests and abilities are assumed to be limited
in certain ays because o) her sex5 In other ords, a man is Fud+ed on his merits as an individualJ a oman is Fud+ed on her assumed merits as a )emale5
*iberal )eminists believe that Fustice re.uires e.ual opportunities and e.ual consideration )or every individual re+ardless o) sex5 2his vie is obviously
connected ith the liberal conception o) human bein+s as essentially rational a+ents5 On this conception, sex is a purely @accidental@ or non0essential
)eature o) human nature5 2he sex o) an individual should be considered only hen it is relevant to the individual=s ability to per)orm a speci8c tas9 or to ta9e
advanta+e o) a certain opportunity5
Aithin contemporary society, liberals believe that omen suDer a variety o) )orms o) discrimination5 2he most obvious )orm is le+islation that provides
diDerent responsibilities, obli+ations, and opportunities )or omen and )or men5 Both Britain and the <nited /tates, )or example, have so0called @protective@
labor le+islation that applies to omen only and may establish maximum hours o) or9, minimum a+es, mandatory rest periods, or may restrict certain
types o) ni+httime or95 *iberal )eminists complain that these las are used to exclude omen )rom better0payin+ Fobs and to deny them promotion5555
In spite o) these sorts o) le+al discrimination, liberal )eminists believe that most discrimination a+ainst omen is not mandated by the le+al system but is
rather in)ormal or based on custom5 7n extremely si+ni8cant )orm o) customary discrimination consists in reluctance to appoint .uali8ed omen to certain
Fobs, particularly presti+ious, ell0payin+ or supervisory positions, and in reluctance to allo omen to +ain necessary .uali8cations )or those positions,
perhaps by re)usin+ them entrance into pro)essional schools or other Fob0trainin+ pro+rams5 /uch discrimination be+ins in the nursery, here male and
)emale in)ants are perceived and handled diDerently, and continues in the educational system, here boys are encoura+ed to train )or presti+ious or ell0
payin+ @masculine@ occupations hile +irls are channeled into preparin+ )or the loer0payin+ but more @)eminine@ service occupations5 Aomen also suDer
discrimination in obtainin+ credit to buy a house or to start a business and they may have more diCculty than men in rentin+ accommodation5 *iberals vie
all these sorts o) discrimination as unFust because they deprive omen o) e.ual opportunities )or pursuin+ their on sel)0interest, as they de8ne that
interest5
In)ormal discrimination is mani)ested not only in assumptions that omen are not suited to certain sorts o) or9J it can also be expressed throu+h
assumptions that omen are particularly ell0suited )or other sorts o) or95 Aithin contemporary society, there are stron+ expectations, o)ten shared even
by omen themselves, that omen should ta9e primary responsibility )or the or9 involved in raisin+ children and in runnin+ a home5 Aomen are also
expected to provide sexual satis)action )or their husbands or their male partners5 Aithin the paid labor )orce, they are expected to per)orm similar sorts o)
or9J providin+ sexual titillation i) not satis)action to men and other sorts o) nurturin+ services to men, omen and children5
I) this sexual division o) labor ere )reely chosen, liberal )eminists ould have no +rounds )or challen+in+ it5 In )act, hoever, they assume that it is not
)reely chosen, that omen con+re+ate in these occupations because discrimination denies them access to the presti+ious, poer)ul, and ell0payin+
positions that are held predominantly by men5 Behind this assumption, one can see the characteristic liberal values about hat constitutes desirable or
)ul8llin+ or95 2he or9 that omen typically per)orm is not ell0payin+ and has little conventional presti+e and liberal )eminists sho little inclination to
challen+e the conventional valuation o) that or95 *iberal )eminists vie childcare and houseor9 as )orms o) uns9illed labor, servicin+ the despised body
and re.uirin+ little exercise o) the respected mind5 555
Aomen=s rele+ation to certain 9inds o) or9 de+rades them not only hile they are per)ormin+ that or95 7ccordin+ to liberal )eminism, the conditions o)
omen=s or9 also diminish their liberty and autonomy in the rest o) their lives5 Aomen are paid so little that they 8+ure disproportionately amon+ the poor
and most contemporary liberals reco+ni?e that poverty ma9es it diCcult or impossible )or individuals to exercise their )ormal or le+al ri+hts5 >or instance,
poor people cannot exercise their ri+ht to travel hen they cannot aDord the )aresJ their ri+ht o) )ree expression is diminished by their lac9 o) control over
the mediaJ and their ri+ht to stand )or public oCce is orth little hen they cannot aDord to 8nance an electoral campai+n5 Instead o) sayin+ that poorer
individuals have less liberty or )eer ri+hts than ealthier ones, Rals pre)ers to say that @the orth o) liberty@ is less )or poor people5 &oever one
expresses the point, liberal )eminists complain that poverty ma9es most omen une.ual to most men5
K2estions on e/cerpt ?7o/ I@
#5 &o is liberal )eminists= commitment to e.uality
as a human0ri+hts issue reEected in their political
strate+iesN
,5 Lxplain hy liberal )eminists have been accused
o) )ocusin+ on @+ettin+ ahead@ rather than
endin+ the oppression o) all omenN
General disc2ssion H2estions
#5 Does your +overnment have a omen=s bureauN
Ahat 9inds o) issues does it addressN
,5 Ahat obstacles and barriers to participation in
various spheres o) economic, political, and social
li)e do omen in your country experienceN Ahat
ould it ta9e to remove these obstacles and
barriersN
%5 &ave chan+es in le+islation that ere intended
to promote e.uality achieved their +oalN Ahy
notN
Framework D& .ar/ist feminism
Classical 6arxism ar+ues that throu+hout history
people have )ound many diDerent means o)
)eedin+, shelterin+, clothin+, and reproducin+
themselves, that is, o) producin+ their material li)e5
In producin+ their material li)e, people or9
to+ether and enter into social relations ith one
another5 2he means and social relations o)
production constitute the modes o) production5
6arxists ar+ue that human nature is the result o)
speci8c modes o) production5 People are shaped by
the +eneral )orm o) society 3the mode o)
production4 and by each person=s speci8c place or
class in that society 3the relations o) production45
People, hoever, are capable o) radically
trans)ormin+ their society and thus ultimately
chan+in+ their on natures5
2he subordination o) omen came into existence
ith the mode o) production that introduced
private property5 In Ln+els= #88K classic, he ;ri.in
o/ the %a)ily3 Pri(ate Property and the #tate, he
ar+ued that hen huntin+0+atherin+ as replaced
by a+riculture, a more eCcient and productive
mode o) production, a )e men +ot control o) the
productive resources and trans)ormed them into
private property5 2he social relations o) production
ere that some men oned property and others
did not5 2his as the 8rst society ith a class
structure5 Ln+els then speculated that omen
ere subordinated to +uarantee that men ho
oned property ould be able to pass it on to their
on biolo+ical oDsprin+, thereby maintainin+ the
class structure 3Ln+els #'B045
Contemporary 6arxist )eminists continue this line
o) ar+ument by assertin+ that capitalism, the
current )orm o) class society, perpetuates the
subordination o) omen by en)orcin+ their
economic dependence on men5 2hey ar+ue that
9eepin+ omen subordinate is )unctional to the
capitalist system in a number o) ays5 Aomen +ive
birth to the ne labour )orce and continue to do
unpaid domestic labour5 Aomen also )orm a
reserve arm" of la1o2r, that is, they provide a
cheap and available labour )orce to compete )or
existin+ Fobs, thereby creatin+ donard pressure
on a+es5 7s homema9ers and mothers, omen
support the process o) pro8t0ma9in+, both as
consumers o) +oods and services )or the household
and as unpaid care+ivers ho subsidi?e and
dis+uise the real costs o) reproducin+ and
maintainin+ the or9 )orce5
K2estions raised for research
#5 Ahat is the relationship o) the )amily household
to the economyN
,5 Does domestic labour create valueN
%5 Do omen )orm a reserve army o) labourN
K5 &o do class and +ender interact to create
omen=s subordinationN
(mplications for polic" and action
#5 2o the extent that 6arxist )eminists concern
themselves ith policies, they ar+ue in )avour o)
policies that deal ith issues such as
occupational se+re+ation, lo pay, poverty, and
discrimination5 2hey )eel that 8+htin+ )or such
policies ill expose the )act that it is not possible
to remedy these problems under capitalism5
Capitalism may extend privile+es to a )e to9en
omen, but it cannot aDord to permit most
omen to be the economic and social e.uals o)
men5
,5 6arxist )eminists ar+ue that because the
subordination o) omen is maintained by the
capitalist system, then that system should be the
primary tar+et o) omen=s political activism5
Aomen must or+ani?e, but not ith other omen
)rom the capitalist class ho, ith their
husbands, have an interest in maintainin+ the
status .uo5 Rather, they must or+ani?e ith the
male or9in+ class to abolish the capitalist
system and establish a ne mode o) production
; a socialist system5 Only ith socialism ill
classes disappear and the true basis o) +ender
e.uality be established5
7o/ D
!omen in class str2ggle
2here)ore, it is )undamentally the institution o) the nuclear )amily as it exists under capitalism and the conse.uent limitations o) a oman=s @proper@
)unction in the production and reproduction o) the proletariat 3motherhood4 that )acilitates capital=s super0exploitation o) )emale labor in capitalist
commodity production5 2he labor theory o) value holds that a+es at real value comprise the costs o) the production and reproduction o) labor poer5
InEation, unemployment and undervalued labor poer 3depressed a+es4 exert a constant pressure to )orce omen out o) the home and into the labor
)orce5 2his has alays been characteristic o) capitalism, as 6arx pointed out lon+ a+o, but today the employment o) omen is steadily increasin+5
>urthermore, or9in+0class omen are constantly circulatin+ throu+h the labor )orce- #4 omen or9 be)ore marria+e and durin+ early marria+eJ ,4 omen
leave the labor )orce hen their children are in in)ancy and early childhoodJ and then %4 they return to the labor mar9et hen their children reach late
childhood or are +ron5 2his rhythm is upset anytime there are contractions and expansions o) employment and a+e levels5 Contraction and expansion o)
a+e levels operate to re+ulate the utili?ation o) )emale labor as a part o) the industrial reserve army5 Aomen tend to be )orced into the labor mar9et #4
hen there is a demand )or +reater masses o) labor poer, and:or ,4 hen demands )or cheap labor poer can be met by omen=s undervalued a+es or
omen=s part0time or95 Conversely, omen are )orced out o) the labor mar9et in periods o) +lut on the mar9et simply because they can be reabsorbed into
the nuclear )amily5
2he circulation o) omen throu+h the a+ed labor )orce, omen=s principal identi8cation o) themselves as ives and mothers and thus only @temporary
or9ers@ 3hich produces ne+ative or very ea9 class consciousness4, and institutionali?ed discrimination a+ainst omen all serve to )acilitate the super0
exploitation that is expressed by #4 the denial by capital o) compensation )or labor consumed in production and reproduction o) labor poerJ ,4 the
systematic undervaluation o) a+ed )emale laborJ %4 )orcin+ omen disproportionately into the orst and most de+radin+ FobsJ and K4 )orcin+ omen into
part0time or )ull0time or9 in addition to )ull responsibility )or domestic labor 3thus married or9in+ omen hold don to )ull0time Fobs, but are paid a+es
)or only one45
<pon investi+ation, or9in+0class omen are clearly the most oppressed, super0exploited sector o) the entire proletariat5 2he +reatest burdens are carried
by racial and national minority omen5 2he root o) omen=s subFu+ation and exploitation is not the human )amily as such, but the nuclear )amily as it is
or+ani?ed and exploited under advanced capitalism5555
2he conEict beteen men and omen, husbands and ives, is not some @petty bour+eois )eminist plot@ to divide the or9in+ class, but a real product o) the
cruel and exploitative social relations o) capitalism5 In )act, no sphere o) a or9in+0class oman=s li)e is )ree )rom exploitation )acilitated by institutionali?ed
male supremacy5
K2estions on e/cerpt ?7o/ D@
#5 Ahat does it mean to say that omen )orm a
reserve army o) labourN
,5 &o are omen @super0exploited@ by the
capitalist systemN
General disc2ssion H2estions
#5 7re omen economically dependent on men in
your country, and i) so, in hat ayN
,5 Does the )amily household )unction to support
the capitalist system in your countryN
%5 Do omen )orm a reserve army o) labour )or the
capitalist system in your countryN LxplainN
K5 Do rich omen experience +ender ine.uality in
the same ay as poor omen doN
55 Do omen alays belon+ to the same class as
their husbands or )athersN
Framework E& radical feminism
Radical )eminism emer+ed in the #'10s in the
<nited /tates in response to the sexism
experienced by omen or9in+ ithin the civil0
ri+hts and antiar movements5 6any o) the
activists in those movements ere inspired by
6arxist theory, hich as also )elt to be sexist5
2raditional 6arxism stated that class as the prime
)actor in the oppression o) or9in+ people and that
+ender e.uality ould )ollo upon the abolition o)
class society5 Radical )eminists ar+ued that ma9in+
+ender e.uality secondary to class e.uality
diminished the importance o), and de)erred action
on, omen=s concerns5
Radical )eminists insist that omen=s subordination
does not depend on other )orms o) domination,
such as class5 2hey ar+ue that patriarchy, or the
domination o) omen by men, is primary- it existed
in virtually every 9non society, even those
ithout classes5 Aomen=s subordination, as it is
deeply embedded in individual psyches and social
practices, is more diCcult to chan+e than class5
7lthou+h radical )eminists all a+ree on the primacy
o) omen=s subordination, they have a variety o)
vies on the ori+ins and nature o) this
subordination5 /hulamith >irestone 3#'B04, in he
!ialectic o/ #e"3 he Case /or %e)inist Re(olution,
ar+ued that omen=s subordination is rooted in
their biolo+y, that is, their reproductive physiolo+y5
/he ar+ued that only ith advanced technolo+y,
such as @test0tube babies,@ ould omen achieve
e.uality and no lon+er be dependent on men5
Other radical )eminists ar+ue that omen are
biolo+ically superior to men because o) their
capacity to +ive birth5 /till others ar+ue that it is
not the nature o) sex diDerences that should
concern )eminists but the social norms that
devalue )emale biolo+y5 6any radical )eminists
ar+ue that omen=s subordination is rooted in male
control over omen=s )ertility and sexuality, that is,
over omen=s bodies5
Radical )eminists are concerned ith sexuality5
2hey start )rom the vie that humans are sexual
bein+s and that sex ma9es a diDerence )rom the
very be+innin+5 2hey are also concerned about the
relationship beteen human biolo+y and human
social arran+ements5 Radical )eminists ar+ue that
procreation and sexuality, hich have been seen
as private issues, are in )act political issues
inasmuch as they are )undamentally or+ani?ed by
male poer5 Rele+atin+ these practices to the
private realm dele+itimi?es omen=s stru++le to
chan+e them5 Radical )eminists have declared that
<the personal is political5<
K2estions raised for research
#5 &o are omen made to )eel that they must
become mothersN
,5 &o can omen achieve control over conception
and abortionN
%5 Ahat are the institutions throu+h hich men
control omen=s sexualityN
(mplications for polic" and action
#5 In their daily lives, radical )eminists attempt to
create alternative social institutions ithin hich
omen can )ul8ll their needs5 /ome o) these
alternatives are omen=s health centres,
omen=s educational proFects, omen=s
businesses, and services )or omen in crisis5
,5 Radical )eminists pursue policies that )ocus on
omen=s ri+ht to ma9e choices about
motherhood, conception, abortion, and sexual
orientation5
%5 Radical )eminists ar+ue that social activists
should be concerned ith challen+in+ omen=s
subordination and should or9 toard
trans)ormin+ society to abolish patriarchy and
achieve e.uality )or omen5
7o/ E
Gendered lang2age
7mon+ the most pressin+ items on the a+enda )or research on adult development is the need to delineate in omen=s on terms the experience o) their
adult li)e5 6y on or9 in that direction indicates that the inclusion o) omen=s experience brin+s to developmental understandin+ a ne perspective on
relationships that chan+es the basic constructs o) interpretation5 2he concept o) identity expands to include the experience o) interconnection5 2he moral
domain is similarly enlar+ed by the inclusion o) responsibility and care in relationships5 7nd the underlyin+ epistemolo+y correspondin+ly shi)ts )rom the
$ree9 ideal o) 9noled+e as a correspondence beteen mind and )orm to the Biblical conception o) 9noin+ as a process o) human relationship5
$iven the evidence o) diDerent perspectives in the representation o) adulthood by omen and men, there is a need )or research that elucidates the eDects
o) these diDerences in marria+e, )amily, and or9 relationships5 6y research su++ests that men and omen may spea9 diDerent lan+ua+es that they
assume are the same, usin+ similar ords to encode disparate experiences o) sel) and social relationships5 Because these lan+ua+es share an overlappin+
moral vocabulary, they contain a propensity )or systematic mistranslation, creatin+ misunderstandin+s hich impede communication and limit the potential
)or cooperation and care in relationships5 7t the same time, hoever, these lan+ua+es articulate ith one another in critical ays5 Hust as the lan+ua+e o)
responsibilities provides a ebli9e ima+ery o) relationships to replace a hierarchical orderin+ that dissolves ith the comin+ o) e.uality, so the lan+ua+e o)
ri+hts underlines the importance o) includin+ in the netor9 o) care not only the other but also the sel)5
7s e have listened )or centuries to the voices o) men and the theories o) development that their experience in)orms, so e have come more recently to
notice not only the silence o) omen but the diCculty in hearin+ hat they say hen they spea95 Get in the diDerent voice o) omen lies the truth o) an
ethic o) care, the tie beteen relationship and responsibility, and the ori+ins o) a++ression in the )ailure o) connection5 2he )ailure to see the diDerent reality
o) dmen=s lives and to hear the diDerences in their voices stems in part )rom the assumption that there is a sin+le mode o) social experience and
interpretation5 By positin+ instead to diDerent modes, e arrive at a more complex rendition o) human experience hich sees the truth o) separation and
attachment in the lives o) omen and men and reco+ni?es ho these truths are carried by diDerent modes o) lan+ua+e and thou+ht5
K2estions on e/cerpt ?7o/ E@
#5 Ahat is the male ar+ument about omen=s place
in the social relations o) reproductionN
,5 Ahy do omen and men o)ten misunderstand
each otherN
%5 Ahat is the radical0)eminist version o) this
ar+umentN
General disc2ssion H2estions
#5 Do men dominate omen in your countryN I) so,
hat )orm does this domination ta9eN Is
@tradition@ used to le+itimate male authority over
omenN
,5 Do omen have reproductive )reedom in your
countryN I) not, hy notN
%5 7re omen subFected to male violence in your
countryN I) so, hat )orm does this violence ta9eN
K5 Ahat are the )ormal and in)ormal mechanisms
throu+h hich omen assert poer in your
societyN
55 &o have these chan+ed over timeN
15 Does the radical0)eminist concept @the personal
is political@ have relevance )or omen o) all
bac9+roundsN
Framework F& socialist feminism
2he activities o) socialist )eminists emer+ed in the
second hal) o) the #'B0s5 6any )eminists ere
dissatis8ed ith traditional 6arxism, hich sa
omen=s subordination as secondary to class
subordination5 2hey also )elt discom)ort ith the
ne radical )eminism, hich i+nored class and sa
patriarchy, or omen=s subordination, as the
primary )orm o) subordination5 /ocialist )eminists
ar+ued that class and omen=s subordination ere
o) e.ual importance and had to be challen+ed
simultaneously5
In attempts to develop a theory and practice to
achieve this end, socialist )eminists dre on the
6arxist historical0materialist method5 2heir aim
as to revise 6arxism by incorporatin+ radical0
)eminist insi+hts5 In so doin+, they )elt they ould
provide a ne basis )or analysis and a ne
strate+y )or political action that ould challen+e
both male dominance and capitalism5
/ocialist )eminists rede8ned the radical0)eminist
conception o) patriarchy so that it meant a set o)
hierarchical relations ith a material base in men=s
control over omen=s sexuality, procreation, and
labour poer5 2hey added an historical dimension
to the concept o) patriarchy, ar+uin+ that it ta9es
diDerent )orms in diDerent historical periods and in
diDerent racial, cultural, political, economic, and
reli+ious contexts5 2hey also ar+ued that the
6arxist de8nition o) economic activity had to be
expanded to include both productive and
reproductive or95 /ocialist )eminists insisted on
the e.ual importance o) the reproduction o)
children and the production o) commodities5
/ocialist )eminists ere concerned ith the
relationship beteen reproduction and production
and the capitalist male0dominated structure o)
both5
Huliet 6itchell, in her very early classic collection o)
essays, $o)en3 he Lon.est Re(olution, ar+ued
that there ere )our interloc9in+ structures to be
considered in omen=s subordination 36itchell
#'8K45 2hese ere production, reproduction,
sexuality, and child0rearin+5 2o understand
omen=s subordination, she said, it as necessary
to understand not only ho the needs )or )ood,
clothin+, and shelter are met but also ho the
need )or sexuality, children, and emotional
nurturance are met5 /ocialist )eminists continue to
be concerned about these issues5
By the mid0#'80s, many socialist )eminists ere
ar+uin+ that e should be+in the analysis o)
subordination ith the experience o) omen5 2hey
also incorporated the social construction o) +ender
into their analysis5 2hey ar+ued that i) e are to
understand and abolish omen=s subordination, it
is essential that e examine the processes by
hich +ender characteristics are de8ned and
+ender relations are constructed5 /ocialist
)eminists also expanded their analysis to
incorporate issues o) diDerence and include
consideration o) race, ethnicity, reli+ion, and
sexual pre)erence, as ell as colonialism and
imperialism5
By the late #'80s, "ate Goun+ and others ere
advocatin+ a holistic approach to the analysis o)
omen=s situation5 In ma9in+ this
recommendation, Goun+ examined three
overlappin+ areas o) concern-
2he psychosocial, hich )ocuses on the
processes o) ac.uirin+ masculine and
)eminine identities and the content o) these
identitiesJ
2he sociobiolo+ical, hich )ocuses not on
hether there are biolo+ical, psycholo+ical,
or physiolo+ical diDerences beteen omen
and men but on hy diDerences beteen
omen and men result in a hi+her value
bein+ placed on hat men doJ and
2he sociopolitical, hich )ocuses on ho
subFectivity, or the ay people )eel about
themselves as members o) a particular race
or class, contributes to structurin+ +ender
relations, as ell as on ho +ender
contributes to the structurin+ o) the political
and economic system5
K2estions raised for research
#5 Ahat is the relationship beteen production and
reproductionN
,5 &ave economic restructurin+ and structural
adFustment aDected omen and men diDerentlyN
%5 Ahat eDects have chan+es in class relations had
on omen and men o) diDerent races and ethnic
+roupsN
K5 &o have sexuality, procreation, and
motherhood been constructed at various times
and in various culturesN
implications for polic" and action
#5 /ocialist )eminists are concerned ith promotin+
policies to eliminate +ender se+re+ation in
domestic and a+e labour, eliminate sexual
harassment in the or9place, achieve e.ual pay
)or or9 o) e.ual value, increase omen=s
control over their conditions o) or9, trans)orm
the conditions in hich omen can ma9e
reproductive choices, and increase public
responsibility )or child care,
,5 /ocialist )eminists consciously attempt to
incorporate socialist0)eminist values o) e.uality,
cooperation, sharin+, and political commitment
into their livin+ arran+ements5 2hey also believe
that community0based political activities are a
necessary part o) the socialist0)eminist
trans)ormation o) society5
%5 /ocialist0)eminist activists have a vision o) a
society that excludes +ender, class, and race
structures and the ideolo+ies that underlie them5
2hey are interested in trans)ormin+ current
societies into societies consistent ith this
vision5
7o/
The 2nhapp" marriage of .ar/ism and feminism
2he stru++le a+ainst capital and patriarchy cannot be success)ul i) the study and practice o) the issues o) )eminism is abandoned5 7 stru++le aimed only at
capitalist relations o) oppression ill )ail, since their underlyin+ supports in patriarchal relations o) oppression ill be overloo9ed5 7nd the analysis o)
patriarchy is essential to a de8nition o) the 9ind o) socialism use)ul to omen5 Ahile men and omen share a need to overthro capitalism they retain
interests particular to their +ender +roup5 It is not clear ; )rom our s9etch, )rom history, or )rom male socialists ; that the socialism bein+ stru++led )or is
the same )or both men and omen5 >or a humane socialism ould re.uire not only consensus on hat the ne society should loo9 li9e and hat a healthy
person should loo9 li9e, but more concretely, it ould re.uire that men relin.uish their privile+e5
7s omen e must not allo ourselves to be tal9ed out o) the ur+ency and importance o) our tas9s, as e have so many times in the past5 Ae must 8+ht
the attempted coercion, both subtle and not so subtle, to abandon )eminist obFectives5
2his su++ests to strate+ic considerations5 >irst, a stru++le to establish socialism must be a stru++le in hich +roups ith diDerent interests )orm an
alliance5 Aomen should not trust men to liberate them a)ter the revolution, in part, because there is no reason to thin9 they ould 9no hoJ in part,
because there is no necessity )or them to do so5 In )act, their immediate sel)0interest lies in our continued oppression5 Instead e must have our on
or+ani?ations and our on poer base5 /econd, e thin9 the sexual division o) labor ithin capitalism has +iven omen
to understand hat human interdependence and needs are5 Ahile men have lon+ stru++led a+ainst capital, omen 9no hat to stru++le )or5 7s a +eneral
rule, men=s position in patriarchy and capitalism prevents them )rom reco+ni?in+ both human needs )or nurturance, sharin+, and +roth, and the potential
)or meetin+ those needs in a nonhierarchical, non0patriarchal society5 But even i) e raise their consciousness, men mi+ht assess the potential +ains a+ainst
the potential losses and choose the status .uo5 6en have more to lose than their chains5
7s )eminist socialists, e must or+ani?e a practice hich addresses both the stru++le a+ainst patriarchy and the stru++le a+ainst capitalism5 Ae must insist
that the society e ant to create is a society in hich reco+nition o) interdependence is liberation rather than shame, nurturance is a universal, not an
oppressive practice, and in hich omen do not continue to support the )alse as ell as the concrete )reedoms o) men5
K2estions on e/cerpt ?7o/ @
#5 Ahat is the relationship beteen capitalism and
patriarchy, and hy must both be opposedN
,5 Ahy must omen develop their on poer base
to accomplish chan+eN
General disc2ssion H2estions
#5 Ahat are the omen=s or+ani?ations in your
countryN Ahat vision o) society do these
omen=s or+ani?ations haveN Ahat 9inds o)
chan+e are they advocatin+N 7re these chan+es
consistent ith a socialist0)eminist analysisN
,5 &ave economic restructurin+ and structural
adFustment ta9en place in your countryN I) so,
have omen and men been aDected diDerentlyN
%5 Do any policies exist in your country that support
more e.ual distribution o) household or9
beteen omen and menN I) yes, hat are they,
and ho do they or9N I) no, hy notN
K5 Ahat problems do you see in applyin+ a
socialist0)eminist analysis to the experience or
condition o) omen in the /outhN
Framework G& 1lack feminism
&istorians o) the 7)rican diaspora have lon+
reco+ni?ed that blac9 people, includin+ omen,
have had their on particular experiences o) the
!e Aorld and Lurope5 Blac9 omen in the
diaspora have suDered a double Feopardy ; bein+
omen and bein+ blac95 6ost have had to endure
economic hardships as ell5 2he history o) blac9
omen=s stru++les a+ainst the multiple
oppressions o) race, sex, and class has been an
inspiration to blac9 omen, and these stru++les
have inspired a +roin+ body o) literature and
scholarship5 >or example, the li)e o) /oFourner
2ruth, the mid0#'th century antislavery activist and
omen=s0ri+hts advocate, hi+hli+hts blac9 omen=s
lon+ involvement in the 8+ht )or e.uality and
Fustice and their historic challen+e to hite
)eminists to see the debate )or omen=s ri+hts as
one that re.uires the inclusion o) all omen,
hatever their race or class5
7nd yet )eminist scholars )rom !orth 7merica and
Lurope have o)ten i+nored the speci8cities o) blac9
omen=s experiences5 2hey have )ocused, )or the
most part, on the experiences o) hite omen,
particularly hite, middle0class omen5 Blac9
)eminists have critici?ed hite0)eminist scholars )or
con8nin+ their theories lar+ely to their on history
and culture and )or i+norin+ the impact o)
asymmetrical race relations on +ender experiences
and relations, our understandin+ o) the sel), and
theory5 7s 7udre *orde arned radical )eminist
6ary Daly in #'B', omen=s oppression 9nos no
ethnic or racial boundaries, and )eminist theori?in+
that i+nores the experiences o) blac9 omen
encoura+es its on demise 3*orde #'8K45 >aced
ith a hite )eminism that 3until challen+ed4
insisted on de8nin+ a )eminism lar+ely hostile to
the realities o) blac9 omen, ,0th century blac9
)eminists reco+ni?ed the need to collect the earlier
or9s o) blac9 omen and to underta9e blac90
)eminist theori?in+5
>eminists )rom the blac9 community have sou+ht
alternative explanations )or the condition o) blac9
omen=s lives in the history o) their on people,
and they have discovered important diDerences5
Durin+ the 6iddle 7+es, )or example, Aestern
omen had almost no civil ri+hts, hereas 7)rican
omen had important civil ri+hts and considerable
status5 In the <nited "in+dom and the <nited
/tates, blac9 omen have +enerally experienced
the )amily as a site o) resistance a+ainst racism
more than as a site o) +ender oppression5 Colonial
and racist structures also aDected blac9 patriarchal
structures and authority5 Blac90)eminist theori?in+
has emer+ed )rom this analysis o) the concrete
experiences and cultures o) blac9 people5 /cholars
or9in+ ithin this perspective do not reFect the
theori?in+ o) hite )eministsJ rather, they call )or
)eminisms that ac9noled+e the importance o)
race )or omen=s lives, particularly the ay race
compounds the experience o) class and +ender
relations5 2he ritin+s o) blac90)eminist scholars
have contributed important insi+hts to )eminist
theori?in+5 2he experience o) the multiple
Feopardies o) race, class, and +ender has led blac9
)eminists such as Deborah "in+ 3#'884 and >iona
Ailliams 3#'8'4 to ar+ue )or a )eminism that
reco+ni?es the need to analy?e the simultaneous
impacts o) these )actors on the lives o) omen o)
colour5 7s Ailliams 3#'8', p5 1'4 pointed out, @the
simultaneous experience o) racism and sexism
Sand classismT not only compounds those
oppressions, but reconstitutes them in speci8c
ays5@ 2he multiple oppressions )acin+ blac9
omen are not simply additive- they interact in
complex ays, leadin+ to multiple consciousness
and action5 2his interactive, multilayered approach
to the study o) omen=s lives has inEuenced
)eminist theori?in+ and put the analysis o) multiple
Feopardies and consciousness on the )eminist
a+enda5
Blac90)eminist scholarship has also contributed to
)eminist epistemolo+y5 Blac9 )eminists have
emphasi?ed the importance o) concrete experience
as a criterion o) meanin+, the need to use dialo+ue
in assessin+ 9noled+e claims, and the importance
o) developin+ an ethic o) carin+ and personal
accountability in one=s research 3Collins #'8'45
2hey have also stressed the historical, speci8c
nature o) blac9 omen=s experience and the need
to develop an approach to the study o) omen
embedded in the concrete speci8cities o) omen=s
lives, rather than +enerali?in+ )rom the
experiences o) a small +roup o) o)ten privile+ed
omen5 7lthou+h )eminists o) various persuasions
have also raised these themes, blac90)eminist
scholarship has underscored the crucial nature o)
these considerations and added a poer)ul voice to
those advocatin+ a more experientially +rounded
approach to the study o) omen5
Blac90)eminist scholarship has developed a political
a+enda, a blac90)eminist mani)esto 3CRC #'8,4,
hich calls )or the development o) a )eminist
politics that is both antiracist and antisexist5 2he
mani)esto ar+ues )or the need to stru++le ith
hite omen a+ainst sexism, hether by hite
men or by blac9 men5 7t the same time, blac9
)eminists call )or solidarity ith blac9 men around
the issue o) race5 2his approach has )ound
considerable support in developin+ countries,
here omen have o)ten Foined men in their
stru++les a+ainst +lobal ine.ualities hile
challen+in+ sexist behaviour at home5 2he blac90
)eminist mani)esto thus oDers a potential solution
to the lon+0standin+ reluctance o) many blac9
omen to en+a+e in hite0dominated )eminist
politics, as ell as providin+ a theoretical criti.ue
o) the radical0and socialist0)eminist political
a+endas5
Blac9 )eminism thus asserts the primacy o) race )or
omen=s lives and experiences, particularly the
stru++les o) blac9 omen a+ainst slavery,
colonialism, imperialism, and racism5 Blac9
)eminism, ith its sister perspective, 2hird Aorld,
or indi+enous, )eminism, holds out the hope that
diDerent )eminisms, +rounded in the speci8cities o)
omen=s multi)arious experiences, may provide
the basis )or a comparative glo1al feminism that
celebrates diDerence ithout abandonin+ the
search )or common political and intellectual
a+endas5 7s 7udre *orde ar+ued in #'B',
@DiDerence must be not merely tolerated, but seen
as a )und o) necessary polarities beteen hich
our creativity can spar9 li9e a dialectic 3*orde
#'8K45@
K2estions raised for research
#5 Ahat are the speci8c historical conditions under
hich blac9 omen have experienced their lives
in 7)rica and in the diasporaN
,5 &o do sexism and racism intersectN Discuss the
conse.uences o) this intersection )or blac9
omen 3and blac9 men4 and )or hite omen
3and hite men45
%5 &o have +lobal economic ine.ualities, includin+
colonialism and imperialism, aDected blac9
omen=s experience o) the multiple Feopardies o)
sex, race, and classN
K5 &o do blac9 omen=s experiences and
9noled+es challen+e the assumptions o) other
)eminist theoriesN
55 &o has 7)rican culture aDected the lives and
experiences o) blac9 omen in the diasporaN
15 7re there divisions and hierarchies 3particularly
alon+ class lines4 ithin the blac9 community in
the diasporaN I) so, have they inEuenced blac9
omen=s livesN Ahat are the theoretical
implications o) these divisionsN
(mplications for polic" and action
#5 Policies and pro+rams )or omen should
ac9noled+e and ta9e into account the impact o)
race on +ender experiences and relations5
,5 Policyma9ers should investi+ate the needs and
socioeconomic conditions o) blac9 omen so that
they can desi+n policies relevant to those needs5
%5 Pro+rams )or omen should address the impacts
o) the multiple Feopardies o) race, sex, and class
)or many omen, and pro+ram desi+n should
reEect the complexities o) this multilevel reality
)or many omen5
7o/ $
Talking 1ack& thinking feminist) thinking 1lack
2oards the end o) #'8B I spo9e at 2u)ts <niversity at an annual dinner )or blac9 omen5 6y topic as @Blac9 Aomen in Predominantly Ahite Institutions5@ I
as excited by the idea o) tal9in+ ith so many youn+ blac9 omen but surprised hen these omen su++ested that sexism as not a political issue o)
concern to blac9 omen, that the serious issue as racism5 I=ve heard this response many times, yet someho I did not expect that I ould need to prove
over and over that sexism ensures that many blac9 )emales ill be exploited and victimi?ed5 Con)ronted by these youn+ blac9 omen to hom sexism as
not important, I )ell- that )eminism had )ailed to develop a politics that addresses blac9 omen5 Particularly, I )elt that blac9 omen active in blac9 liberation
stru++les in the #'10s and early #'B0s, ho had spo9en and ritten on sexism 3remember the antholo+y
BambaraN4 had let our youn+er sisters don by not ma9in+ more o) a sustained political eDort so that blac9 omen 3and blac9 people4 ould have +reater
understandin+ o) the impact o) sexist oppression on our lives5
Ahen I be+an to share my on experiences o) racism and sexism, pointin+ to incidents 3particularly in relationships ith blac9 men4, a veil as li)ted5
/uddenly the +roup ac9noled+ed hat had been previously denied ; the ays sexism ounds us as blac9 omen5 I had tal9ed earlier about the ay
many blac9 omen students in predominantly hite institutions 9eep silent in classes, statin+ emphatically that our pro+ress in such places re.uires us to
have a voice, to not remain silent5 In the ensuin+ discussion, omen commented on blac9 )athers ho had told their dau+hters @nobody ants a loudtal9in+
blac9 oman5@555 the +roup expressed ambivalent )eelin+s about spea9in+, particularly on political issues in classroom settin+s here they ere o)ten
attac9ed or unsupported by other blac9 omen students5 555
6any blac9 omen insist that they do not Foin the )eminist movement because they cannot bond ith hite omen ho are racist5 I) one ar+ues that there
really are some hite omen ho are resistin+ and challen+in+ racism, ho are +enuinely committed to endin+ hite supremacy, one is accused o) bein+
naive, o) not ac9noled+in+ history5 6ost blac9 omen, rich and poor, have contact ith hite omen, usually in or9 settin+s5 In such settin+s blac9
omen cooperate ith hite omen despite racism5 Get blac9 omen are reluctant to express solidarity ith hite )eminists5 Blac9 omen=s consciousness
is shaped by internali?ed racism and by reactionary hite omen=s concerns as they are expressed in popular culture, such as daytime soap operas or in
the orld o) hite )ashion and cosmetic products, hich masses o) blac9 omen consume ithout reFectin+ this racist propa+anda and devaluin+ o) blac9
omen5 555
It is our collective responsibility as individual blac9 omen committed to )eminist movement to or9 at ma9in+ space here blac9 omen ho are Fust
be+innin+ to explore )eminist issues can do so ithout )ear o) hostile treatment, .uic9 Fud+ements, dismissals, etc5555
Blac9 omen need to construct a model o) )eminist theorisin+ and scholarship that is inclusive, that idens our options, that enhances our understandin+ o)
blac9 experience and +ender5 /i+ni8cantly, the most basic tas9 con)rontin+ blac9 )eminists 3irrespective o) the terms e use to identi)y ourselves4 is to
educate one another and blac9 people about sexism, about the ays resistin+ sexism can empoer blac9 omen, a process hich ma9es sharin+ )eminist
vision more diCcult5 Rad)ord0&ill identi8es @the crisis o) blac9 omanhood@ as a serious problem that must be considered politically, assertin+ that @the
extent to hich blac9 )eminists can articulate and solve the crisis o) blac9 omanhood is the extent to hich blac9 omen ill under+o )eminist
trans)ormation5@
Blac9 omen must identi)y ays )eminist thou+ht and practice can aid in our process o) sel)0recovery and share that 9noled+e ith our sisters5 2his is the
base on hich to build political solidarity5 Ahen that +roundin+ exists blac9 omen ill be )ully en+a+ed in )eminist movement that trans)orms sel),
community, and society5
K2estions on e/cerpt ?7o/ $@
#5 Ahy is it important to recover the history o)
blac9 omen=s resistance to racismN
,5 &o do blac9 omen=s acts o) resistance
challen+e the to prevailin+ approaches to the
consciousness o) oppressed +roupsN
%5 Do blac9 omen have a sel)0de8ned standpoint
on their on oppressionN /hould they or9 ith
hite )eminists on political actionN
K5 &as )eminism )ailed to develop a politics to
address the concerns o) blac9 omenN I) so, ho
can e chan+e thatN
55 &o does sexism aDect blac9 omen 3and hite
omen4N &o can resistin+ sexism empoer
blac9 omen 3and hite omen4N
General disc2ssion H2estions
#5 Ahy do so many blac9 omen )eel they have
little to +ain )rom the )eminist movement in
!orth 7merica and the <nited "in+domN
,5 &ave you experienced sexisrn )rom men o) your
on race or ethnic +roupN
%5 Do you thin9 it is possible to be )eminist ithout
bein+ racistN Can )eminist thou+ht and practice
incorporate the experience and standpoint o)
blac9 omenN
K5 Ahat has blac90)eminist theori?in+ contributed
to )eminist theoriesN
55 Is there a blac9 omen=s realityN Is it aDected by
)actors such as class, re+ional ties, culture, and
ethnicityN
15 Does the radical0)eminist concept @the personal
is political@ have relevance )or blac9 omenN
Framework 8& postmodernist
feminism
In the last )e decades, postmodernist criti.ues
have increasin+ly dominated scholarship in the
humanities and social sciences5 Postmodernism is
not easily encapsulated in one phrase or idea, as it
is actually an amal+am o) o)ten purposely
ambi+uous and Euid ideas5 But above all,
postmodernists .uestion the metatheories that
@explain@ the modern a+e, particularly the belie)
that rational thou+ht and technolo+ical innovation
can +uarantee pro+ress and enli+htenment5 2hese
theories, hether in the 6arxist or the liberal
tradition, are no lon+er seen as @the truth@ but
simply as privile+ed discourses that deny and
silence competin+, dissident voices5
2he stru++le )or a universalist 9noled+e has been
abandoned5 7 search has be+un )or previously
silenced voices, )or the speci8city and poer o)
lan+ua+e and its relation to 9noled+e, context,
and locality5 2he concern ith discourse and
lan+ua+e has spaned an interest in the
construction o) identity and the concept o)
diDerence, particularly the tendency )or people to
de8ne those they see as diDerent 3@other@4 in
opposition to their on perceived stren+ths or
sense o) identity5 Luropean and !orth 7merican
scholarship, bene8tin+ )rom its he+emonic position
in orld discourse, has dominated the construction
o) such de8nitions5
>eminists have reacted to postmodernism in
various ays5 /ome reFect it because it undermines
)eminism=s political +oals 3Brodribb #'',45 Others
believe that standpoint0)eminist theory oDers
similar criti.ues o) male0establishment 9noled+e,
but )rom a )emale, rather than a lar+ely hite0
male, perspective 3&ardin+ #'',45 2hey point out
that most postmodernist riters have been hite
males5 &oever, a number o) )eminists have
sou+ht a middle +round5 2hey emphasi?e the
similarities and compatibilities o) )eminism and
postmodernism ; both, a)ter all, call )or the
development o) ne paradi+ms o) social criticism
that do not rely on traditional philosophical
underpinnin+s5 2hey believe )eminist theori?in+
and action can be stren+thened by
postmodernism=s sophisticated and persuasive
criticisms o) )oundationalism and essentialism, its
)ocus on diDerence, and its analysis o) the
relationship beteen lan+ua+e, poer, and
9noled+e5 7t the same time, they believe
postmodernism has much to learn )rom the
sociocritical poer o) )eminism, particularly its
attention to +ender5 /ome )eminists believe this
@marria+e@ can be achieved ith little diCculty
3Butler and /cott #'',4, hereas others expect it
to alter both perspectives 3>lax #''0J !icholson
#''0J Cannin+ #''K45
Postmodernist0)eminist thou+ht has attracted
considerable attention amon+ 2hird Aorld and
minority )eminists, ho have )ound it use)ul in their
criti.ues o) Aestern )eminism, particularly its
tendency to conEate the experiences o) Aestern
omen ith those o) omen everyhere, thus
i+norin+ important diDerences and underminin+
the possibility o) +lobal )eminist cooperation based
on the multiple realities o) the orld=s omen5
Indeed, postcolonial criti.ues )rom the /outh, alon+
ith ritin+s on identity, diDerence, and
indi+enous 9noled+e 3On+ #'88J 7+aral #''#J
Barriteau #'',4, have contributed much to
postmodernist0)eminist theori?in+5 2he encounter
beteen )eminism and postmodernism is clearly
on+oin+, indeterminate, and Euid5 It has dran on
)eminist scholarship in the !orth and the /outh and
holds the possibility o) a )eminism that reco+ni?es
the importance o) diDerence and local
complexities, ithout abandonin+ attention to
political and economic structures5 7 postmodern
)eminism that adopts )eminism=s political a+enda
hile reco+ni?in+ the relationship beteen
lan+ua+e and subFectivity and their connection to
other aspects o) material li)e can provide a
perspective in hich e can celebrate diDerences
and ambi+uities ithout sacri8cin+ the search )or a
@broader, richer, more complex and multilayered
)eminist solidarity@ 3>raser and !icholson #''0, p5
%5J see also &ennessy #''%J /ylvester #''K45
K2estions raised for research
#5 &o can omen=s voices and 9noled+e,
particularly those that have been hidden )rom
history or silenced alto+ether, be heard and
revealedN
,5 &o do the ords that people use to describe
one another and themselves inEuence actionN
%5 &o do some +roups represent and cate+ori?e
others, and hat impacts do these constructions
and representations have on actionN
(mplications for polic" and action
#5 2he postmodernist0)eminist approach reminds
policyma9ers that 9noled+e is )ound on many
levels and that the voices and opinions o) the
less poer)ul may oDer more solutions to
development problems than all the @experts@ in
the !orth5
,5 2his approach reminds policyma9ers that
lan+ua+e is important and that phrases and
labels inEuence the ays policies are perceived
and acted on5
%5 2his approach calls )or policies that ac9noled+e
diDerence and try to understand the needs o)
diverse +roups, particularly needs based on
racial and cultural identities, and reminds
policyma9ers o) the importance o) )ormulatin+
policies to address these needs5
7o/ %
The constr2ct of a postmodernist>feminist theor" for Cari11ean social>science research
/ocial science research on Caribbean omen represents a si+ni8cant development )or )eminist theory buildin+5 2his body o) or9 has established the
realities shapin+ the lives o) Caribbean omen5 It has initiated the +roundor9 )or criti.uin+ the +endered epistemolo+ies derived uncritically )rom
Lnli+htenment political discourses and hich in)orm Caribbean social science research5 >or research on Caribbean omen to transcend the mere addition o)
omen to the literature, the need to expose the +endered nature o) Lnli+htenment theories becomes in itsel) both an epistemolo+ical and political proFect5
Aithout con)rontin+ and deconstructin+ these theories, research on omen produce 8ndin+s hich do not challen+e the concept and practice o) patriarchy,
and can o)ten unittin+ly rein)orce it5 555
Post0modernist )eminists oppose the notion o) a sin+ular privile+ed, 9noable, universal truth, a $od=s eye vie as the )undamental principle in social
science epistemolo+ies5 2he epistemolo+ies o) the Lnli+htenment claim to have the 9ey to hat constitutes 9noled+e5 2hey claim, there)ore, to have the
only authority to adFudicate beteen truth and )alsehood5 2hat claim in turn rests on the assumption o) a supra rational mind5 2his claim to a supra rational
mind is exceedin+ly poer)ul5 7ll discourses derived )rom the Lnli+htenment tradition are able to mar+inali?e and deem irrelevant social +roups, locali?ed
9noled+es and areas o) 9noled+e havin+ no interest )or Lnli+htenment philosophy5 2hey had the authority to do so because the claim to a supra rational
mind allos a privile+ed access to truth5 555
Post0modernist )eminists reFect the binary opposites and dichotomies created by the arti8cial separation o) the mind )rom the body, truth )rom )alsehood,
and subFect )rom obFect5 Post0modernist )eminists posit that these dualisms ere created hen Lnli+htenment philosophy adopted rationality as the 9ey to
9noled+e5
2he challen+e to post0modernist )eminists in theory buildin+ is +reater and more encompassin+5 Ahere post0modernists locate all Lnli+htenment claims in
their historic and cultural contexts, post0modernist )eminists posit that existin+ social sciences epistemolo+ies exclude the experience o) omen because o)
the +endered reality o) all social relations5 Post0modernist )eminist theori?in+ ar+ues that not only are the Lnli+htenment perspectives the perspectives o)
particularly privile+ed +roups and societies, but they are the perspectives o) androcentric, Luropean societies5 Lnli+htenment theori?in+ represents the
epistemolo+ies o) the Luropean orldvie5 It denies the visibility and relevance o) the approaches to 9noled+e )rom the third orld and the Caribbean as
part o) it5 It is hat Hayaardina has re)erred to as @hidden )rom history@ and to hich can be added @deemed irrelevant as a source o) 9noled+e5@
K2estions on e/cerpt ?7o/ %@
#5 &o can postmodernist0)eminist theory assist in
the development o) a theory +rounded in the
realities o) Caribbean omen=s livesN
,5 &o does enli+htenment thin9in+ undermine
local 9noled+e and mar+inali?e certain social
+roupsN
%5 &o has social0science research on Caribbean
omen contributed to )eminist theory0buildin+N
General disc2ssion H2estions
#5 &o do postmodernist )eminists vie the claims
o) Lnli+htenment theorists, particularly liberal
and 6arxist theoristsN
,5 Do the )oundin+ )athers o) postmodernist
thin9in+ pay attention to omen or +enderN &as
this been a problem )or )eminists interested in
postmodern perspectivesN
%5 Does postmodernism undermine )eminist
politicsN I) so, hoN Can this be overcomeN
K5 Ahat can the study o) binary opposites and
representation tell us about the impact o)
colonialism and developmentalism on omen in
the /outhN
Feminist development theories&
appl"ing !(D and GAD
2his section provides tools and exercises to help
you become )amiliar ith, and operationali?e, the
to maFor )eminist development theories5 2he tools
are dran )rom &o 4al(es Make a $hole3
Balancin. 'ender Relations in !e(elop)ent
36oDat et al5 #''#4 but are somehat revised5 2his
section also provides three case studies that
hi+hli+ht the si+ni8cance o) the AID and $7D
)rameor9s5 2hese case studies sho that hen
you approach a problem )rom a particular
)rameor9, you identi)y a certain set o) problems
and arrive at certain types o) strate+ies and
solutions5 AID tends to )ocus on practical needs,
hereas $7D )ocuses on both practical needs and
strate+ic interests 32ables # and ,45 In addition to
)ocusin+ on everyday problems, $7D is concerned
ith addressin+ the root ine.ualities 3o) both
+ender and class4 that create many o) the practical
problems omen experience in their daily lives5
Ta1le 5 Comparison o) AID and $7D5
!(D
2he approach 7n approach that vies the absence o) omen in
development plans and policies as the problem
2he )ocus Aomen
2he problem 2he exclusion o) omen 3hal) o) productive resources4 )rom
the development process
2he +oal 6ore eCcient, eDective development that includes omen
2he solution Inte+rate omen into the existin+ development process
2he strate+ies >ocus on omen=s proFects, on omen=s components
o) proFects, and on inte+rated proFects
Increase omen=s productivity and income
Increase omen=s ability to loo9 a)ter the household
/ource- Based on 6oDat et al5 3#''#45
!ote- $7D, +ender and developmentJ AID,
omen in development5
Tools of GAD anal"sis
2OO* #- $L!DLR DIMI/IO! O> *7BO<R ; 6ost
societies allocate diDerent roles, responsibilities,
and activities to omen and men, accordin+ to
hat is considered appropriate in a particular
culture5 2his is called the +ender division o) labour5
7n examination o) the +ender division o) labour
usually shos that althou+h both omen and men
or9 to maintain themselves and their households,
there tends to be diDerences in the nature o) their
or9 and in the ays it is valued5 2hese diDerences
are a central aspect o) +ender relations5
Ta1le $5 Practical needs and strate+ic interests5
Practical needs
2end to be immediate, short0term
7re uni.ue to particular omen, accordin+ to the roles
assi+ned to them in the +ender division o) labour in their
society
Relate to daily needs- )ood, housin+, income, health, children,
sa)ety
7re easily identi8able by omen
Can be addressed by providin+ speci8c inputs- )ood,
handpumps, clinics, etc5
Addressin. practical needs
2ends to involve omen as bene8ciaries and perhaps as
participants
Can improve the condition o) omen=s lives
$enerally, does not alter traditional roles and relationships
/ource- Based on 6oDat et al5 3#''#45
2OO* ,- 2GPL/ O> AOR" ; Aomen and men, and
to some extent boys and +irls, are li9ely to be
involved in three main areas o) or9- productive,
reproductive, and community or95 In many
societies, hoever, omen do almost all o) the
reproductive and much o) the productive or95 7ny
intervention in one area ill aDect the others5
2OO* %- 7CCL// 2O 7!D CO!2RO* OMLR
RL/O<RCL/ 7!D BL!L>I2/ ; Aomen=s
subordinate position can limit their access to, and
control over, resources and bene8ts5 In some
cases, omen may have access 3the opportunity to
ma9e use o) some0thin+4 to resources and bene8ts,
but no control 3the ability to de8ne its use and
impose that de8nition on others45 >or example,
omen may have access to land but no control
over its lon+0term use or onership5
2OO* K- I!>*<L!CI!$ >7C2OR/ ; $ender
relations 3includin+ the division o) labour, the type
o) or9 omen and men do, and their respective
levels o) access and control4 chan+e to some
de+ree over time in any society5 6any )actors
inEuence, shape, and chan+e these relations5 >or
example, +ender relations are aDected by such
)actors as chan+es in the economy, environment,
reli+ion, culture, and political situation5
2OO* 5- CO!DI2IO! 7!D PO/I2IO! ; 7 distinction
can be dran beteen the day0to0day condition o)
omen and their position in society5 7s noted in
)ootnote ,, omen=s @condition@ re)ers to their
material state ; their immediate sphere o)
experience5 7 oman ould describe her condition
in terms o) the or9 she does, here she lives,
hat she needs )or hersel) and her children 3clean
ater, )ood, education4, etc5 @Position@ re)ers to
omen=s social and economic standin+ relati(e to
that o/ )en5 It is measured, by male0)emale
disparities in a+es and employment
opportunities, participation in le+islative bodies,
vulnerability to poverty and violence, etc5
Development activities tend to )ocus on omen=s
condition, aimin+ to improve their ability to carry
out traditional roles and responsibilities5 *ittle
attention has been paid to enhancin+ omen=s
position or promotin+ their ability to participate
)ully ith men as a+ents o) development and
chan+e5
2OO* 1- PR7C2IC7* !LLD/ 7!D /2R72L$IC
I!2LRL/2/ ; Practical needs are lin9ed to
omen=s condition5 2hey can be readily identi8ed
and usually relate to unsatis)actory livin+
conditions and lac9 o) resources5 >or example,
practical needs are usually related to immediate
needs, such as those )or )ood and ater, the health
and education o) children, and increased income5
Practical needs and )amily survival are alays
priorities5 2he satis)action o) these needs is a
prere.uisite )or omen=s ability to promote their
strate+ic interests5 /trate+ic interests )or omen
arise )rom their position in society 3disadvanta+ed4
relative to that o) men5 /trate+ic interests are lon+0
term, related to improvin+ omen=s position5 >or
example, empoerin+ omen to have more
opportunities, +reater access to resources, and
more e.ual participation ith men in decision0
ma9in+ ould be in the lon+0term strate+ic interest
o) the maFority o) the orld=s men and omen
ali9e5
2OO* B- *LML*/ O> P7R2ICIP72IO! ; 2he
)ormulation o) more +ender0aare policies re.uires
omen=s 3and men=s4 involvement as participants,
bene8ciaries, and a+ents5 Aomen bene8t
si+ni8cantly i) their decision0ma9in+ capacity and
status are increased throu+h a process o)
consultation5 Passive recipients o) assistance they
become a+ents o) chan+e hen they or+ani?e
themselves to address their on needs and plan
solutions and hen their voices are heard and
ta9en into account5
2OO* 8- PO2L!2I7* >OR 2R7!/>OR672IO! ;
Aomen=s subordinate position is not a static state,
nor is it experienced the same ay by all omen5
2hrou+hout history and around the orld, omen
have challen+ed +ender ine.uality and the
limitations it imposes on their potential as human
bein+s5 /i+ni8cant +ains have been and ill
continue to be made everyhere throu+h the
stra++le o) omen, some0times ith men=s
support5 In all societies, trans)ormatory processes
are creatin+ a better li)e, addressin+ ine.ualities,
and improvin+ the position o) omen5 Aomen=s
movements have a lon+ history in most countries,
and an aareness o) these movements should be
part o) our +ender analysis5
E/ercise
Appl"ing !(D and GAD frameworks
2he ade.uacy o) theoretical )rameor9s is best tested throu+h their application to real0orld situations5 7 )rameor9 provides a particular
line o) .uestionin+5 It helps the analyst identi)y here to start, hat to )ocus on, and ho to relate one issue to another5 2he obFective is to
+enerate a )ull understandin+ o) the nature o) the problem in order to propose eDective solutions5 DiDerent )rameor9s hi+hli+ht diDerent
issues and su++est diDerent courses o) action5
2he )olloin+ .uestions may be used to +uide discussion o) the case0study scenarios outlined belo-
#5 <sin+ the AID perspective, hat .uestions ould you as9 and hat types o) in)ormation ould you need to obtain to understand the
causes o) the problem and propose solutionsN
,5 <sin+ the $7D perspective, hat .uestions ould you as9 and hat types o) in)ormation ould you need to obtain to understand the
causes o) the problem and propose solutionsN
%5 7pply the tools o) $7D analysis outlined above and comment on their use)ulness in relation to the case study5
K5 7re there other .uestions unrelated to either the AID or the $7D )rameor9 that should be posed in this contextN I) so, hat are theyN
Case St2d"
6iolence against women
Miolence a+ainst omen is an increasin+ly serious
problem in country <5 Domestic violence is a maFor
component5 /exual Fealousies and suspicions
caused by omen leavin+ the home to or9 are a
)actor5 /o, too, is the mana+ement o) domestic
8nances5 6en expect omen to be able to stretch
the household=s income to cover all necessities and
leave some over )or entertainment5 Aomen are
also routinely harassed by stran+ers on the street
and by their super0visors at their places o) or95
Case St2d" $
Small>scale trading
/mall0scale tradin+ is a si+ni8cant source o)
income )or omen in country P, but their earnin+s
remain lo, and opportunities )or occupational
mobility are limited5 2he +overnment provides little
support )or this sector5 Poverty amon+ omen is
idespread5
Case St2d" %
!omen and forest reso2rces
Aomen in country P are the maFor users o) )orest
resources to provide, )or example, )uelood,
)odder, and ra materials )or the manu)acture o)
bas9ets )or home use and sale5 Aomen=s
productive activities are not reco+ni?ed by the
)orestry service, and their use o) the )orest tends to
be vieed as harm)ul to the environment5
Sample e/ercise answer& Case
St2d"
!(D perspective
Aomen may need to modi)y their behaviour to
reduce their exposure to violence5 2his mi+ht
involve the development o) more home0based or9
opportunities to avoid +oin+ to an outside
or9placeJ improved 8nancial0mana+ement s9ills
to ma9e cash stretch )arther and reduce tensions
over moneyJ and trainin+ in avoidin+ violence on
the streets 3throu+h such tactics as al9in+ in
+roups, re)usin+ ni+ht shi)ts, not earin+ sexually
provocative clothin+, and as9in+ men )rom their
household to accompany them at all times45
/helters should also be provided to assist omen
in ur+ent need5 Ahile they are in the shelter they
should have access to the above types o) trainin+
and counselin+5 7 +overnmental or
non+overnmental a+ency should be provide this
trainin+, alon+ ith other services )or omen5 *as
should be passed to stren+then penalties )or
violence a+ainst omen5
GAD perspective
Aomen may need to modi)y their behaviour in the
short term to avoid )urther inFury, but in the lon+
term the maFor modi8cation re.uired is in men, as
they are the perpetrators o) this violence5 2he
cultural values and social institutions that +ive men
poer over omen in their households, on the
streets, and in the or90place need to be chan+ed5
2his ill re.uire massive and lon+0term public
education5 It ill probably involve ne le+islation
or the en)orcement o) existin+ le+islation to ensure
?ero tolerance o) domestic violence so that
assaults in the home are prosecuted in the same
ay as assaults beteen stran+ers ould beJ
sexual0harassment re+ulations are actively
implemented throu+h or9place committeesJ and
omen and men each re+ard the eDective
maintenance o) sa)e streets as a public priority5
Occupational se+re+ation should also be
eliminated so that omen can have economic
poer and can, i) necessary, be 8nancially
independent and omen are no lon+er vieed as
in)erior or9ers doin+ in)erior Fobs5
Tools of GAD anal"sis
2OO* #- $L!DLR DIMI/IO! O> *7BO<R ; De8nitely part o)
the problem in Case /tudy # is that omen=s and
men=s or9 in diDerent spheres allocates them
diDerential 8nancial and social poer5
2OO* ,- 2GPL/ O> AOR" ; Aomen=s involvement in
productive or9 seems to be little reco+ni?ed, as
they are punished by their husbands )or leavin+
the homeJ and they shoulder the burden o)
domestic bud+etin+ 3as part o) their reproductive
or94, leavin+ them vulnerable to accusations o)
mismana+in+ income5 2o ma9e up the short)all o)
cash )rom an inade.uate income, they see9 paid
productive or9 outside5 2he demands placed on
omen in these to spheres are contradictory5 2his
probably loers their sel)0esteem, as they )eel they
are )ailin+ to meet expectations5 7ll this
contributes, directly and indirectly, to the cycle o)
violence in hich they are trapped5
2OO* %- 7CCL// 2O 7!D CO!2RO* OMLR RL/O<RCL/ 7!D BL!L>I2/
; 6en have access to better Fobs than omen do,
althou+h some men may be unemployed or paid
lo a+es, hich possibly increases domestic
stress5 Aomen have access to household income
but do not really control it in the sense o) bein+
)ree to decide on spendin+ priorities5 It seems they
must meet their husbands= expectations and
re.uirements above all else5
2OO* K- I!>*<L!CI!$ >7C2OR/ ; Miolence in this case is
increasin+, not static, so somethin+ must be
chan+in+ in the environment to explain it5
Research should )ocus on )actors such as chan+in+
patterns o) or9, prices, and ideas about
appropriate behaviour )or omen and men5
2OO* 5- CO!DI2IO! 7!D PO/I2IO! ; Aomen=s condition is
a problem- they experience violence in their daily
lives5 2heir position relative to that o) men seems
to be the cause o) the problem5
2OO* 1- PR7C2IC7* !LLD/ 7!D /2R72L$IC I!2LRL/2/ ;
Immediate practical needs include those )or
shelters, Fobs, housin+, medical care, and
counsellin+5 /trate+ic interests include measures
to improve omen=s position relative to that o)
menJ these measures should )ocus on both
empoerin+ omen and brin+in+ about lon+0term
societal chan+e in men=s attitudes and behaviour5
2OO* B- *LML*/ O> P7R2ICIP72IO! ; Aomen need to
or+ani?e to empoer themselves and to brin+
about lon+0term chan+e5 2hey should participate in
eDorts to provide many o) the practical services
needed by omen experiencin+ violence, but they
should not ta9e sole responsibility )or providin+
these- +ettin+ male0dominated +overnmental and
non+overnmental a+encies to ac9noled+e these
problems and ta9e some responsibility )or solvin+
them ould be an essential part o) lon+0term
chan+e5 Aomen ho have been the victims o)
violence should be involved in solvin+ the short0
and lon+0term problems, thereby movin+ )rom the
status o) passive victim to that o) active decision0
ma9er5
2OO* 8- PO2L!2I7* >OR 2R7!/>OR672IO! ; 7 mixed
strate+y o) meetin+ practical needs hile brin+in+
about lon+0term chan+es has +ood potential to
trans)orm society5 7s the problem in this case
study has rami8cations in the areas o) la,
policin+, economics, el)are, health, education,
and media, its solution mi+ht involve a +reat
number o) a+encies and individuals and thereby
trans)orm institutions and personal styles o) li)e5
Additional H2estions
#5 Is the violence concentrated in certain social
classes or ethnic +roupsN
,5 Ahat economic, cultural, historical, or political
)actors may account )or its concentration in
certain classes or +roupsN
%5 &o do approaches need to be modi8ed hen
issues o) violence are compounded by .uestions
o) race or class oppressionN
K5 7re there diverse opinions on the nature and
causes o) violence, or is there a broad
consensusN
55 &o mi+ht a +reater diversity o) voices be better
heardN
15 Ahat 9ind o) strate+ies do omen already use to
avoid, resist, or survive violenceN
B5 Can these strate+ies be shared and built up into
a lar+er )orce )or chan+e, based on omen=s
9noled+e and experienceN
*eferences
377AORD4 7ssociation o) 7)rican Aomen )or
Research on Development, ed5 #'8%5 /eminar
on research on 7)rican omen- hat type o)
methodolo+yN 77AORD, Da9ar, /ene+al5
7bu0*u+hod, *5 #''05 2he romance o)
resistance- tracin+ trans)ormations o) poer
throu+h Bedouin omen5 +n /anday, P5R5J
$oodenou+h, R5$5, ed5, Beyond the second
sex- ne directions in the anthropolo+y o)
+ender5 <niversity o) Pennsylvania Press,
Philadelphia, P7, </75 pp5 %##0%%85
7+aral, B5 #''#5 Ln+enderin+ the
environment debate- lessons )rom the Indian
subcontinent5 Center )or 7dvanced /tudy o)
International Development, 6ichi+an /tate
<niversity, Last *ansin+, 6I, </75 C7/L4
Distin+uished /pea9er /eries, !o5 85
7lvare?, /5 #'8'5 Aomen=s movements and
+ender politics in the Bra?ilian transition5 +n
Hac.uette, H5, ed5, 2he omen=s movement in
*atin 7merica5 <nin &yman, Boston, 67,
</75 pp5 #%01K5
7madiume, I5 #'8B5 6ale dau+hters, )emale
husbands- +ender and class hi an 7)rican
society5 Ied Boo9s, *ondon, <"5
7min, /5 #'BK5 7ccumulation on a orld scale5
&arvester Press, Bri+hton, /ussex, <"5
7ri?pe, *5J 7randa, H5 #'8#5 2he comparative
advanta+es o) omen=s disadvanta+es-
omen or9ers in the straberry export
a+ribusiness in 6exico5 /I$!/, B3,4, K5%0KB%5
7rmstron+, P5 #''%5 2he )emini?ation o) the
labour )orce- harmoni?in+ don in a +lobal
economy5 Paper presented at the !orth0/outh
Institute Con)erence on /tructural Chan+e and
$ender Relations in the Lra o) $lobali?ation,
Ottaa, O!, Canada5
7sad, 25, ed5 #'B%5 7nthropolo+y and the
colonial encounter5 7thlone Press, *ondon, <"5
Barriteau, M5L5 #'',5 2he construct o) a post0
modernist )eminist theory )or Caribbean social
science research5 /ocial and Lconomic
/tudies, K#3,4, #K%5
Beneria, *5J >eldman, /5, ed5 #'',5 <ne.ual
burden- economic crisis, persistent poverty
and omen=s or95 Aestvie Press, Boulder,
CO, </75
Bernal, 65 #'8B5 Blac9 7thena- 7)roasiatic
roots o) classical civili?ation5 Mol5 #- 2he
)abrication o) ancient $reece5 >ree 7ssociation
Press, *ondon, <"5
Bernstein, &5 #'B'5 7)rican peasantries- a
theoretical )rameor95 Hournal o) Peasant
/tudies, 13K4, BB0#015
Biene)eld, 65 #''%5 /tructural adFustment-
debt collection device or development policyN
Institute o) Comparative Culture, /ophia
<niversity, 2o9yo, Hapan5 7dvanced
Development 6ana+ement Pro+ram /eries,
!o5 55
Blomstrom, 65J &ettne, B5 #'8K5 Development
theory in transition5 Ied Boo9s, *ondon, <"5
Bor.ue, /5J Aarren, "5 #''05 7ccess is not
enou+h- +ender perspectives on technolo+y
and education5 +n 2in9er, *, ed5, Persistent
ine.ualities5 Ox)ord <niversity Press, !e
Gor9, !G, </75 pp5 8%0#005
Boserup, L5 #'B05 Aomen=s role in economic
development5 7llen U <nin, *ondon, <"5
Bourdieu, P5 #'BB5 Outline o) a theory o)
practice5 Cambrid+e <niversity Press,
Cambrid+e, <"5
Bo??oli, B5J !9otsoe, 65 #''#5 Aomen o)
Pho9en+5 &einemann, Portsmouth, !&, </75
Brodribb, /5 #'',5 !othin+ mat3t4ers- a
)eminist criti.ue o) postmodernism5 Hames
*orimer and Co5, 2oronto, O!, Canada5
Brydon, *5J Chant, /5 #'8'5 Aomen in the
2hird Aorld- +ender issues in rural and urban
areas5 Rut+ers <niversity Press, !e
Brunsic9, !H, </75
Bunch, CJ Carrillo, R5 #''05 >eminist
perspectives on omen in development5 +n
2in9er, I, ed5, Persistent ine.ualities5 Ox)ord
<niversity Press, !e Gor9, !G, </75 pp5 B00
8,5
Bur+os0Debray, L5, ed5 #'8K5 I, Ri+oberta
6enchu- an Indian oman in $uatemala
3transl5 by 75 Ari+ht45 Merso, !e Gor9, !G,
</75
Butler, H5J /cott, H5, ed5 #'',5 >eminists
theori?e the political5 Routled+e, !e Gor9,
!G, </75
Cannin+, "5 #''K5 >eminist history a)ter the
lin+uistic turn- historici?in+ discourse and
experience5 /I$!/, #'3,4, %180K0K5
Chambers, R5 #'8%5 Rural development-
puttin+ the last 8rst5 *on+man, &arlo, <"5
RRRRR #''B5 Ahose reality countsN- puttin+ the
last 8rst5 Intermediate 2echnolo+y
Publications, *ondon, <"5
Collins, P5 #'8'5 2he social construction o)
blac9 )eminist thou+ht5 /I$!/, #K3K4, BK50BB%5
ComaroD, H5J ComaroD, H5 #'',5 Lthno+raphy
and the historical ima+ination5 Aestvie
Press, Boulder, CO, </75
Corbrid+e, /5 #''05 Post06arxism and
development studies- beyond the impasse5
Aorld Development, 8354, 1,%01K05
Comia, $575J Holly, R5J /teart, >5 #'8B5
7dFustment ith a human )ace- protectin+ the
vulnerable and promotin+ +roth5 Clarendon
Press, Ox)ord, <"5
CRC 3Combahee River Collective45 #'8,5 7
blac9 )eminist statement5 +n &ull, $525J /cott,
P5B5J /mith, B5, ed5, 7ll the omen are hite,
all the blac9s are men5 2he >eminist Press at
City <niversity o) !e Gor9, !e Gor9, !G,
</75 pp5 #%0,,5
C/L$A/7 3Commonealth /ecretariat Lxpert
$roup on Aomen and /tructural 7dFustment45
#'8'5 Ln+enderin+ adFustment )or the #''0s5
Commonealth /ecretariat, *ondon, <"5
Dixon, 65 #'805 Aomen in class stru++le5
/ynthesis Publications, /an >rancisco, C7,
</75
DuBois, 65 #''#5 2he +overnance o) the 2hird
Aorld- a >oucauldian perspective on poer
relations in development5 7lternatives, #13#4,
#0%05
Ldards, 65 #'8'5 2he irrelevance o)
development studies5 2hird Aorld Quarterly,
##3#4, ##10#%55
Llson, D5 #'',5 >rom survival strate+ies to
trans)ormation strate+ies- omen=s needs and
structural adFustment5 +n Beneria, *5J >eldman,
/5, ed5, <ne.ual burden- economic crises,
persistent poverty, and omen=s or95
Aestvie Press, Boulder, CO, </75 pp5 ,10K85
Ln+els, >5 #'B05 Ori+in o) the )amily, private
property, and the state5 International
Publishers, !e Gor9, !G, </75
Lscobar, 75 #'8K5 Discourse and poer in
development- 6ichel >oucault and the
relevance o) his or9 to the 2hird Aorld5
7lternatives, #03%4, %BB0K005
Lviota, L5 #'',5 2he political economy o)
+ender- omen and the sexual division o)
labour in the Philippines5 Ied Boo9s, *ondon,
<"5
>er+uson, H5 #''05 2he antipolitics machine5
Cambrid+e <niversity Press, Cambrid+e, <"5
>indFi, 65 #'',5 >rom resistance to social
movement- the indi+enous authorities
movement in Columbia5 +n Lscobar, 75J
7lvare?, /5, ed5 ' 2he ma9in+ o) social
movements in *atin 7merica5 Aestvie Press,
Boulder, CO, </75
>irestone, /5 #'B05 2he dialectic o) sex- the
case )or )eminist revolution5 Ailliam 6orro,
!e Gor9, !G, </75
>lax, H5 #''05 2hin9in+ )ra+ments-
psychoanalysis, )eminism and post0
modernism in the contemporary Aest5
<niversity o) Cali)ornia, Ber9eley, C7, </75
>oucault, 65 #'805 Poer:9noled+e5
&arvester, Bri+hton, /ussex, <"5
>ran9, 75$5 #'1B5 Capitalism and
underdevelopment in *atin 7merica5 6onthly
Revie Press, !e Gor9, !G, </75
RRRRR #'1'5 *atin 7merica- underdevelopment
or revolutionN 6onthly Revie Press, !e
Gor9, !G, </75
RRRRR #'B'5 Dependent accumulation and
underdevelopment5 6onthly Revie Press,
!e Gor9, !G, </75
>raser, !5J !icholson, *5 #''05 /ocial criticism
ithout philosophy- an encounter beteen
)eminism and post0modernism5 +n !icholson,
*5, ed5, >eminism:post0modernism5 Routled+e,
!e Gor9, !G, </75 pp5 #'0%85
$iddens, 75 #'B'5 Central problems hi social
theory5 6acmillan, *ondon, <"5
$illi+an, C5 #'8,5 In a diDerent voice-
psycholo+ical theory and omen=s
development5 &arvard <niversity Press,
Cambrid+e, 67, </75
$ladin, C5&5 #''%5 Aomen and structural
adFustment in a +lobal economy5 +n $allin,
R5/5J >er+uson, 75J &arper, H5, ed5, 2he omen
and international development annual5 Mol5 %5
Aestvie Press, Boulder, CO, </75 pp5 8B0##K5
&ardin+, /5, ed5 #'8B5 >eminism and
methodolo+y5 Open <niversityJ Indiana
<niversity Press, Bloomin+ton, I!, </75
RRRRR #''#5 Ahose scienceN Ahose
9noled+eN 2hin9in+ )rom omen=s lives5
Cornell <niversity Press, Ithaca, !G, </75
RRRRR #'',5 /ubFectivity, experience and
9noled+e5 Development and Chan+e, ,%3%4,
#B50#'K5
&artmann, &5 #'8#5 2he unhappy marria+e o)
6arxism and )eminism- toards a more
pro+ressive union5 +n /ar+ent, *5, ed5, Aomen
and revolution- a discussion o) the unhappy
marria+e o) 6arxism and )eminism5 /outh Lnd
Press, Boston, 67, </75 pp5 #0K,5
&ennessy, R5 #''%5 6aterialist )eminism and
the politics o) discourse5 Routled+e, !e Gor9,
!G, </75
&eyser, !5, ed5 #'8B5 Aomen )armers and
rural chan+e in 7sia5 7sian and Paci8c
Development Centre, "uala *umpur, 6alaysia5
&ill, P5 #'815 Development economics on trial-
the anthropolo+ical case )or the prosecution5
Cambrid+e <niversity Press, Cambrid+e, <"5
hoo9s, b5 #'885 2al9in+ bac9- thin9in+
)eminist, thin9in+ blac95 Beteen the *ines,
2oronto, O!, Canada5
RRRRR #''#5 Gearnin+- race, +ender, and
cultural politics5 /outh Lnd Press, Boston, 67,
</75
Imam, 75 #''K5 Politics, Islam, and omen in
"ano, northern !i+eria5 +n 6o+hadam, M565,
ed5, Identity politics and omen- cultural
reassertions and )eminisms in international
perspective5 Aestvie Press, Boulder, CO,
</75 pp5 #,%0#KK5
Iri+aray, *5 #'855 /peculum o) the other
oman5 Cornell, Ithaca, !G, </75
Ha++ar, 75 #'8%5 >eminist politics and human
nature5 Roman and 7llanheld, 2otoa, !H,
</75
Hames, /5J Busia, 75 #''%5 2heori?in+ blac9
)eminisms5 Routled+e, *ondon, <"5
Ha.uette, H5 #'8,5 Aomen and moderni?ation
theory- a decade o) )eminist criticism5 Aorld
Politics, %K3,4, ,1B0,8K5
Helin, L5 #'805 2he Bahiana in the labor )orce
in /alvador, Bra?il5 +n !ash, H5J /a)a, &5, ed5,
/ex and class in *atin 7merica5 Ber+in
Publishers, /outh &adley, 67, </75 pp5 #,'0
#K15
RRRRR ed5 #''05 Aomen and social chan+e in
*atin 7merica5 Ied Boo9s, *ondon, <"5
"ale9ar, 65 #''#5 Moices )rom ithin- early
personal narratives o) Ben+ali omen5 Ox)ord
<niversity Press, !e Delhi, India5
"in+, D5"5 #'885 6ultiple Feopardy, multiple
consciousness- the context o) a blac9 )eminist
ideolo+y5 /I$!/, #K3#4, K,0B,5
"irby, /5J 6c"enna, "5 #'8'5 Lxperience,
research, social chan+e- methods )rom the
mar+ins5 $aramond Press, 2oronto, O!,
Canada5
"ishar, 65J Manita, R5, ed5 #'8K5 In search o)
ansers- Indian omen=s voices )rom
6anushi5 Ied Boo9s, *ondon, <"5
"umar, R5 #''K5 Identity politics and the
contemporary Indian )eminist movement5 +n
6o+hadam, M565, ed5, Identity politics and
omen- cultural reassertions and )eminisms in
international perspective5 Aestvie Press,
Boulder, CO, </75 pp5 ,BK0,',5
*a?re+, 65 #'885 >eminism and diDerence- the
perils o) ritin+ as a oman on omen in
7l+eria5 >eminist /tudies, #K3#4, 8#0#0B5
*ele, /565 #''#5 /ustainable development- a
critical revie5 Aorld Development, #'314,
10B01,,5
*erner, D5 #'585 2he passin+ o) traditional
society5 2he >ree Press, !e Gor9, !G, </75
*eis, 75 #'555 2he theory o) economic
+roth5 7llen U <nin, *td, *ondon, <"5
*on+, !5J *on+, 75, ed5 #'',5 Battle8elds o)
9noled+e5 Routled+e, *ondon, <"5
*orde, 75 #'8K5 2he master=s tools ill never
dismantle the master=s house5 +n *orde, 75,
ed5, /ister outsider- essays and speeches5
Crossin+ Press, 2rumansbur+, !G, </75
6a+uire, P5 #'8B5 Doin+ participatory
research- a )eminist approach5 <niversity o)
6assachusetts, Boston, 67, </75
6a?umdar, M5J /harma, "5 #''05 /exual
division o) labor and the subordination o)
omen- a reappraisal )rom India5 +n 2in9er, I5,
ed, Persistent ine.ualities5 Ox)ord <niversity
Press, Ox)ord, <"5 pp5 #850#'B5
6bilinyi, 65 #'8K5 Cooperation or exploitationN
Lxperiences o) omen=s initiatives in
2an?ania5 International *abour OCce, $eneva,
/it?erland5
RRRRR #'8'5 @I=d have been a man@- politics
and the labor process hi producin+ personal
narratives5 +n Personal !arrative $roup, ed5,
Interpretin+ omen=s lives5 Indiana <niversity
Press, Bloomin+ton, I!, </75 pp5 ,0K0,,B5
6eena, R5 #''#5 2he impact o) structural
adFustment pro+rams on rural omen in
2an?ania5 +n $ladin, C5, ed5, /tructural
adFustment and 7)rican omen )armers5
<niversity o) >lorida Press, $ainesville, >*,
</75 pp5 #1'0#'05
6ernissi, >5 #'8B5 Beyond the veil- male0
)emale dynamics in modern 6uslim society
3rev5 ed545 <niversity o) Indiana Press,
Bloomin+ton, I!, </75
6ies, 65 #'8'5 Patriarchy and accumulation
on a orld scale5 Ied Boo9s, *ondon, <"5
6ies, 65J /hiva, M5 #''%5 Lco)eminism5 Ied
Boo9s, *ondon, <"5
6inh0ha, 25 #'8'5 Aoman, native, other5
Indiana <niversity Press, Bloomin+ton, I!,
</75
6itchell, H5 #'8K5 Aomen- the lon+est
revolution- essays on )eminism, literature and
psychoanalysis5 Mira+o, *ondon, <"5
6oDat, *5J $eadah, G5J /tuart, R5 #''#5 2o
halves ma9e a hole- balancin+ +ender
relations hi development5 Canadian Council
)or International Co0operation, 672C&
International CentreJ 7ssociation .uebecoise
des or+anismes de co0operation
Internationale, Ottaa, O!, Canada5
6ohanty, C5J Russo, 75J 2orres, *5, ed5 #'',5
2hird Aorld omen and the politics o)
)eminism5 <niversity o) Indiana Press,
Bloomin+ton, I!, </75
6olyneux, 65 #'855 6obili?ation ithout
emancipation- omen=s interests, state and
revolution in !icara+ua5 >eminist /tudies,
##3,4, ,,B0,5K5
6omsen, H5J "innaird, M5, ed5 #''%5 DiDerent
places, diDerent voices5 Routled+e, *ondon,
<"5
6oore, D5 #'',5 2he dynamics o)
development discourse- sustainability, e.uity,
and participation hi 7)rica5 Dra)t paper
commissioned by the International
Development Research Centre, Ottaa, O!,
Canada5
6oser, C5 #'8'5 $ender plannin+ hi the third
orld- meetin+ practical and strate+ic needs5
Aorld Development, #B3##4, #B''0#8,55
RRRRR #''%5 $ender plannin+ and
development- theory, practice and trainin+5
Routled+e, *ondon, <"5
6u9abi0"abira, H5J AanFi9u, 750O5J !?omo, 65,
ed5 #''%5 Democratic chan+e hi 7)rica-
omen=s perspective5 7ssociation o) 7)rican
Aomen )or Research and DevelopmentJ
7)rican Centre )or 2echnolo+y /tudies, !airobi,
"enya5
6u9herFee, P5 #'B85 &indu omen- normative
models5 Orient *on+mans, !e Delhi, India5
6umta?, "5 #''K5 Identity politics and omen-
@)undamentalism@ and omen in Pa9istan5 +n
6o+hadam, M565, ed5, Identity politics and
omen- cultural reassertions and )eminisms in
international perspective5 Aestvie Press,
Boulder, CO, </75 pp5 ,,80,K,5
!andy, 75 #88'5 /hamans, sava+es and the
ilderness- on the audibility o) dissent and the
)uture o) civili?ations5 7lternatives, #K3%4, ,1%0
,BB5
!arayan, <5 #'8'5 2he proFect o) )eminist
epistemolo+y- perspectives )rom a nonestem
)eminist5 +n Ha++ar, 75J Bordo, /5, ed5,
$ender:body:9noled+e5 Rut+ers <niversity
Press, !e Brunsic9, !H, </75 pp5 ,510,B,5
!+, C5 #'855 $ender and the division o)
labour- a case study5 +n 7i Gun, &5J 2alib, R5,
ed5, Aomen and employment in 6alaysia5 2he
7sia and Paci8c Development Centre, "uala
*umpur, 6alaysia, pp5 8,0#,,5
!icholson, *5, ed5 #''05
>eminism:postmodemism5 Routled+e, !e
Gor9, !G, </75
!indi, B5 #''05 Lxperts, donors, rulin+ elites
and the 7)rican poor- expert plannin+, policy
)ormulation and implementation ; a criti.ue5
Hournal o) Lastern 7)rican Research and
Development, ,0, K#01B5
!?omo, 65 #''%5 Political and le+al
empoerment o) omen in post0election
"enya5 +n !?omo, 65, ed5, Lmpoerin+ "enya
omen5 !ational Commission on the /tatus o)
Aomen, !airobi, "enya, pp5 10#'5
O9e9e, P5 #''K5 Patriarchal continuities and
contradictions in 7)rican omen=s education
and socio0economic status- ethno+raphic
study o) university educated I+bo omen in
!i+eria5 Dalhousie <niversity, &ali)ax, !/,
Canada5 PhD thesis5
On+, 75 #'8B5 /pirits o) resistance and
capitalist discipline5 !e Gor9 <niversity Press,
7lbany, !G, </75
RRRRR #'885 Colonialism and modernity-
)eminist representations o) omen in non0
Aestern societies5 Inscriptions, %0K3,4, B'0'%5
Oppon+, C5, ed5 #'8%5 >emale and male in
Aest 7)rica5 7llen U <nin, *ondon, <"5
Overholt, C5J 7nderson, 65J Cloud, "5J 7ustin,
H5, ed5 #'8K5 $ender roles in development5
"umarian Press, Aest &art)ord, C2, </75
Parpart, H5, ed5 #'8'5 Aomen and
development in 7)rica- comparative
perspectives5 <niversity Press o) 7merica,
*anham, 6D, </75
RRRRR #''%5 Aho is the @other@N- a post0
modern )eminist criti.ue o) omen and
development theory and practice5
Development and Chan+e, ,K3%4, K%'0K1K5
Parsons, 25 #'5#5 2he social system5
Routled+e, *ondon, <"5
Pere?07leman, P5 #'',5 Lconomic crisis and
omen in !icara+ua5 +n *ourdes, B5J >eldman,
/5, ed5, <ne.ual burden- economic crises,
persistent poverty and omen=s or95
Aestvie Press, Boulder, CO, </75 pp5 ,%'0
,585
Pietila, &5J Mic9ers, H5 #''05 6a9in+ omen
matter- the role o) the <nited !ations5 Ied
Boo9s, *ondon, <"5
Piore, 65J /abel, C5 #'8K5 2he second
industrial divide5 Basic Boo9s, Inc5, !e Gor9,
!G, </75
Pratt, 65*5 #'815 >ieldor9 in common places5
+n CliDord, H5J 6arcus, $5, ed5, Aritin+ culture5
<niversity o) Cali)ornia Press, Ber9eley, C7,
</75 pp5 ,B0505
Pred, 75J Aatts, 65 #'',5 Reor9in+
modernity- capitalism and symbolic
discontent5 Rut+ers <niversity Press, !e
Brunsic9, !H, </75
RadcliDe, /5J Aestood, /5, ed5 #''%5 Miva-
omen and popular protest in *atin 7merica5
Routled+e, *ondon, <"5
Rahnema, 65 #''05 Participatory action
research- the *ast 2emptation o) /aint
Development5 7lternatives, #5, #''0,,15
RaFan, R5 #''%5 Real and ima+ined omen5
Routled+e, *ondon, <"5
Rath+eber, L5 #''05 ALD, A7D, $7D- trends
in research and practice5 Hournal o)
Developin+ 7reas, ,K3K4, K8'050,5
Risseeu, C5 #'885 2he 8sh don=t tal9 about
the ater- +ender trans)ormation, poer and
resistance amon+ omen in /ri *an9a5 L5H5
Brill, *eiden, !etherlands5
Roseberry, A5 #'8'5 7nthropolo+ies and
histories5 Rut+ers <niversity Press, !e Bruns0
ic9, !H, </75
Roseberry, A5J O=Brien, H5, ed5 #''#5 $olden
a+es, dar9 a+es5 <niversity o) Cali)ornia Press,
Ber9eley, C7, </75
Rosto, A5A5 #'105 2he sta+es o) economic
+roth- a non0communist mani)esto5
Cambrid+e <niversity Press, Cambrid+e, <"5
/achs, A5 #'',5 2he development dictionary-
a +uide to 9noled+e as poer5 Ied Boo9s,
*ondon, <"5
/aid, L5A5 #'855 Orientalism5 Pen+uin,
&armondsorth, <"5
/an+ari, "5J Maid, /5 #'8'5 Recastin+ omen-
essays hi colonial history5 "ali )or Aomen, !e
Delhi, India5
/ar+ent, *5 #'8#5 Aomen and revolution5
/outh Lnd Press, Boston, 67, </75
/chuurman, >5H5, ed5 #''%5 Beyond the
impasse5 Ied Press, *ondon, <"5
/cott, H5 #'855 Aeapons o) the ea9- everyday
)orms o) peasant resistance5 Gale <niversity
Press, !e &aven, C2, </75
RRRRR #''05 Domination and the arts o)
resistance- hidden transcripts5 Gale <niversity
Press, !e &aven, C2, </75
/en, $5J $ron, C5 #'8B5 Development, crises
and alternative visions5 6onthly Revie Press,
!e Gor9, !G, </75
/hiva, M5 #'885 /tayin+ alive- omen, ecolo+y
and survival5 "ali )or Aomen, Delhi, India5
/later, D5 #''%5 2he political meanin+s o)
development5 +n /chuurman, >5H5, ed5, Beyond
the impasse5 Ied Boo9s, *ondon, <"5
/piva9, $5 #''05 2he post0colonial critic5
Routled+e, !e Gor9, !G, </75
/tandin+, $5 #'885 /ustainable livelihoods,
environment and development- puttin+ poor
rural people 8rst5 Institute )or Development
/tudies, Bri+hton, /ussex, <"5 Discussion
Paper ,K05
RRRRR #'8'5 $lobal )emini?ation throu+h
Eexible labour5 Aorld Development, #B3B4,
#0BB0#0'55
/teady, >5C5 #'8%5 Research methodolo+y and
investi+ative )rameor9 )or social chan+e- the
case )or 7)rican omen5 7ssociation o) 7)rican
Aomen )or Research on Development
377AORD4, ed5, /eminar on research on
7)rican omen- hat type o) methodolo+yN
77AORD, Da9ar, /ene+al, pp5 #,0,#5
/udar9asa, !5 #'B%5 Ahere omen or9- a
study o) Goruba omen in the mar9etplace
and the home5 6useum o) 7nthropolo+y,
<niversity o) 6ichi+an, 7nn 7rbor, 6I, </75
7nthropolo+ical Papers, !o5 5%5
/ylvester, C5 #''K5 >eminist theory and
international relations in a postmodern era5 Ca
brid+e <niversity Press, Cambrid+e, <"5
2adria, &5 #''%5 $ender issues in
mana+ement development- an 7)rican
paradi+m5 +n von 2roil, 65, ed5, Chan+in+
paradi+ms in development ; /outh, Last and
Aest5 !ordis9a 7)ri9ainstitutet, <ppsala,
/eden5
2homson, /5J /ari9ahputi, G5 #'8'5 Inte+ration
o) rural omen=s concerns into mainstream
a+riculture and rural development activities5
Quarterly !esletter, K3%45
2iano, /5 #''05 6a.uiladora omen- a
cate+ory o) or9ersN +n Aard, "5, ed5, Aomen
or9ers and +lobal restructurin+5 I*R Press,
!e Gor9, !G, </75 pp5 #'%0,,K5
2in9er, I5 #''05 Persistent ine.ualities5 Ox)ord
<niversity Press, !e Gor9, !G, </75
2o9man, M5L5 #'8'5 Politics )or a
hetero+eneous in)ormal sector in *atin
7merica5 Aorld Development, #B3B4, #01B0
#0B15
<nited !ations5 #''#5 2he orld=s omen
#'B00#''0- trends and statistics5 <nited
!ations Publications, !e Gor9, !G, </75
Mar+as, M5 #'',5 2he )eminist movement in
*atin 7merica- beteen hope and
disenchantment5 Development and Chan+e,
,%3%4, #'50,#K5
Me+a, I5L5 #'885 /i+nos y desi+nios en la
sociedad latino0americana5
Mic9ers, H5 #''#5 Aomen and the orld
economic crisis5 Ied Boo9s, *ondon, <"5
Misanath, M5 #''#5 !$Os and omen=s
development in rural /outh India- a
comparative analysis5 Aestvie Press,
Boulder, CO, </75
Aarren, B5 #'805 Imperialism5 Pioneer o)
capitalism5 !e *e)t Revie, *ondon, <"5
Ailber, C5"5J Hameson, "5P5 #'8K5 Paradi+ms o)
economic development and beyond5 +n Ailber,
C5"5, ed5, 2he political economy o)
development and underdevelopment5 Random
&ouse, !e Gor9, !G, </75
Ailliams, >5 #'8'5 /ocial policy- a critical
introduction5 Polity Press, *ondon, <"5
Ailmsen, L5 #'8'5 *and 8lled ith Eies- a
political economy o) the "alahari5 2he
<niversity o) Chica+o Press, Chica+o, L*, </75
Aol), L5R5 #'8,5 Lurope and the people
ithout history5 <niversity o) Cali)ornia Press,
Ber9eley, C7, </75
Aollstonecra)t, 65 #B',5 7 vindication o) the
ri+hts o) omen ith strictures on political
and moral subFects5 Peter Ldes, Boston, 67,
</75
Aon+, 75 #'8#5 Comments on 6exico City5
/I$!/, 13K4, BB50BB15
Aood, $5 #'855 2he politics o) development
policy labellin+5 Development and Chan+e, #1,
%KB0%B%5
Goun+, "5J Aal9oit?, C5J 6cCulla+h, R5, ed5
#'8#5 O) marria+e and the mar9et5 <niversity
o) Cali)ornia Press, Ber9eley, C7, </75
S2ggested reading
7+lietta, 65 #'B'5 7 theory o) capitalist
re+ulation5 !e *e)t Boo9s, *ondon, <"5
7min, /5 #'BK5 7ccumulation and
development- a theoretical model5 Revie o)
7)rican Political Lconomy, #3#4, #085
Barrett, 65 #'805 Aomen=s oppression today-
problems in 6arxist )eminist analysis5 Merso,
*ondon, <"5
Beneria, *5J Roldan, 65 #'8B5 2he crossroads
o) class and +ender- industrial homeor9,
subcontractin+, and household dynamics in
6exico City5 2he <niversity o) Chica+o Press,
Chica+o, I*, </75
Benston, 65 #'1'5 2he political economy o)
omen=s liberation5 6onthly Revie, ,#3K4,
#%0,B5
Brue+el, I5 #'B85 Ahat 9eeps the )amily
+oin+N International /ocialism, ,3#45
Bryan, B5J Dad?ie, /5J /ca)e, /5 #'855 2he
heart o) the race- blac9 omen=s lives in
Britain5 Mira+o, *ondon, <"5
Butler, IJ /cott, H5, ed5 #'',5 >eminists theori?e
the political5 Routled+e, !e Gor9, !G, </75
Cardoso, >5 #'B,5 Dependency and
development in *atin 7merica5 !e *e)t
Revie, BK, 8%0'55
Chambers, R5 #''%5 Rural development-
puttin+ the last 8rst5 *on+man, &arlo, <"5
Collins, P5 #''05 Blac9 )eminist thou+ht-
9noled+e, consciousness, and the politics o)
empoerment5 <nin &yman, Boston, 67,
</75
Connelly, 65P5J 7rmstron+, P5 #'',5 >eminism
in action- studies in political economy5
Canadian /cholars Press, 2oronto, O!,
Canada5
Davis, 75 #'8,5 Aomen, race and class5 2he
Aomen=s Press, *ondon, <"5
Delphy, C5 #'BB5 2he main enemy5 Aomen=s
Research and Resources Centre, *ondon, <"5
Dixon, 65 #'805 Aomen in class stru++le5
/ynthesis Publications, /an >rancisco, C7,
</75
>ran9, 75$5 #'1B5 Capitalism and
underdevelopment in *atin 7merica5 6onthly
Revie Press, !e Gor9, !G, </75
>riedan, B5 #'1%5 2he )eminine mysti.ue5 A5A5
!orton, !e Gor9, !G, </75
&a+en, L5 #'1,5 2he theory o) social chan+e-
ho economic +roth be+ins5 &omeood, I*,
</75
&amilton, R5J Barrett, 65 #'8B5 2he politics o)
diversity5 Boo9 Centre Inc5, 6ontreal, PQ,
Canada5
&arvey, D5 #'8'5 2he condition o)
postmodernity5 Basil Blac9ell, Ox)ord, O!,
Canada5
&irschman, 75O5 #'585 /trate+y )or economic
development5 Gale <niversity Press, !e
&aven, C2, </75
Ha++ar, 7565J Rothenber+, P5/5 #''%5 >eminist
)rameor9s- alternate theoretical accounts o)
the relations beteen omen and men 3%rd
ed545 6c$ra0&ill Inc5, !e Gor9, !G, </75
"indleber+er, C5 #'585 Lconomic
development5 6c$ra0&ill, !e Gor9, !G, </75
"uhn, 75J Aolpe, 75, ed5 #'B85 >eminism and
materialism- omen and modes o) production5
Routled+e U "e+an Paul *td, *ondon, <"5
*aclau, L5 #'B#5 >eudalism and capitalism in
*atin 7merica5 !e *e)t Revie, 1B, #'0%85
*ele, /565 #''#5 /ustainable development- a
critical revie5 Aorld Development, #'314,
10B01,,5
*eys, C5 #'805 "enya- hat does dependency
explainN Revie o) 7)rican Political Lconomy,
#B, #080##%5
*iebenstein, &5 #'105 Lconomic bac9ardness
and economic +roth- studies in the theory o)
economic development5 Hohn Ailey, !e Gor9,
!G, </75
6ac"innon, C5 #'8'5 2oard a )eminist theory
o) the state5 &arvard <niversity Press,
Cambrid+e, 67, </75
6ar+lin, >5J 6ar+lin, /5, ed5 #''05 Dominatin+
9noled+e- development, culture and
resistance5 Clarendon Press, Ox)ord, <"5
6ichalopoulos, C5 #'8B5 Aorld Ban9 pro+rams
)or adFustment and +roth5 +n Corbo, M5J
$oldstein, 65J "han, 65, ed5, $roth0oriented
adFustment pro+rams5 International 6onetary
>undJ Aorld Ban9, Aashin+ton, DC, </75
6ohanty, C5 #'885 <nder Aestern eyes-
)eminist scholarship and colonial discourses5
>eminist Revie, %0, 1#0885
!ash, H5J /a)a, &5 #'805 /ex and class hi *atin
7merica5 Ber+in Publishers, !e Gor9, !G,
</75
O=Brien, 65 #'8#5 2he politics o) reproduction5
Routled+e U "e+an Paul, Boston, 67, </75
Papane9, &5 #'B55 Aomen hi /outh and /outh
Last 7sia- issues and research5 /I$!/, #3#4,
#'%0,#K5
Parsons, 25 #'5#5 2he social system5
Routled+e, *ondon, <"5
Pieterse, H5!5 #'',5 Dilemmas o) development
discourse- the crisis o) developmentalism and
the comparative method5 Development and
Chan+e, ,,, 50,'5
Pineda0O)reneo, R5 #''#0',5 Aomen, debt and
environment- a vie )rom the /outh5 Revie
o) Aomen=s /tudies, ,3,4, ,B0K05
Piore, 65J /abel, C5 #'8K5 2he second
industrial divide5 Basic Boo9s, Inc5, !e Gor9,
!G, </75
Reed, L5 #'B05 Problems o) omen=s
liberation5 Path8nder Press, !e Gor9, !G,
</75
Rubin, $5 #'B55 2he traCc in omen- notes on
the @political economy@ o) sex5 +n Reiter, R5R5,
ed5, 2oard an anthropolo+y o) omen5
6onthly Revie Press, !e Gor9, !G, </75
/aid, L5A5 #''%5 Culture and imperialism5
"nop), !e Gor9, !G, </75
/I$!/5 #'815 ReEections on >orum =85 in
!airobi, "enya5 /I$!/ 3/prin+4, 58K01085
/pelman, L5 #''05 2he inessential oman5
2he Aomen=s Press, *ondon, <"5
Aard, "5, ed5 #''05 Aomen or9ers and
+lobal restructurin+5 I*R Press, !e Gor9, !G,
</75
Aarren, B5 #'B%5 Imperialism and capitalist
industriali?ation5 !e *e)t Revie, 8#, %05%5
ALC 3Aellesley Lditorial Committee4, ed5
#'BB5 Aomen and national development- the
complexities o) chan+e5 2he <niversity o)
Chica+o Press, Chica+o, L*, </75
Ahite, >5 #''05 7)rican on my mind5 Hournal o)
Aomen=s &istory, ,3#4, B%0'B5
Ailliams, R5 #'B15 "eyords5 >ontana:Croom
&elm, $las+o, <"5
Iarets9y, L5 #'B15 Capitalism, the )amily and
personal li)e5 &arper and Ro, !e Gor9, !G,
</75
his pa.e intentionally le/t blank
C8APTE* ' FE.(N(ST T8EO*9 AND
DE6E4OP.ENT& (.P4(CAT(ONS FO*
PO4(C9) *ESEA*C8) AND ACT(ON
V. Eudine Barriteau
(ntrod2ction
2his chapter inte+rates our understandin+ o)
)eminist theories, +ender issues, and development
paradi+ms5 It outlines the shi)t in the development
discourse and documents and discusses alternative
approaches to development5 It attempts to reveal
ho these shape development policies, research
a+endas, and )eminist activism5
2he discussions o) development, )eminist theories,
and )eminist development )rameor9s in the
precedin+ chapters are particularly use)ul )or
omen in developin+ countries5 2his in)ormation
serves many purposes-
It enables us to expose and @interro+ate@ the
contradictions and complications in
development theory and practiceJ
It provides analytical tools that reveal ho
development paradi+ms have inEuenced
national policiesJ
It shos the impact o) these policies on
le+islation, education, el)are re)orm,
culture, and other economic and social
issues aDectin+ omen=s livesJ
It enables us to analy?e the policies o)
international development and 8nancial
institutions and a+encies, such as the
International Ban9 )or Reconstruction and
Development 3the Aorld Ban94, the
International 6onetary >und, the <nited
!ations Development Pro+ramme, and the
<nited !ations Development >und )or
Aomen 3<!I>L64J
It indicates the )actors that should be
considered to create Fust, +endersensitive
development policiesJ and
It indicates alternative approaches and
practices )or destabili?in+ the traditional
models o) development, hich are inimical
to the ell0bein+ o) omen5
>eminist theori?in+, the experiences o) omen in
developin+ countries, and )eminist criti.ues o)
development policies have had various eDects on
the creation o) ne policies, the shape o) research
a+endas, and the nature o) on+oin+ activism5
2hese principal areas diver+e substantially, even
thou+h conceptually and practically they continue
to interact and inEuence each other5
Overview
2he development policies o) international
institutions and national +overnments continue to
reEect the inEuence o) the liberal0)eminist
)rameor95 2hese policies maintain an
incremental, re)ormist approach to or9in+ ithin
the moderni?ation paradi+m5 2hey still )ocus on
brin+in+ omen @into@ development, the omen0
in0development 3AID4 approach5 7s these policies
are explored the assumptions o) liberal )eminism
and the moderni?ation paradi+m become easy to
detect5
2he inEuence o) )eminist theori?in+ on current
research on omen and development 3A7D4 is )ar
more ide0ran+in+ 36oser n5d545 2here have been
substantive chan+es in the nature and scope o)
this research5 6any more )eminists in the /outh are
underta9in+ research5 2hey are attemptin+ to
rede8ne the ALD and +ender0and0development
3$7D4 discourse5 2hey are also committed to
ensurin+ that the historical perspective o) omen=s
movements and omen=s or+ani?ations in the
/outh become an inte+ral part o) the discourse5
2heir or9 documents the lives and stru++les o)
omen in the /outh5 2hey see9 to challen+e and
correct the assumptions ith hich omen=s
movements and or+ani?ations in the /outh be+an
their or9 durin+ the <nited !ations= >irst
Development Decade5
7t the international level, the or9 o) such +roups
as Development 7lternatives ith Aomen )or a
!e Lra 3D7A!4 has no mushroomed into a
+lobal analysis o) 9ey development issues5 D7A! is
a netor9 o) )eminists, researchers, activists, and
policyma9ers that as )ormed in Ban+alore, India,
in #'8K and )ormali?ed in or9shops at the !$O
)orum in !airobi in #'855 D7A! has .uestioned the
impact o) development on poor peoples, especially
omen, in li+ht o) current +lobal economic and
political crises5 2he +roup=s a+enda )ocuses on the
themes o) environment, reproductive ri+hts,
population, and alternative economic )rameor9s5
On the issue o) human development and economic
+roth, D7A! has inverted the traditional
.uestion, Ahat 9ind o) human development can
best promote economic competitiveness and
+rothN $ita /en, on behal) o) D7A!, has as9ed
instead, Ahat 9ind o) economic development can
best promote human developmentN /en, ho is
D7A!=s Research Co0ordinator on 7lternative
Lconomic >rameor9s, ar+ued that i) this became
the central .uestion o) development, diDerent
ansers ould be sou+ht and diDerent policies
ould be desi+ned and implemented 3/en and
$ron #'8B45
Concernin+ the issues o) nationalistic or economic
ars, the emer+ence o) competitive tradin+ blocs,
and the chan+in+ role o) multilateral institutions,
D7A! put three central .uestions on the research
a+enda o) /outhern )eminists-
Ahat role can and should e play in brin+in+
about internal peaceN
&o ill tradin+ blocs aDect our employment
and responsibilities )or livelihoodsN
&o can e improve consciousness about
development in cooperation ith !orthern
+roupsN
Aomen=s non+overnmental or+ani?ations 3!$Os4
and )eminist researchers and activists in the !orth
are synthesi?in+ their research concerns ith those
o) )eminists in the /outh5 7lternative Aomen in
Development 37ltA2D4, a netor9 o) !orthern
)eminists, based in Aashin+ton, DC, published a
study o) the impacts o) Rea+anomics on omen in
the <nited /tates, Rea.ono)ics and $o)en3
#tructural Ad7ust)ent *.#. #tyle 8 =>?--=>>,
37ltAID #'',45 2he study shoed that
Rea+anomics had the same impacts on omen in
the <nited /tates as structural0adFustment policies
have in the /outh5 Lstablishin+ this lin9 as an
important analytical contribution5 Both the
structural0adFustment policies and Rea+anomics
are nurtured by, and have the same ideolo+ical
roots in, neoclassical economics5
In another publication, Breakin. Boundaries3
$o)en, %ree rade and Econo)ic +nte.ration
37ltAID n5d54, 7ltAID explained hy )ree trade is a
omen=s issue5 It noted that mar9et policies are
not +ender blind and pointed out that @the impact
o) supply side policies has altered )amily li)eJ
relations beteen omen, men and childrenJ
omen=s and men=s rolesJ and omen=s relative
economic status5@ 7ltAID has also collaborated
ith )eminist netor9s in the !orth and /outh on
proFects, con)erences, and political strate+ies5
Other )eminist researchers in the !orth reco+ni?ed
the need to contextuali?e the discourse on
development to sho its eDect on omen and
development5 2his is an application o) the
analytical strate+ies they used in criti.uin+ the
metanarratives o) social theory to sho its
+endered and exclusionary nature5 2his or9
complements the research and activism o)
indi+enous )eminisms5 Current )eminist research on
development issues is no more en+a+ed and
covers all development issues5 It also incorporates
insi+hts +ained )rom +ender analysis to investi+ate
the environmental debate and sustainable0
development issues5
2he omen=s movement and omen=s activism
have exploded ith vibrant pro+rams and
scholarship in both the !orth and the /outh5 In the
last to decades, omen=s !$Os have +ron and
diversi8ed, and the nature o) their activism has
chan+ed in many cases5 6any !$Os that ere set
up in the #'th century or early ,0th century o)ten
attempted to supplement the el)are activities o)
the state, or they experimented ith re)ormist
policies5 6ore recently, omen0centred !$Os in
the /outh have )re.uently been at the )rontiers o)
the movement to promote alternative development
practices5 7n example o) this is a coalition o)
omen=s !$Os in the Philippines, hich in #'81
)ormulated the !ational Aomen=s Development
Plan5 2his became a crucial part o) the country=s
national lobby on the debt crisis in the same year
3omen=s or+ani?ations and netor9s are
discussed in more detail in Chapter 545
/everal countries have introduced ne omen0
related research institutes and institutionali?ed
omen=s0studies pro+rams5 China, India, /ierra
*eone, /udan, <+anda, Iambia, and Iimbabe
have all started omen0centred research
institutions5 7t the <niversity o) the Aest- Indies,
the Aomen and Development /tudies Pro+ram as
institutionali?ed as the Centre )or $ender and
Development /tudies5 Ahat distin+uishes these
netor9s, institutes, and centres )rom earlier
omen0related or+ani?ations is that they see9 to
+ive omen, children, and men priority in
discussions o) development5 2hey actively pursue
alternative approaches to A7D, and their very
existence serves as a reminder o) the )ailures o)
earlier, moderni?ation0oriented development policy
)or omen5
E/ercise
E/ploring feminist research
#5 Identi)y and discuss the 9inds o) )eminist research on A7D underta9en in your country or re+ion5
,5 Aho is doin+ this researchN Aomen=s bureaus, universities, omen0centred !$OsN
%5 Is this research helpin+ to chan+e the in)ormation on A7DN &o ill it inEuence development policy and plannin+N
The shift in the disco2rse on
development
>eminist development criti.ues and )eminist
activism have radically altered the discourse on
development5 It is no lon+er possible to deal ith
development issues by )ocusin+ simply on ays to
improve savin+s and investment )unctions or on
the most eCcient industriali?ation strate+ies to
increase exports5 >eminists have exposed the
)allacy o) usin+ sterile measures o) economic
+roth to assess the attainment o) +oals5
2he initial ALD policy statement 3Percy
7mendment to the </ %orei.n Assistance Act o)
#'B% S$O</ #'B8T4 assumed a consensus on the
relationship beteen states 3represented by
national +overnments4 and mar9et economies5 2his
consensus is ideolo+ical in ori+in5 Its roots lie in
neoclassical economics and liberal political
ideolo+y5 Combined as the doctrine o) liberalism or
neoliberalism, they pose particular problems )or
omen5
2he main problem is the public0private dichotomy,
hich devalues omen=s reproductive or9 hile
maintainin+ that omen can +ain e.uality by
participatin+ more in the public sphere o) the state
and )ormal economic production 3see @>rameor9
C- liberal )eminism@ in Chapter %45 AID maintained
a consensus on acceptin+ the rationale o) mar9ets
as expounded in the moderni?ation paradi+m5 Gou
ill recall that this centres on the eCciency o)
resource allocation, the restructurin+ o) production
and distribution, and the liberali?ation o) trade and
investment but remains oblivious to the concerns
o) +ender relations5 AID=s main thrust as to ma9e
the ideolo+y o) mar9et economics more humane,
that is, inclusive o) the needs o) omen as de8ned
by AID5
/everal chan+es and crises in the political
economy and culture o) !orth0/outh relations
contributed to reshapin+ development discourse5
6ost o) the /outh experienced severe economic
crises in the #'B0s and #'80s, althou+h a small
+roup 3notably the 7sian nely industriali?ed
countries4 )or+ed ahead5 In the #''0s, Lastern
Lurope, Russia, and /outheast 7sia experienced
economic crises as the eDects o) +lobali?ation
be+an to be )elt around the orld5 Aomen,
children, and men lived 3and still live4 the
contradictions o) development policies promotin+
mass consumption even as it leads to increased
poverty and mar+inali?ation5 In their daily lives,
people in the /outh experience development
policies as moderni?ation, hich can produce the
)olloin+ eDects-
Increases in economic +roth but ea9
employment +eneration 3India4J
Increases in economic +roth but
environmental and human de+radation
3Bra?il4J and
!o increase or, in some cases, declines in
economic +roth, accompanied by declines
in human and physical in)rastructure 3the
Caribbean45
$ita /en o) D7A! observed that )or the 8rst time
in to decades )eminist development criti.ues
brou+ht to+ether people and their needs in the
dialo+ue on development5 In the #'B0s, the
dialo+ue as dominated by the dependency
criti.ue5 2he debate as about the creation o)
dependency and the re.uirements o) basic0needs
pro+rams5 It involved neither +ender analysis nor
the AID )rameor9 3/en and $ron #'8B45
2he #'80s introduced a reversal o) trends in the
/outh5 7s in other periods o) crisis, it became an
excellent time to consider previously i+nored
issues and put them on the a+enda5 2he #'80s
also mar9ed the be+innin+ o) the $7D criti.ue,
hich solidi8ed in the #''0s5 2he activism and
research o) the international omen=s movement
revealed the potential )or @en+enderin+@ the
concept o) human development5 It made une.ual
+ender relations a central concern o) development5
/outhern, and some !orthern, )eminists insist that
development policies cannot succeed i) they are
not @en+endered5@ In #'81, D7A! de8ned
de(elop)ent as @socially responsible mana+ement
and use o) resources, the elimination o) +ender
subordination and social ine.uality and the
or+ani?ational restructurin+ that can brin+ these
about@ 3/en and $ron #'8B, p5 ,45 2he
indi+enous0)eminist theori?in+ in)ormin+ this
de8nition stresses the need )or economic and
social chan+e, empoerment o) omen, and
pro+ressive chan+es in public0private relations to
bene8t omen5
2his is conceptually .uite opposite to the de8nition
o) de(elop)ent held by other development
theorists- @Lconomic development consists o) the
introduction o) ne combinations o) production
)actors hich increase labour productivity@ 3&unt
#'8', p5 K'45 2his de8nition locates development in
the sphere o) production and )ocuses only on
chan+es in economic relations5 2o such theorists,
economic development consists in introducin+ ne
combinations o) )actors o) production to increase
labour productivity5 It is easy to reco+ni?e the bias
a+ainst omen in this de8nition5 By emphasi?in+
production )actors, it )ocuses on )ormal economic
activities, such as a+ed labour and lar+e0scale
production5 In all these areas, omen are
underrepresented and their contributions are
devalued5 6ore si+ni8cantly, this de8nition i+nores
the critical connection beteen the reproductive
or9 omen do and ho this underpins the )ormal,
productive economy5 It is a +ood example o) ho
omen are mar+inali?ed at the core o)
development theory5
Ahereas political economists and structuralists
stress the impact o) the international economic
system as a constraint to economic +roth in the
/outh, the neoclassical school identi8es the
dominant constraint as internal, rather than
external, )actors5 Aalter Rosto and 7rthur *eis
captured the ran+e o) ar+uments o) neoclassical
development theory 3see @>rameor9 7-
moderni?ation theory,@ in Chapter %45 2hey ar+ued
that constraints on development lie partly in
indi+enous institutions and attitudes and partly in
the lo rate o) savin+s characteristic o) poor
countries5 Built into the basic assumptions o) this
theori?in+ is the reFection o) indi+enous attitudes
and institutions5 Aomen in the /outh are lar+ely
responsible )or maintainin+ cultural traditions5 7s
theori?in+ by blac9, post0modernist, and
indi+enous, or 2hird Aorld, )eminists shos,
omen in the /outh also use indi+enous
institutions and practices as part o) their survival
strate+ies5 By assumin+ that these indi+enous
attitudes and institutions represent barriers to
development, neoclassical theorists place omen=s
ays o) 9noin+ outside their concept o)
development5
/ocialist0)eminist theories have contributed to the
extensive examination o) the ays omen=s labour
is exploited in )actories and export0processin+
?ones5 2hey have also documented ho omen
receive loer a+es )or comparable or95 2hey
revealed the )emini?ation o) certain occupations
that occurred as omen entered the labour )orce in
increasin+ numbers5 7s the men moved out o)
certain occupations, these became @+hettoi?ed@ as
omen=s or9, ith an accompanyin+ decrease in
status and a+es5 In the /outh, the occupation o)
teachin+ at primary or secondary schools is a +ood
example5
*iberal0)eminist analysis ma9es distinct the public0
private dichotomy at the heart o) moderni?ation
theori?in+ and policy development5 It is easy to
i+nore omen=s contribution in the public domain
because it is assumed that omen or9, and
should or9, ithin households5
>eminist development criti.ues insist that a +ender
perspective be built into all development issues5 It
is another ay o) posin+ the .uestion raised by
$ita /en5 <sin+ a +ender perspective e as9, Ahat
9inds o) development policies can best promote
the interests o) omen in the /outhN Implicit in
that re)rainin+ o) the .uestion is the reco+nition
that omen straddle the crossroads o)
reproduction and production5 2hey are the lin9
beteen human and economic development, the
primary or9ers in both the private and the public
spheres5
$ender analysis must reor+ani?e the private
sphere i) omen are to be )reed )rom havin+ to
carry all the responsibilities o) sustainin+
households and )amily structures5 7lthou+h many
omen and men still see these as omen=s
responsibilities, this perspective is increasin+ly
challen+ed5 2his continues to be an era o) the most
diCcult and intractable aspects o) +ender
relationships and chan+e5 $ender ideolo+ies that
sustain the exploitation o) omen in the private
sphere o) the household contribute to producin+
development policies that inte+rate omen into
economic production in speci8c, exploitative, or
mar+inal ays5 Aomen suDer most hen
policyma9ers )ail to comprehend this pattern o)
exploitation5 But children, men, households, and
)amilies also suDer because omen in the /outh
have to carry such multiple burdens and
responsibilities5
>eminist theories and criti.ues o) development are
instrumental in revealin+ that the countries o) the
/outh are not culturally, politically, or economically
homo+eneous5 !or are +ender relations
experienced in the same manner by all 2hird Aorld
omen5 Blac9 )eminist 7udre *orde has arned o)
the dan+er o) implyin+ that all omen suDer the
same oppression because they are omen5 7s
explained in Chapter %, blac9 )eminists have
ar+ued that this i+nores the varieties and de+rees
o) omen=s subordination5 It also i+nores ho
these experiences chan+e ith a oman=s race,
class, and cultural settin+5 2here is more variation
amon+ countries in the /outh than amon+
industriali?ed societies o) the !orth5
2he tendency to homo+eni?e the concept o) the
2hird Aorld oman and assume the universal
applicability o) these approaches to development
creates speci8c problems )or omen in the /outh5
Pro+rams and policies that are desi+ned to
inte+rate omen into development and those that
are critical o) the relations beteen omen and
development are a reaction to the moderni?ation
paradi+m5 2heori?in+ by blac9, socialist,
postmodernist, and indi+enous, or 2hird Aorld,
)eminists isolates and exposes the intellectual and
ideolo+ical climate that prevailed hen the
moderni?ation paradi+m emer+ed5 2he dominance
o) the <nited /tates in the postar era included
intellectual he+emony, hich as played out in
scholarship, research, and policy0ma9in+ related to
the /outh5 Hust as the <nited /tates devised the
6arshall Plan and the !orth 7tlantic 2reaty
Or+ani?ation )or the economic and military support
and security o) Aestern Lurope, it be+an to devote
attention to producin+ similar plans and institutions
)or the /outh5 7s mentioned in Chapter ,, this set
o) assumptions about the orld became core
elements o) the moderni?ation paradi+m5
It is not accidental that the <nited /tates as the
8rst industriali?ed country to establish a policy
initiative to reor+ani?e omen=s roles in the
development process5 2he Percy 7mendment to
the %orei.n Assistance Act o) #'B% re.uired that
</ )orei+n assistance )ocus on pro+rams, proFects,
and activities that tended to inte+rate omen into
the national economies o) )orei+n countries5 2his
helped inte+rate the AID policy approach into
policy0ma9in+5 It also meant that early A2D policy
implicitly inherited the problems o) +ivin+ priority
to capitalist production and Aestern values and
institutions5
>eminists analy?in+ the ALD approach shoed
that AID specialists relied on neoclassical
economic0+roth models to achieve the +oals o)
development5 2hey assumed that development
plannin+ i+nored omen and ar+ued that the
allocation o) 8nancial and natural resources should
be extended to bene8t omen5 &oever, they
)ailed to investi+ate hether the concept o)
economic eCciency may be premised on excludin+
the speci8c +endered constraints omen )ace as
producers5 !or did they consider ho
responsibilities that are +enerally re+arded as
bein+ omen=s are vieed as creatin+ conditions
o) economic ineCciency5
The !(D policies of international
development instit2tions
The !orld 7ank
2he AID approach has heavily inEuenced the
policies o) the Aorld Ban9, one o) the maFor
Bretton Aoods 8nancial institutions discussed in
Chapter ,5 In a #''0 publication, $o)en in
!e(elop)ent3 A Pro.ress Report on the $orld
Bank +nitiati(e, the institution set out its policy )or
omen-
In +eneral, the Ban9 is )ocusin+ on increasin+
omen=s economic productivity, investin+ in
human capital and improvin+ omen=s access
to productive resources and the labor
mar9et5555 Because social and cultural )orces
inEuence omen=s economic productivity,
deliberate and thou+ht)ul eDort is re.uired to
involve omen more eDectively in the
development process5
; Aorld Ban9 3#''04
2he Aorld Ban9 then called )or +overnment policy
that reali?ed omen=s economic potential hile
bein+ sensitive to the role o) culture5 It
recommended that +overnments consult ith
omen=s +roups and !$Os in settin+ priorities and
desi+nin+ pro+rams5 It identi8ed )our priority areas
)or helpin+ omen to reali?e their economic
potential- education, health and )amily plannin+,
a+ricultural extension, and credit5 2he publication
noted that omen in the /outh spend several
hours each day in reproductive or95 It there)ore
recommended measures to )ree more o) omen=s
time )or other activities5
2hese recommendations called )or alternative )uels
and local oodlots, more eCcient stoves, and child
care5 2his policy did not include chan+in+ +ender
ideolo+ies that construct all reproductive or9 as
omen=s or95 2hese measures ere merely
intended to help omen complete reproductive
or9 more eCciently so that they could increase
their participation in labour0)orce activities5 2he
Aorld Ban9 concluded its policy revie ith a list
o) six areas o) emphasis, under the headin+
@>uture directions@-
Lxpansion o) policy or9 and research, ith
priority on developin+ +uidelines )or cost0
eDective interventions in speci8c 8elds,
reEective o) the best available operational
experienceJ
7n a+enda )or research to support policy
)ormulation, includin+ eDorts to collect data
disa++re+ated by +ender and to stren+then
the analytical )oundation )or eDorts to
improve omen=s opportunitiesJ
6ore explicit attention to omen=s issues in
the policy dialo+ue ith +overnmentsJ
Implementation o) the AID assessments and
action plans, ith more attention to
assessin+ +overnment actions to address
omen=s issues and actual resultsJ
Inclusion o) speci8c eDorts in the Aorld
Ban9=s operations to test, monitor, and
evaluate promisin+ pro+rams )or omen,
especially in hi+h0priority areasJ and
Increased trainin+ o) staD on the role o)
omen in development5
E/ercise $
Theor" and polic"
#5 *oo9 bac9 at Chapter %5 7pplyin+ AID and $7D analysis, especially the ei+ht tools o) $7D analysis, discuss the policy
and )uture directions o) the Aorld Ban95
,5 Is there an overlapN 7re the Aorld Ban9=s policies strictly AID, strictly $7DN
%5 /elect a policy statement on omen and development )rom your country 3see, )or example, those released by
omen=s bureaus or the !ational Plat)orm Country /tatements prepared )or the >ourth Aorld Con)erence on Aomen
in BeiFin+, #''545 7+ain, apply the AID or $7D )rameor95
3a4 Ahich )rameor9 does this policy statement satis)yN
3b4 Ahat is the role )or men assumed in this policyN
3c4 Ahat ould you add to this policy to satis)y the needs o) omen in your countryN
3d4 Ahat are the core assumptions o) Aorld Ban9 policyN Re)er to
(nternational 4a1o2r OCce
2he International *abour OCce 3I*O4 has stated its
commitment to e.ual opportunity and treatment o)
omen and men in all its activities, as part o) its
mandate5 It translated this commitment into policy
in its +L; Plan o/ Action on E2uality o/ ;pportunity
and reat)ent o/ Men and $o)en in E)ploy)ent3
In order to contribute to the improvement o)
the status o) omen and the achievement o)
overall development +oals, the I*O technical
co0operation pro+ramme ill continue to be
an important practical means o) promotin+
e.uality o) opportunity and treatment )or men
and omen in employment5 Particular
attention ill be paid not only to
stren+thenin+ and )urther developin+ speci8c
proFects )or omen, but also to promotin+ the
)ull inte+ration o) omen hi proFects o) a
+eneral nature, hi accordance ith recent
recommendations made in the $overnin+
Body hen it discussed I*O operational
activities concernin+ omen5 Consideration
ould be +iven to such re.uirementsJ as
+uidelines on identi8cation, desi+n, plannin+
and implementation o) proFects )or use by I*O
staD, +overnments and employers= and
or9ers= or+ani?ationsJ staD trainin+
pro+rammesJ and expansion o) the netor9 o)
oCcials dealin+ ith technical cooperation at
head.uarters and in the 8eld5
I*O 3#''K, p5 #KB4
In he $indo& o/ ;pportunity3 #trate.ies /or
Enhancin. $o)en0s Participation in echnical
Cooperation Pro7ects, the I*O 3#''#4 provided ideas
and +uidelines )or enhancin+ omen=s visibility
and active role in plannin+ and monitorin+
development proFects and pro+rams5 2his
publication examined some o) the )actors to
consider hen plannin+, monitorin+, and
evaluatin+ various types o) proFects5 It presented
advanta+es and possible disadvanta+es o)
launchin+ so0called omen0speci8c proFects, as
opposed to +eneral proFects that, in principle, are
open to omen and men on an e.ual basis5 >inally,
it recommended a chan+e o) attitudes and
assumptions about omen=s participation in the
labour )orce5 *i9e the Aorld Ban9, the I*O has
emphasi?ed the concern )or e.uality and )ull
inte+ration o) omen into development5 2here is
no su++estion, hoever, that omen are already
too )ully inte+rated into development in policies
and experiences +endered or premised on their
subordination and exploitation5
=nited Nations Development F2nd for
!omen
<!I>L6 has been a maFor advocate )or omen
ithin the <nited !ations system and throu+hout
the /outh5 <!I>L6 provides direct support )or
omen=s proFects and promotes omen in the
decision0ma9in+ processes o) mainstream
development pro+rams5 <!I>L6=s mission is to
support /outhern omen=s eDorts to achieve
e.uality and their on economic0and social0
development obFectives, and it believes that by
doin+ so, it improves the .uality o) li)e )or all5
2he activities <!I>L6 supports )all into )our 9ey
areas- a+riculture and )ood security, trade and
industry, human resource development, and
emer+in+ issues5 In all aspects o) its pro+ramin+,
<!I>L6=s intention is to lin9 +rass0roots activities
to national plannin+ and policy decision0ma9in+5
@Aomen, environment, and development,@ the ne
addition to A7D discourse, hints at the 9inds o)
development policy on omen <!I>L6 endorses5
In A.enda ,=3 An Easy Re/erence to the #peci@c
Reco))endations o/ $o)en, <!I>L6 3#''%4
stated that hen interpretin+ the
recommendations in the text o) 7+enda ,#, the
reader should note that all collective terminolo+y
as intended to apply e.ually to omen and men,
includin+ re)erences to communities, urban and
rural dellers, indi+enous people, trade unions,
pro)essionals in business and industry, and !$Os5
Indeed, in both rural and urban settin+s, omen as
heads o) households, +overnment oCcers, )armers,
entrepreneurs, and pro)essionals 3includin+
scientists and technicians4 ere thou+ht to )orm a
critical and substantial part o) all maFor +roups5
*i9e the I*O and the Aorld Ban9, <!I>L6 has been
8rmly committed to the liberal0)eminist A2D
approach, emphasi?in+ the inte+ration o) omen
into development5 <!I>L6 has, hoever, some
uni.ue characteristics5 It as set up speci8cally to
)und innovative and catalytic proFects, and )rom its
be+innin+s it has had a mandate to support the
or9 o) omen=s non+overnmental activities, in
addition to the activities o) +overnment institutions
and departments5
S2mmar"
2hese international institutions and a+encies are
committed to assistin+ omen in 7)rica, 7sia, *atin
7merica and the Caribbean, and the Paci8c, and
their pro+rams and )undin+ have helped omen5
&oever, they have operated s.uarely ithin the
development0as0moderni?ation paradi+m and have
been unillin+ to pursue a criti.ue o) the
contradictions in this model and their implications
)or omen5 Aomen0centred !$Os and other
development or+ani?ations, in contrast, have
operated on the )undamental principle that
existin+ models o) development are detrimental to
omen, and they have there)ore explored and
implemented alternative development strate+ies5
E/ercise %
Case st2dies
!ational development policies and international development institutions share the same approaches to omen in
development5 2hey also use liberal0)eminist assumptions as the basis )or their attempts to @inte+rate@ omen into
development5 !ational policies )re.uently reproduce +ender ideolo+ies5 2he )olloin+ .uotes are ta9en )rom to 8ve0
year development plans )or the Barbados 3#'B%0BB and #'B'08%4-
Auotation = 8 One other supply )actor orthy o) mention is that unemployment is hi+hest amon+ youn+ )emales5
Indeed many o) those persons ho ould have been content to remain unpaid household or9ers until marria+e are
no active Fob see9ers5 2hus risin+ participation amon+ )emales in the youn+er a+e +roups is a maFor contributor to
the continued unemployment o) human resources in the economy5
Auotation ,8 Development plannin+ is a tool )or ensurin+ maximum eCciency in the implementation o) a
development strate+y or policy5 It is an or+ani?ed, conscious and continual attempt to select the best available
alternatives to achieve speci8c +oals5 It involves an attempt to allocate scarce human, 8nancial and natural
resources in a rational manner and ith optimum production results5
2hese .uotations expose several issues in development policy and its implications )or omen in the /outh5 2hey
introduce 9ey )eatures )or delineatin+ the interconnections beteen )eminist and development theories and beteen
development policies and their outcomes5
In .uotation #, the +overnment o) a developin+ Caribbean country presents some o) its vies on omen=s desire to or95
2his policy statement considers omen=s search )or employment as problematic because it is seen as placin+ constraints
on the state=s resources5 Aomen as active Fob see9ers are discussed here as contributin+ to the country=s unemployment
problem5 2he statements disclose various assumptions about omen=s labour0)orce participation in the /outh5 2hey also
indicate ho )emale labour0)orce participation may be incorporated into development policy5 2he plan su++ests that
Barbadian omen do not see9 or9 be)ore marria+eJ
6arria+es occur in lar+e enou+h percenta+es to ma9e a diDerence to omen=s employment or economic ell0bein+J and
6arried omen do not or95
2he statistics do not support any o) these +endered, ideolo+ical positions on the inEuence o) marria+e on omen=s desire
to or95 In #'B0, 5KW o) the omen ho headed households in Barbados had never been married, ,W ere divorced or
separated, #'W had been idoed, and #'W ere married 36assiah #'8,45 2he ille+itimacy ratio ; calculated as total
ille+itimate births as a percenta+e o) total live births ; climbed steadily )rom 1,W in #'1# to BKW in #'BK5 2he
percenta+e increase appears mar+inal, but o) primary importance is the )act that nearly B5W o) all children born in #'BK
ere bom out o) edloc95 2he marria+e ratio ; calculated as total marria+es per # 000 population as a percenta+e o)
total population ; declined )rom K5,W to %58W )or the same period 3$OB n5d545 Beteen #'K5 and #'BK, the marria+e
ratio never exceeded 8W 3$OB n5d545 2here is hardly any statistical or historical evidence to su++est that marria+e has
ever represented a )easible option alloin+ the maFority o) omen to postpone employment5
#5 Ahy have development planners depicted omen=s desire )or paid productive or9 as problematicN
,5 &o is that vie li9ely to inEuence employment policiesN
%5 Ahat is the particular development paradi+m in)ormin+ the planners= vie o) omen=s or9N
K5 Ahat are its underlyin+ assumptionsN
55 &o is a development process perceived i) it considers omen=s desire )or or9 burdensome to development
plannin+N
Quotation , underscores the si+ni8cance most +overnments in the /outh attach to rationality and optimum production
results- i) they plan rationally, then +oals are achieved and development is attained5 Ahat is rational plannin+N Ahat do
+overnments exclude so that rational plannin+ is achievedN ;pti)u) production results
2o+ether, rationality and eCciency are cardinal elements o) a particular paradi+m o) development5 2hese concepts are
associated ith the neoclassical0moderni?ation paradi+m5
#5 Ahat is development 3revie previous chapters4N
,5 &o does the de8nition chan+e accordin+ to the maFor paradi+m usedN
%5 Arite your on de8nition o) development, in)ormed by any o) the )eminist theories introduced in
K5 Ahat assumptions have you +iven priority toN
55 $iven your de8nition, ho ould policyma9ers have to chan+e their development approach to health in your countryN
*eferences
7ltAID 37lternative Aomen in Development45
#'',5 Rea+onomics and omen- structural
adFustment <5/5 style;#'800#'',- a case
study o) omen and poverty in the <5/5
7ltAID, Aashin+ton, DC, </75
RRRRR n5d5 Brea9in+ boundaries- omen, )ree
trade and economic inte+ration5 7ltAID,
Aashin+ton, DC, </75
$OB 3$overnment o) Barbados45 #'8%a5
Barbados development plan #'B%0#'BB-
plannin+ o) +roth5 $overnment Printin+
OCce, Brid+eton, Barbados5
RRRRR #'8%b5 Barbados development plan
#'B'0#'8%- plannin+ o) +roth5 $overnment
Printin+ OCce, Brid+eton, Barbados5
RRRRR n5d5 !ational Commission report5
$overnment Printin+ OCce, Brid+eton,
Barbados5
$O</ 3$overnment o) the <nited /tates45
#'B85 2he Percy 7mendment5 +n Report on
omen in development5 /ubmitted to the
Committee on >orei+n Relations, <nited /tates
/enate and the /pea9er o) the &ouse o)
Representatives5 <nited /tates $overnment
Printin+ OCce, Aashin+ton, DC, </75
&unt, D5 #'8'5 Lconomic theories o)
development- an analysis o) competin+
paradi+ms5 &arvester Aheatshea), !e Gor9,
!G, </75
I*O 3International *abour OCce45 #''#5 2he
indo o) opportunity- strate+ies )or
enhancin+ omen=s participation in technical
cooperation proFects5 I*O, $eneva,
/it?erland5 AID Occasional Paper !o5 %5
RRRRR #''K5 I*O Plan o) 7ction on L.uality o)
Opportunity and 2reatment o) 6en and
Aomen hi Lmployment5 +n Aomen and or9-
selected I*O policy documents5 I*O, $eneva,
/it?erland5
6assiah, H5 #'8,5 Aomen ho head
households5 +n Aomen and the )amily5
Institute o) /ocial and Lconomic Research,
<niversity o) the Aest Indies, Barbados, p5
#055
6oser, C5 n5d5 Policy approaches to omen
and development5 6imeo5
/en, $5J $ron, C5 #'8B5 Development, crisis
and alternative visions- 2hird Aorld omen=s
perspectives5 6onthly Revie Press, !e Gor9,
!G, </75
<!D>L6 3<nited !ations Development >und
)or Aomen45 #''%5 7+enda ,#- an easy
re)erence to the speci8c recommendations o)
omen5 <!I>L6, !e Gor9, !G, </75
Aorld Ban95 #''05 Aomen in development- a
pro+ress report on the Aorld Ban9 initiative5
Aorld Ban9, Aashin+ton, DC, </75
S2ggested reading
Rao, 75J 7nderson, 65J Overholt, $, ed5 #''#5
$ender analysis in development plannin+- a
caseboo95 "umarian Press, Aest &art)ord, C2,
</75
Aierin+a, /5, ed5 #''05 Aomen=s movements
and or+ani?ations in historical perspective5
Aomen and Development /tudies Pro+ram,
Institute o) /ocial /tudies, 2he &a+ue,
!etherlands5
Ailtshire, R5 #''%5 D7A!- environment and
development, the +rassroots omen=s
perspectives5 Development 7lternatives ith
Aomen )or a !e Lra, Brid+eton, Barbados5
his pa.e intentionally le/t blank
C8APTE* + A4TE*NAT(6E
APP*OAC8ES TO !O.EN AND
DE6E4OP.ENT
Maine McClean
!omen-s NGOs
Internationally, the omen=s movement has +iven
birth to a number o) non+overnmental
or+ani?ations 3!$Os4 and +roups that continue to
challen+e many o) the implied and stated
assumptions o) the traditional )eminist movement5
2hese !$Os and +roups oDer indi+enous
approaches to solvin+ omen=s problems in their
particular environments5 2he )ocus o) many !$Os
is action, developin+ pro+rams and institutions to
improve the daily lives o) omen in their
communities5
7s e have seen, the +eneral belie) amon+
omen=s !$Os and other development institutions
is that the concepts o) moderni?ation and
development have o)ten led the primary
international a+encies to eDectively i+nore the
pli+ht o) omen in the societies they tar+et and, in
many instances, ma9e the omen orse oD5 2he
)ailure o) their pro+rams has )orced indi+enous
!$Os and other entities to develop their on
solutions5
Initiatives to improve omen=s economic situations
demonstrate the need )or indi+enous solutions to
omen=s problems5 !ancy Barry, President o)
Aomen=s Aorld Ban9in+, remar9ed, @Ahat has
become very clear is that hat omen need is
access, not subsidies5 2hey need opportunities, not
paternalism@ 3&oells #''%, p5 ,,45
*esearch and action
Research should in)orm both theori?in+ and policy0
ma9in+, to ma9e these credible5 2he omen=s
movement and the various national and
international institutions involved in development
have reco+ni?ed the importance o) research and
data, as illustrated in the )oreord to the <nited
!ations document he $orld0s $o)en =>B--=>>-3
>or many years, omen=s advocates have
challen+ed stereotypes depictin+ omen as
passive, dependent and in)erior to men5 But
eDorts to rein)orce then0challen+es ith hard
evidence have been undercut by serious
limitations hi available statistics and analysis,
includin+ a male bias hi the de8nition and
collection o) many statistics and indicators5 555
Puttin+ this land o) numerical and analytical
spotli+ht on the needs, the eDorts and the
contributions o) omen is one o) the best
ays to speed the process o) movin+ )rom
a+enda to policy to practice to a orld o)
peace, e.uality and sustained development5
; <nited !ations 3#''#4
2he creation o) Development 7lternatives ith
Aomen )or a !e Lra 3D7A!4 and D7A!=s stated
obFectives are evidence that !$Os emphasi?e
research5 Discussed belo are some currently
active omen=s !$Os5 Research is a critical activity
o) each o) them5 2he exercises in each section use
the )olloin+ abbreviations )or development
approaches- AID, omen in developmentJ A7D,
omen and developmentJ and $7D, +ender and
development 3see Chapter %45
!omen-s !orld 7anking
Aomen=s Aorld Ban9in+ 3AAB4 is a nonpro8t
8nancial institution created in #'B' to +ive poor
)emale entrepreneurs access to 8nancin+, mar9et
in)ormation, and trainin+5 It +re out o) the #'B5
<nited !ations Aorld Con)erence on Aomen, held
in 6exico City, to address the need )or +lobal
structures to )und omen in microenterprises5
AAB currently operates in more than 50 countries
and has provided assistance to more than # million
clients internationally5 AAB=s +oal is to help poor
omen create ealth5
>our basic principles in)orm AAB=s policy
)ormulation and operations-
@*ocal0+lobal@ should replace @!orth0/outh@
as the prevailin+ paradi+m, to reEect the
belie) in local initiative and local institutionsJ
Aomen have the poer to trans)orm the
Larth throu+h their local institutions 3!ancy
Barry, cited in &oells #''%4J
Aomen are dynamic economic a+ents, not
passive bene8ciaries o) social servicesJ and
@*ateral learnin+,@ a trainin+ methodolo+y
throu+h hich omen share their business
9noled+e ith each other and thus learn
)rom their peers, is important5
E/ercise
!omen-s !orld 7anking program
Identi)y the extent to hich AAB=s pro+ram can be cate+ori?ed as )allin+ under the AID, A7D, or $7D )rameor95
Self>emplo"ed !omen-s Association
2he /el)0Lmployed Aomen=s 7ssociation 3/LA74 is
a union o) K0 000 o) India=s poorest omen5 It is an
example o) a ne development model relevant to
lo0income earners5 2he membership covers the
ran+e o) sel)0employed omen typically or9in+ in
the in)ormal sector and eDectively mar+inali?ed by
mainstream development strate+ies-
/LA7 success)ully inte+rates a complex
myriad o) lives, occupations and issues into
one union5 <nder /LA7, omen have )or+ed a
ne model o) hat a trade union can be ; a
2hird orld model, hich de8es conventional
conceptions about ho unions or+ani?e and
hat they do )or their members5 6ost unions
in the orld or+ani?e or9ers in one 9ind o)
industry, ho share one 8xed or9place, and
concern themselves ith problems hich
revolve only around the or9 issues o) their
members5 /ome unions do ta9e up issues
related to omen or9ers, or include a
omen=s in+ in the lar+er body o) the union,
but there are very )e unions in the orld
hich are devoted entirely to a )emale
membership, as /LA7 is5 /LA7 or+ani?es
omen ho or9 in their homes, hi the
streets o) cities, in the 8elds and villa+es o)
rural India, ith no 8xed employer, carvin+
their small niches in the economy, day by day,
ith only their its to +uide them a+ainst
incredible odds o) vulnerability, invisibility,
and poverty5 2hese then are the common
denominators around hich /LA7 has
+athered %0,000 members into its )old since
its inception in #'B,- they are omen, they
are @sel)0employed,@ and they are poor5 >rom
these common bases, diverse individuality in
trades, reli+ious and ethnic bac9+rounds, and
livin+ environments are brou+ht to+ether5
Ahere these omen are individually
extremely vulnerable to the )orces o) their
day0to0day poverty hich are compounded by
8nancial exploitation, physical abuse, and
+eneral social harassment, they have )ound
that collectively they ait able to stru++le
a+ainst these )orces and odds to eDect
chan+e in their lives and or95 /LA7=s choice
o) the term @sel)0employed@ to de8ne this
lar+e sector o) or9ers as consciously made
to +ive positive status to people ho are o)ten
described ne+atively as in)ormal,
unor+anised, mar+inal, or peripheral5
; Rose 3#'',, pp5 #10#B4
E/ercise $
Self>emplo"ed !omen-s Association
2o hat extent mi+ht the criticisms o) the A7D perspective 3discussed in
2he A7D approach has been critici?ed )or )ailin+ to
challen+e male0dominated poer structures and
)or )ailin+, as a result, to trans)orm existin+ social
structures5 /LA7 appears to )all into this cate+ory5
&oever, )urther examination o) /LA7=s approach
to or+ani?in+ omen demonstrates that the
institution reco+ni?es the importance o)
con)rontin+ existin+ poer structures-
2here is not Fust one +oal hich is )ou+ht )or5
Aomen understand that chan+e is a process
o) stru++les5 2heir experience has e.uipped
them )or this ; they have stru++led all their
lives5 555
Ahether small or lar+e in nature, die chan+es
this conver+ence has +enerated continue to
inEuence increasin+ly broader spheres5 2he
day0today, +rassroots chan+es centre around
tryin+ to improve omen=s or9in+ situations5
2he tactics vary ith each individual trade,
but usually be+in ith con)rontin+ the direct
exploiter and presentin+ him ith demands
)or chan+e5 >or omen en+a+ed in piece0rate
or9, this means as9in+ the contractor )or
hi+her a+es5 >or vendors, it means
con)rontin+ the police oCcers ho beat the
omen and extract bribes )rom them on
char+es o) @encroachment5@ >or omen
providin+ services, it means ensurin+ )air
a+es and steady or95
>rom the be+innin+ o) /LA7=s or9, hoever,
it has been apparent that this direct
con)rontation could never accomplish all the
lon+0term, structural and social chan+es
needed to seriously chan+e omen=s lives5
Aomen ho earn Fust enou+h each day to
9eep their )amilies +oin+ are vulnerable5
6issin+ one day=s or9 can mean a crisis in
the )amily5 555
Get /LA7 has )ound that the only ay to brin+
chan+e is to @or+anise, or+anise, and or+anise
some more5@ In numbers they have )ound
voice and stren+th5 Ahen they stand in
suCcient numbers, their voices do sha9e the
balance and chan+e thin+s in their )avour ;
)rom the tactics o) their nei+hbourhood trader
or local landoner, up to the national and
international policies5 Once they have policy
bac9in+, the +round is 8rmer )rom hich to
or+anise more omen and push their
demands into broader spheres5
; Rose 3#'',, pp5 ,,0,%4
E/ercise %
Development organi;ations
2rac9 the development o) or+ani?ations in your country hose activities coincide ith the AID, A7D, and $7D
approaches5
Cari11ean Association for Feminist
*esearch and Action
2he Caribbean 7ssociation )or >eminist
Research and 7ction 3C7>R74 as launched in
7pril #'85 as a vehicle to encoura+e a +ender
perspective in action research and establish a
netor9 o) omen=s or+ani?ations in the
Caribbean5 Its primary obFectives include
developin+ the )eminist movement in the
Caribbean, developin+ an approach to
analy?in+ relations beteen men and omen,
and promotin+ the inte+ration o) research and
action5 In the ords o) the or+ani?ation, Ae
are a netor9 o) individual researchers and
activists and omen=s or+anisations ho
de8ne )eminist politics as a matter o) both
consciousness and action5 Ae are committed
to understandin+ the relationship beteen the
oppression in the society, and are or9in+
actively )or chan+e5
; C7>R7 3#''%4
6embership spans the Dutch0, Ln+lish0, >rench0,
and /panish0spea9in+ countries o) the Caribbean
and includes Caribbean omen livin+ outside the
re+ion5 Decision0ma9in+ occurs at )our levels-
2he +eneral meetin+ 3association members4J
Re+ional Committee 3elected national
representatives and members4J
Continuation Committee 3a subcommittee o)
the Re+ional Committee4J and
2he /ecretariat 3pro+ram and administrative
staD headed by the Coordinator45
C7>R7 has identi8ed several priority research0
action areas-
Population0control policies in the CaribbeanJ
&istory o) omen=s labour and stru++le in the
re+ionJ
Aomen=s culture and expression as an
instrument )or buildin+ poerJ
/exual violenceJ
Aomen and tradeJ
/ocial and economic conditions o) omenJ
and
Caribbean )amily structures 3history, present
trends, and )uture directions45
E/ercise '
CAF*A and development theor"
Lxamine C7>R7=s mission and activities 3above4 and identi)y the theoretical )rame0or94, as discussed in
in)orm these5 In discussin+ this assi+nment, hi+hli+ht the )olloin+-
#5 2he mission indicates a commitment to )eminist politics5
,5 2he activities underta9en are not merely about @helpin+@ omen5 2his !$O=s activities are +rounded in a )eminist
consciousness5
The nat2re and foc2s of research
(mplications for action
2he types o) research underta9en and the
methodolo+y used are )unctions o) the context o)
research and the ideolo+ical orientation o) the
researcher5 2o broad ideolo+ical perspectives can
be used to illustrate this point- )amily0and oman0
centred approaches5 7 )amily0centred approach,
accordin+ to Buvinic 3#'8K4, sees motherhood as a
oman=s most important role in society and thus
the most eDective role )or her in economic
development5 Aomen=s reproductive and home
production roles are, there)ore, the )ocus o)
research and, conse.uently, the tar+et o)
interventions to assist omen5 In any study, the
unit analy?ed is the )amily, rather than the oman5
In contrast, a oman0centred, or )eminist,
approach reco+ni?es omen=s productive and
reproductive roles-
Its unit analysis is the oman and, hile she
can be conceptuali?ed in the context o) the
)amily, she is seen in her economic roles in
the household and the mar9etplace5 2he main
ar+uments o) the oman0centred approach
are that ine.uality beteen omen and men
has increased ith economic development
and that interventions that are desi+ned to
achieve e.uality ill lead to economic
eCciency and +roth5
; 2in9er and Bramsen 3#'B14 3cited in Buvinic
#'8K, p5 B4
Aith this approach, to variants +uide research
and action-
2he @e.uity@ variant )ocuses on ine.uality
beteen men and omen in all spheres,
public and private5 Qualitative research
techni.ues, includin+ participatory methods,
are typically used, alon+ ith more standard
analytical tools5 /ociolo+ical,
anthropolo+ical, and economic theoretical
)rameor9s are used5
2he @poverty@ variant )ocuses on omen=s
roles as economic actors in lo0income
+roups and lin9s the issue o) omen=s
economic e.uality to poverty in the 2hird
Aorld5 Research see9s to .uanti)y the nature
and extent o) omen=s poverty5 7ction
centres around eliminatin+ this poverty
throu+h, )or example, income0+eneratin+
proFects5
(nstit2tional responses to the
limitations of traditional approaches
Reco+ni?in+ the limitations o) the traditional
approaches has sometimes also come, and should
come, )rom the various development institutions
and national a+encies char+ed ith developin+
pro+rams to address the subordination,
mar+inali?ation, and oppression o) omen5
*yc9lama X !iFeholt 3#'',4 posited that there have
been some shi)ts in development thin9in+, as
illustrated by the )olloin+ policy documents and
other related publications-
2he <nited !ations Development
Pro+ramme=s 4u)an !e(elop)ent Report,
=>>- 3<!DP #''04J
2he Aorld Ban9=s $orld !e(elop)ent Report,
=>>- 3Aorld Ban9 #''04J
2he <nited !ations= he $orld0s $o)en
=>B--=>>-3 rends and #tatistics 3<nited
!ations #''#4J and
2he !etherlands 6inister )or Development
Cooperation=s 7 $orld !iCerence3 A 1e&
%ra)e&ork %or !e(elop)ent Cooperation in
the =>>-s 3!6DC n5d545
*yc9lama X !iFeholt 3#'',4 analy?ed these policy
documents5 Lach presents vies on development
as it aDects omenJ hoever, the perceptions o)
omen diDer5
E/ercise +
<Engendering< reports
Read the documents listed above 3one per small +roup o) students4 and anser the )olloin+ .uestions-
#5 &o does the report perceive omenN
,5 Is poer ithin +ender relations a problemN
%5 Ahich development approach is best exempli8ed by this document 3el)are approach, e.uity approach, antipoverty
approach, eCciency approach4N
2he <nited !ations, throu+h its various a+encies,
has also exhibited obvious shi)ts in its )ocus and its
development thin9in+ as it continues to address
omen=s issues5 Pietila and Mic9ers 3#''04
documented these shi)ts and contributin+ )actors-
=>D-s to =>E-s ; Aomen=s issues ere seen
mainly ithin the context o) human ri+hts5
=>B-s ; 2he 9ey role o) omen as better
reco+ni?ed, particularly in relation to eDorts
to relieve or solve problems in the 8elds o)
population and )ood5 In the <nited !ations=
earlier decades, omen had been seen as
obFects- the or+ani?ation made
recommendations and enacted conventions
)or their protection and ri+hts5 In the #'B0s,
the )ormula as to @inte+rate omen into
development5@ Aomen ere
characteristically seen as resources, and
their contributions ere sou+ht to enhance
the development process and ma9e it more
eCcient5 >or this purpose, the <nited !ations
sou+ht to improve the status, nutrition,
health, and education o) omen5 It as o)ten
claimed that a )ailure to )ully inte+rate
omen into development eDorts ould be a
@aste o) human resources5@ Aomen=s
di+nity and ri+hts ere not yet seen as a
cause in themselves5 2he perennial nature o)
omen=s contribution to the ell0bein+ o)
their country=s population as still
unreco+ni?ed5
=>?-s ; 2he <nited !ations= 2hird
Development Decade +ave rise to a @trend
toards seein+ omen as e.uals, as a+ents
and bene8ciaries in all sectors and at all
levels o) the development process5 555 and
the year #'85 became a turnin+ point in the
history o) omen=s issues in the <! system@
3Pietila and Mic9ers #''0, p5 viii45
2hese shi)ts in thin9in+ ithin the <nited !ations
system can perhaps be best illustrated by the
creation o) a+encies ithin the system that
)ormally address omen=s issues 3Braidotti et al5
#''K45 /ome or+ani?ations in the <nited !ations
system have played a role in the debate on
sustainable development, as ell as in brin+in+ the
perspective o) omen into the analysis o) the crisis
and ma9in+ proposals )or sustainable solutions5
2he International Research and 2rainin+ Institute
)or the 7dvancement o) Aomen is one o) these
a+encies5 2he >ood and 7+ricultural Or+ani?ation
o) the <nited !ations is also credited ith lon+
involvement in omen=s issues and, more recently,
the issue o) omen and the environment5
2he <nited !ations Lnvironment Pro+ramme
3<!LP4, established in #'B, and ith head.uarters
in !airobi, has been instrumental in puttin+ the
issue o) omen and the environment on the
international a+enda5 Braidotti et al5 3#''K4
identi8ed a number o) activities underta9en by
<!LP-
In #'8K, <!LP undertoo9 an extensive
pro+ram )or the enhancement o) omen=s
participation in environmental mana+ementJ
<!LP established the /enior Aomen=s
7dvisory $roup on /ustainable
DevelopmentJ and
<!LP maintains a omen=s netor9, listin+
participants, location, and areas o) special
interest as they relate to conservation and
mana+ement o) the environment5
E/ercise ,
82man settlements
Read Caroline 6oser=s article, @Aomen, &uman /ettlements, and &ousin+- 7 Conceptual >rameor9 )or 7nalysis and
Policy0ma9in+@ 36oser #'8B4 in the boo9 $o)en, 4u)an #ettle)ents, and 4ousin.
critically assess *inda Pea9e=s case study, @$overnment &ousin+ Policy and Its Implications )or Aomen in $uyana@ 3Pea9e
#'8B4, in the same boo95
E/ercise F
!omen and work
In a +roup discussion session, )ocus on hi+hli+htin+ the pit)alls o) proFects based on the stereotypes about omen=s
@proper@ or9, usin+ Hasleen DhamiFa=s article, @Aomen and &andicra)ts- 6yth and Reality@ as a base 3DhamiFa #'8'45
*eferences
Braidotti, R5J Char9ieic?, L5J &ausler, /5J
Aierin+a, /5 #''K5 Aomen, the environment
and sustainable development- toards a
theoretical synthesis5 Ied Boo9s, *ondon, <"5
Buvinic, 65 #'8K5 ProFects )or omen in the
2hird Aorld- explainin+ their misbehavior5
International Center )or Research on Aomen,
Aashin+ton, DC, </75
C7>R7 3Caribbean 7ssociation )or >eminist
Research and 7ction45 #''%5 C7>R7 !es,
13,45
DhamiFa, H5 #'8'5 Aomen and handicra)ts-
myth and reality5 +n *eonard, 75, ed5, /eeds-
supportin+ omen=s or9 in the 2hird Aorld5
City <niversity o) !e Gor9, !e Gor9, !G,
</75
&oells, C5 #''%5 Aomen=s Aorld Ban9in+- an
intervie ith !ancy Barry5 Columbia Hournal
o) Aorld Business, ,%3%4, ,#0%,5
*yc9lama a !iFeholt, $5 #'',5 Aomen and the
meanin+ o) development- approaches and
conse.uences5 Institute )or /ocial /tudies, 2he
&a+ue, !etherlands5 /ub0series on Aomen=s
&istory and Development, Aor9in+ Paper !o5
#55
6oser, C5O5!5 #'8B5 Aomen, human
settlements, and housin+- a conceptual
)rameor9 )or analysis and policy0ma9in+5 +n
6oser, C5O5!5J Pea9e, *5, ed5, Aomen, human
settlements, and housin+5 2avistoc9
Publications, *ondon, <"5 pp5 #,0%,5
!6DC 3!etherlands 6inister )or Development
Cooperation4, n5d5 7 orld o) diDerence- a ne
)rameor9 )or development cooperation hi
the #''0s5 !6DC, 2he &a+ue, !etherlands5
Pea9e, *5 #'8B5 $overnment housin+ policy
and its implications )or omen hi $uyana5 +n
6oser, C5O5!5J Pea9e, *5, ed5, Aomen, human
settlements, and housin+5 2avistoc9
Publications, *ondon, <"5 pp5 ##%0#%85
PietilY, &5J Mic9ers, H5 #''05 6a9in+ omen
matter- the role o) the <nited !ations5 Ied
Boo9s, *ondon, <"5
Rose, "5 #'',5 Ahere omen are leaders- the
/LA7 movement hi India5 Ied Boo9s, *ondon,
<"5
2in9er, *J Bramsen, 65B5, ed5 #'B15 Aomen
and orld development5 Prae+er, !e Gor9,
!G, </75
<!DP 3<nited !ations Development
Pro+ramme45 #''05 &uman development
report, #''05 Ox)ord <niversity Press, !e
Gor9, !G, </75
<nited !ations5 #''#5 2he orld=s omen
#'B00#''0- trends and statistics5 <nited
!ations, !e Gor9, !G, </75
Aorld Ban95 #''05 Aorld development report,
#''05 Aorld Ban9, Aashin+ton, DC, </75
S2ggested reading
Birdsall, !5J and 6c$reevey, A5P5 #'8%5
Aomen, poverty, and development5 +n
Buvinic, 65J *ycette, 75J 6c$reevey, A5P5, ed5,
Aomen and poverty hi the 2hird Aorld5 Hohns
&op9ins <niversity Press, Baltimore, 6D, </75
pp5 %0#%5
>enton, 25J &eDron, 6H5 #'8B5 Aomen in the
2hird Aorld- a directory o) resources5 Orbis
Boo9s, !e Gor9, !G, </75
/en, $5J $ron, C5 #'8B5 Development, crises,
and alternative visions- 2hird Aorld omen=s
perspectives5 6onthly Revie Press, !e Gor9,
!G, </75
C8APTE* , T8E !O.EN-S
.O6E.ENT AND (TS *O4E (N
DE6E4OP.ENT
!nne ". #al$er
(ntrod2ction
2his chapter )ocuses on the omen=s movement
and its role in development5 It describes the
development activities o) omen at the
international, re+ional, national, and local levels,
outlinin+ hy the overall development scenario
should include omen=s activism and or+ani?in+
s9ills5
The women-s movement
2he +lobal )ormation o) the omen=s
movement is unli9e the human ri+hts and
ecolo+ical movements5 2here are not sin+le
lar+e or+ani?ations ith a +lobal membership
base clearly associated ith the +oals o) the
movement in the public arena5 2he omen=s
movement resembles, much more, the
constantly +roin+ and shi)tin+ cobeb
characteristics o) ne politics in the +lobal
a+e5 In many ays, the amorphous character
o) the movement may reEect an earlier sta+e
hi or+ani?in+, a more eDective utili?ation o)
the institutions o) the <nited !ations, or a
uni.ue characteristic o) the type o) or+ani?in+
that is uni.ue to omen=s issues5 Ahether
more )ormal lin9a+es ould be use)ul is an
open .uestion5
; Dorsey 3#''K4
2he omen=s movement does indeed resemble a
constantly +roin+ and shi)tin+ cobeb, one made
up o) thousands o) lar+e and small local, national,
re+ional, and international omen=s +roups and
or+ani?ations, connected and unconnected to each
other and involved in traditional and nontraditional
activities5 Ahat all o) these omen=s +roups and
or+ani?ations have in common is that )or the most
part they have been le)t out o) the history o)
development as currently ritten5
2he reasons )or this are many5 Perhaps the bi++est
one is that the omen themselves, especially
omen=s +roups in the /outh, have recorded very
little about their activism and their eDorts to
or+ani?e )or their ri+hts ithin their communities5
(nternational women-s organi;ations
and networks
Aomen historians have made recent eDorts to
record the history o) omen=s international
non+overnmental or+ani?ations 3!$Os4, and much
o) these eDorts have )ocused on the or9 o)
aCliated +roups in the /outh5
7s part o) its centennial celebrations in #''K;'5,
the Aorld Goun+ Aomen=s Christian 7ssociation
3GAC74 undertoo9 to record the history o) #00
years o) omen=s or+ani?in+ and activism on
omen=s issues and concerns5 I selected this
or+ani?ation as an example because it holds a
uni.ue position in the history o) the omen=s
movement5, Mery early in this or+ani?ation=s
history, omen set up autonomous national GAC7
+roups in 7)rica, 7sia, *atin 7merica and the
Caribbean, and later in the Paci8c5 2hen, ith
assistance and support )rom a orld oCce, these
+roups planned and built permanent head.uarters
)or their pro+rams5 2his has +iven omen a 9ind o)
bastion or stron+hold, hich they themselves
control, in more than 80 countries5 Lach national
GAC7 is en+a+ed in activities ; ith, )or, and by
omen ; in trainin+, health, non)ormal education,
human ri+hts, public aDairs, ener+y and the
environment, and other community and social
or95
2he GAC7 trains omen )or Fobs in the community
and positions o) leadership in all )acets o) the
or+ani?ation5 2his creates a core o) omen leaders
ho o)ten +o on to become leaders in other parts
o) community li)e5 Lach national GAC7 has
complete control over mana+ement, pro+rams,
and )uture directions5 2he orld oCce provides a
set o) +uidin+ principles and, hen re.uested,
support )or )und0raisin+ and leadership0trainin+
opportunities5
&avin+ a central buildin+ and a staD o) trained
leaders +ives the GAC7 a head start in inEuencin+
the development o) a community and providin+ a
place )or other )orms o) activism and or+ani?in+5
Aomen are +iven the opportunity to be mana+ers,
trainers, decision0ma9ers, and planners in an
atmosphere that is omen centred,
nonthreatenin+, and sa)e5 7nd remar9able
achievements have come out o) this sa)e
atmosphere-
2he be+innin+s o) political movements )or
more democratic societiesJ
2he introduction o) appropriate technolo+ies
)or omen in rural and semiurban areasJ
!e and innovative trainin+ methods )or
omen ith little or no educational
bac9+roundJ
Participatory )orms o) +roup or+ani?in+J and
7 host o) other activities that have moved
omen into the )ore)ront o) development,
both ithin their countries and around the
orld5
>or example, many omen on national dele+ations
to the <nited !ations +ained their leadership
trainin+ and experience as committee or board
members o) the GAC7 in their respective
countries5
!ot much or9 has yet been done to record the
history o) international omen=s netor9s5
!etor9s are a more recent phenomenon5 6ore
Eexible than an or+ani?ation and much more
reliant on each individual or +roup to 9eep the eb
o) contacts alive, a netor9 arises to 8ll a need and
then o)ten disappears hen the need is +one5 7
true netor9 has no head.uarters, main oCces, or
staD5 &oever, variations on this theme are more
common, usually ith a +roup ta9in+ on the
responsibility o) 9eepin+ the contacts alive, usin+
some )ull0or part0time staD5
Durin+ and since the <nited !ations International
Aomen=s Gear 3#'B54 and the subse.uent Decade
)or Aomen 3#'B10854, international omen=s
netor9s emer+ed to 8ll a need that omen=s
+roups had )or better contact ith others and )or
access to in)ormation and resources5 Best 9non
amon+ these netor9s are Isis International
36anila and /antia+o4, Isis Aomen=s International
Cross Cultural Lxchan+e, the Aomen=s >eatures
/ervice 3India4, and the International Aomen=s
2ribune Centre 3IA2C45 !either the Isis +roups nor
IA2C have aCliated members such as belon+ to
the Aorld GAC7 and other more established
international !$Os 3)or example, the Aorld
7ssociation o) $irl $uides and /couts, the
International >ederation o) Business and
Pro)essional Aomen, and the 7ssociated Country
Aomen o) the Aorld S7CAAT45 2he Aomen=s
>eatures /ervice came out o) the Inter Press
/ervice and )unctions as a nes ire service,
providin+ nes stories by and about omen )or the
orld=s media5
2he Isis +roups and IA2C have @constituencies@ o)
omen=s +roups in every orld re+ion, most o)
hich are not )ormally aCliated ith any other
+roup and have previously )unctioned in relative
isolation5 2he main channel o) communication is a
Fournal or nesletter used to in)orm member
+roups o) issues and available resources on
omen0or +ender0and0development activities and
plans and preparations )or upcomin+ events and
con)erences, etc5
In the case o) IA2C, the mailin+ list also includes
+overnment omen=s bureaus and ministries,
<nited !ations departments and speciali?ed
a+encies, donors, and other support +roups )or
omen0or +ender0and0development activities
orldide5 Both IA2C and the to Isis +roups
underta9e trainin+ and technical0assistance
activities on re.uest, and both collaborate ith
national and re+ional +roups to develop manuals,
+uideboo9s, biblio+raphies, and other omen0or
+ender0and0development resource materials5 In
recent years, their emphasis has been on trainin+
omen to use computers )or des9top publishin+,
)or electronic netor9in+, and )or developin+
resource centres and databases )or omen
involved in development activities5
*egional women-s organi;ations and
networks
7s in the case o) the international omen=s
or+ani?ations and netor9s, very little has been
ritten about the history o) their re+ional
counterparts5 Perhaps an exception is the Aomen
and Development <nit 3A7!D4 o) the <niversity o)
the Aest Indies in Barbados5 /everal boo9lets and
articles have been ritten about A7!D=s history,
and nespaper )eatures on various aspects o)
A7!D=s development and or9 are disseminated
re+ularly5
A7!D +re out o) a re+ional con)erence held in
Hamaica in #'BB, here omen=s +roups )rom
across the Ln+lish0spea9in+ Caribbean +athered to
dra up a plan o) action )or omen in their re+ion5
One o) the needs expressed at this con)erence as
)or a central a+ency to provide resources, technical
assistance, and trainin+ )or the omen=s +roups
and proFects5 2his ould 9eep isolated omen=s
+roups a little more in touch ith the omen=s
movement5
A7!D has )or+ed a path that intersects ith the
development o) omen=s bureaus in the
Caribbean, the re+ionali?ation o) resources, and
the bur+eonin+ o) omen=s human ri+hts as a
maFor )ocus amon+ omen activists and +roups in
the Caribbean5 A7!D epitomi?es the or9 and
dedication o) re+ional omen=s or+ani?ations by
providin+ omen0or +ender0and0development
in)ormation )rom a central resource centre and
database, helpin+ to develop proFect proposals and
search )or )unds )or proFects, and leadin+ the ay
in lobbyin+ re+ional +overnments )or le+islation
that moves ahead on omen=s human0ri+hts issues
and concerns5
Re+ional omen=s netor9s, especially those
concerned ith the Eo o) in)ormation ithin
re+ions, have +ron in importance durin+ and
since the <nited !ations Decade )or Aomen5
Aomen=s re+ional media netor9s can no be
)ound in every orld re+ion 37)rica, 7sia and the
Paci8c, Lurope, *atin 7merica and the Caribbean,
the 6iddle Last, and !orth 7merica45 2hey usually
operate ithin the )rameor9 o) alternative media,
sendin+ their in)ormation directly to omen=s
+roups5 But increasin+ly these netor9s are
crossin+ over into the orld o) mass media and
mainstream media channels5
>empress 3a omen=s alternative media netor9
)or *atin 7merica4 be+an in #'8# as a clippin+
service5 Aor9in+ out o) oCces at the Institute )or
/tudies o) 2ransnationals in *atin 7merica, to
omen be+an collectin+ clippin+s about omen=s
activities in *atin 7merican countries and pastin+
them to+ether in a ma+a?ine )ormat )or
distribution to every country in the re+ion5 &avin+
expanded into a re+ular monthly ma+a?ine o)
ori+inal articles and clippin+s, >empress is no
ac9noled+ed as one o) the leadin+ netor9s,
lin9in+ omen activists across *atin 7merica and
puttin+ )orard the cause o) omen=s human
ri+hts and omen=s e.uality o) opportunity in
every country in the re+ion5
>empress operates on a simple but extremely
eDective lo+ic ; it has a correspondent in each
country, ho notes hat is happenin+ in that
country, clips relevant articles, and rites an
article on a maFor issue concernin+ omen each
month5 2hese are published at the >empress
head.uarters in /antia+o, Chile, in its monthly
ma+a?ine5 >empress also prepares and distributes
radio broadcasts o) intervies and tal9s by various
omen in each country o) the re+ion5 >empress
puts out a .uarterly compilation o) clippin+s and
ritin+s on speci8c subFectsJ this .uarterly is
9non as Mu7er Especial 3Aomen=s /pace45
National women-s organi;ations and
networks
2he !ational Councils o) Aomen 3!CAs4 have been
)oremost amon+ national omen=s or+ani?ations
and netor9s5 !CAs comprise national omen=s
or+ani?ations 3such as 6aendeleo ya Aanaa9e o)
"enya, a netor9 o) omen=s +roups in "enya that
are aCliated ith 7CAAJ national GAC7s, hich
are aCliated ith the Aorld GAC7J and national
omen=s +roups that have member +roups ithin
the country but are not aCliated ith any
international or+ani?ation45
!CAs are usually set up to unite the eDorts o)
national omen=s +roups to lobby +overnment or
to improve )acilities and pro+rams )or omen in
their country5 Over the years, !CAs have had
mixed revies5 Combinin+ the eDorts o) national
omen=s +roups that have sometimes had lon+
histories in a country be)ore the inception o) an
!CA is not easy5 But most o) the member +roups
o) an !CA come to+ether hen there is a common
cause, such as the need to develop a national plan
o) action )or omen or to promote le+islation on
issues related to omen=s human ri+hts5
6aendeleo ya Aanaa9e is the maFor national
omen=s or+ani?ation o) "enya5 6aendeleo has
member +roups in every ton and villa+e, an
impressive head.uarters in !airobi, and a )ull0time
staD o) administrators and trainers5 It underta9es
proFects in a ide variety o) areas and has been
responsible )or villa+e ater0pump proFects,
schemes )or cra)t production and mar9etin+,
or9shops )or leadership trainin+, and a multitude
o) other rural and urban development activities ;
ith, )or, and by the omen o) "enya5 Increasin+ly,
6aendeleo ya Aanaa9e has become involved in
political and +overnment activities, in addition to
its pro+rams )or trainin+ and proFect
implementation, and this has provo9ed much
discussion o) the roles and responsibilities o)
omen in "enya5 6aendeleo is a member +roup o)
the "enyan !CA5
2he >riends o) Aomen 3>OA4 proFect as set up in
2hailand by omen concerned about the risin+
numbers o) youn+ +irls and omen lured )rom
villa+es to or9 as prostitutes in Ban+9o95 2he
omen o) >OA set themselves up in a couple o)
rooms in the centre o) Ban+9o9 and be+an to ma9e
contacts ith +roups and individuals across the
country and re+ion and eventually ith +roups in
other countries around the orld5 2heir eDorts and
continuin+ concern )or the el)are o) youn+ omen
in Ban+9o9 have no become a national netor9
o) people 8+htin+ a+ainst violations o) omen=s
human ri+hts and speci8cally a+ainst lurin+ +irls
)rom poor )amilies into a li)e o) sexual slavery5
>OA is not Fust a lobbyin+ +roup, hoever5 It
provides counselin+ to youn+ +irls and their
)amilies, both in the villa+e and in tonJ or9shops
)or youn+ leaders and helpersJ resource materials,
includin+ Eash cards and posters )or +roup
sessionsJ and a nesletter, hich is published in
both 2hai and Ln+lish5 It is a netor9, rather than
an or+ani?ation, because it does not re.uire
membership, and its activities )ocus on needs as
they arise, rather than on any set pro+ram5 7nyone
interested can ta9e part in >OA activities5
4ocal women-s organi;ations and
networks
Because omen=s +roups )unction in so many
diDerent ays and the de8nitions o) an
or+ani?ation and a netor9 become blurred, it is
better to discuss examples o) omen=s local
activities than to discuss speci8c omen=s +roups5
In /antia+o, Chile, durin+ the lon+ years o)
dictatorship 3#'B,08'4, omen=s +roups or+ani?ed
)or the ri+ht to democratic elections and omen=s
e.uality in decision0ma9in+ positions in
+overnment5 Be+innin+ ith a )e established
omen=s +roups, protest marches ere or+ani?ed
)or each 8 6arch 3International Aomen=s Day45
6omentum +re each year, ith many thousands
o) omen )rom every al9 o) li)e marchin+ throu+h
the streets o) /antia+o or +atherin+ in the sports
stadium, demandin+ democratic rule and e.uality
o) opportunity )or omen5 Individual omen
coura+eously approached soldiers and police in the
streets and shouted @$ive us bac9 our countryO@
Ahen democratic rule returned to Chile, credit as
+iven in lar+e part to the relentless activism o)
omen=s +roups, and the ne +overnment
appointed omen to positions o) poer and
authority5
In 7hmedebad, India, omen=s or9 in the in)ormal
sector received little reco+nition and, there)ore,
little as done to ma9e these omen=s livelihoods
more economically sustainable5 Aithin the trade0
union movement, Lla Bhatt tried to push )orard
the cause o) these omen but had little success5
/he decided to )orm a brea9aay union )or sel)0
employed omen, those ho or9 at home or
ithin omen=s +roups ; rather than in )actories
or other businesses ; and have a hard time
ma9in+ ends meet5 2he /el)0Lmployed Aomen=s
7ssociation 3/LA74 as the result5 It no has
many thousands o) members and maintains a type
o) revolvin+ ban9- all the members donate a small
amount each month, and money is available hen
they need it to purchase e.uipment or set up a
small business5 Aomen around the orld o)ten
cite, and try to emulate, /LA7=s example5
>rom a small villa+e at the )oot o) 6ount 6eru,
"enya, +enerations o) omen traveled each day
don a lar+e hill to collect ater and carry it bac9
up the hill )or use in the villa+e5 /ome days, a
oman ould ma9e several trips to the river
belo, carryin+ heavy pots )ull o) ater on her
head as she strained up the slippery path to the
villa+e5 One day, at a meetin+ o) the villa+e
omen=s +roup, the omen decided that enou+h
as enou+h5 2hey did not ant their dau+hters to
suDer as they ere, ith bent bac9s and endless
pain in their old a+e5 ODerin+ their savin+s )rom
or9 in nearby tea plantations, they as9ed the men
to buy ater pipes hen they ent to ton ; one
at a time over a period o) years5
7n expert )rom the >ood and 7+riculture
Or+ani?ation as approached to assist in settin+
up a simple pump at the )oot o) a ater)all in the
river5 /loly, the omen laid the pipes5 <p the hill
the pipes ent, branchin+ oD at each oman=s hut5
2hen lar+e plu+s ere made o) cor9li9e materials
and inserted into the pipes, and 8nally the pump
as started5 !o every oman in that villa+e has
her on ater supply, hich has not only improved
the health and ell0bein+ o) the villa+e but also
ensures that )uture +enerations o) +irls and omen
ill not have to dama+e their bac9s and live in pain
)rom carryin+ heavy pots on their heads up the
mountain each day5
In /uva, >iFi, the nely established GAC7 decided
to open multiracial 9inder+artens5 7t that time, all
education in the country as se+re+ated by
lan+ua+e, ith >iFian children attendin+ >iFian0
lan+ua+e schools, Indian children attendin+ &indi0
lan+ua+e schools, and children o) expatriates 3)rom
7ustralia, !e Iealand, and the <nited "in+dom4
attendin+ Ln+lish0lan+ua+e schools5 2he )acilities
and standard o) education ere vastly diDerent in
each type o) school, ith the Ln+lish0lan+ua+e
schools havin+ the most advanced )acilities and
teachin+5 7lthou+h much could be said )or
maintainin+ the cultures and traditions o) each
lin+uistic +roup, in reality, children in the non0
Ln+lish schools ere receivin+ a poorer education,
diminishin+ their )uture career prospects5
In 9eepin+ ith its lon+0time principle o) ensurin+
e.ual opportunity, the GAC7 be+an multiracial
9inder+artens, open to everyone5 2he eDect as
dramatic5 Lducationalists came )rom all over the
country to observe the experiment5 2here as
considerable doubt about the isdom and
propriety o) the proFect5 2he time came hen
several >iFian and Indian parents anted their
children to attend the better e.uipped and better
staDed @Luropean@ primary school5 2he GAC7
as9ed the Lducation Department hether this as
possible5 7 top0level meetin+ as called5 Clearly,
this had been a racial and not a lin+uistic matter
be)ore, but no the authorities ere )aced ith
ma9in+ a precedent0settin+ decision5 7mid much
consternation, the decision caime don that any
child could attend the Luropean school i) they
passed an Ln+lish0lan+ua+e test5 7ll o) the children
passed and ere accepted5 7ll schools in >iFi are
no multiracial5 It is the oCcial policy o) the
country5 Ln+lish, >iFian, and &indi are >iFi=s oCcial
lan+ua+es, and all oCcial documents and materials
are printed in each one o) these lan+ua+es5
!omen-s activism and its role in
development
7s discussed earlier, anthropolo+ists have o)ten
identi8ed the sta+es o) moderni?ation and
@pro+ress@ as hunter0+atherer or )ora+in+,
horticultural, a+ricultural or a+rarian, and so on
3see list on p5 K#45 >eminist anthropolo+ists have
ar+ued )or +ivin+ +reater ei+ht to the
or+ani?ation o) social and production relations,
patterns o) social strati8cation, )amily structure
3mono+amous or other4, patterns o) property
onership, and )orms o) or9 and production5 2o
this list should be added patterns o) omen=s
or+amban+ and activism5
Perhaps @or+ani?ation o) social and production
relations,@ as su++ested by )eminist
anthropolo+ists, ould encompass some o) the
activities outlined here5 But the activities and
eDorts o) omen orldide are much more li9ely
to be totally le)t out o) the development matrix5 By
addin+ @patterns o) omen=s or+ani?in+ and
activism,@ e could rite a hole ne chapter in
development theory5
It should be obvious by no that the activism and
continuin+ eDorts o) omen=s +roups have been
responsible )or a +reat deal o) hat has happened
in the history o) the orld, and more speci8cally in
the area o) development and @moderni?ation5@
Lach omen=s or+ani?ation and netor9 discussed,
hether international, re+ional, national, or local,
illustrates the extent to hich omen have been
actively involved in the maFor chan+es ta9in+ place
in their country and in the orld5 7nd yet, it is
impossible to conclude this chapter ithout +ivin+
the )olloin+ examples o) ho the activism and
or+ani?in+ s9ills o) omen have chan+ed the
course o) history5
!omen activists at the international
level A the earl" "ears
/eventeen omen ere amon+ the dele+ates at
the )oundin+ meetin+s o) the <nited !ations in /an
>rancisco in #'K15 Initial discussions revolved
around settin+ up a commission on human ri+hts5
2he omen met and decided that the ri+hts o)
omen ere not bein+ +iven the priority they
deserved5 /o a /ubcommission on the /tatus o)
Aomen as a+reed on5 /till, the omen ere
dissatis8ed5 7t an introductory meetin+ o) the
subcommission, they decided a )ull Commission on
the /tatus o) Aomen as re.uired5
2he <nited !ations Commission on &uman Ri+hts
3<!C&R4 had its 8rst meetin+ in Hanuary #'KB5 2he
<nited !ations Commission on the /tatus o)
Aomen 3<!C/A4 had its 8rst meetin+ in >ebruary
#'KB5 InsuCciently )unded and havin+ no
secretariat or centre o) its on, the <!C/A
nevertheless placed omen=s ri+hts 8rmly on the
a+enda o) the <nited !ations5
!omen activists at the international
level& the DDEs
In the to years be)ore the historic <nited !ations
Aorld Con)erence on &uman Ri+hts in Mienna in
#''%, omen held orldide hearin+s on
violations o) omen=s human ri+hts and collected
more than 500 000 si+natures on a petition
demandin+ that omen=s human0ri+hts issues
3particularly violence a+ainst omen4 be placed on
the con)erence a+enda o) the <!C&R and not
merely discussed by a small +roup durin+ sessions
o) the <!C/A5 <!C/A as hampered by a lac9 o)
resources and the lac9 o) an oCcial protocol to
deal ith violations o) omen=s human ri+hts5 In
addition, omen re.uested the appointment o) a
/pecial Rapporteur on Miolence 7+ainst Aomen
and as9ed )or a tribunal on crimes a+ainst omen5
2he 8nal documents to come out o) the Aorld
Con)erence on &uman Ri+hts are a testament to
the or+ani?in+ and activism o) omen orldide5
2he Mienna declaration put violations o) omen=s
human ri+hts on the orld=s a+enda, and the Plan
o) 7ction called )or a /pecial Rapporteur on
Miolence 7+ainst Aomen5
!omen activists at the regional level
Decidin+ that pro+ress on omen=s0ri+hts issues
as too slo in *atin 7merica and the Caribbean
and mind)ul o) the )act that a lar+e number o)
countries in the re+ion ere military dictatorships
ith little or no re+ard )or the e.ual ri+ht o) omen
to be decision0ma9ers in their on countries, a
small +roup o) activists or+ani?ed a )eminist
Encuentro 3encounter4 in Colombia in #'8#5 7bout
,00 omen participated over a K0day period5
Revelin+ in the )reedom o) the occasion, the
omen made plans o) action )or the re+ion and
decided to hold an Encuentro every to years in a
diDerent *atin 7merican country5
By #'8%, ord had spread5 >eminists )rom across
the re+ion made plans to travel to *ima, Peru5
/even thousand eventually turned up, to the
consternation o) or+ani?ers, ho ere unprepared
to receive this many dele+ates5 But creativity and
+oodill prevailed, and the omen cra)ted maFor
plans and decisions to stren+then the )eminist
movement in the re+ion5 2o years later,
emer+ency plans had to be made to cope ith the
crods in /ao Paulo, Bra?il5 7lmost #0 000 omen
participated, ith more clamourin+ to +et in )rom
the /a(elas 3urban slums4 and urban areas o) /aZ
Paulo5
7nd so the )eminist movement in *atin 7merica
has continued to +ro and develop )rom those
small be+innin+s in Colombia5 >eminist
Encuentrosin 2axco, 6exico 3#'8B4, 6ar del Plata,
7r+entina 3#''04, and Ll /alvador 3#''%4
consolidated the )eminist cause, ith more and
more omen ta9in+ part in the political campai+ns,
assumin+ positions o) responsibility in local and
national councils, and becomin+ in)ormed about
omen=s human ri+hts and e.uality under the la5
Perhaps it as no coincidence that in #''5 the
re+ion as rid o) military dictatorships5
!omen activists at the national level
In 2an?ania, as in most countries orldide, the
issue o) violence a+ainst omen as becomin+ a
national dis+race in the #'80s5 7 +roup o) omen
met to discuss and map out plans to )ace this
+roin+ problem5
2hey decided they needed a multi)aceted plan o)
action5 In)ormation had to be placed in )ront o) the
country at lar+e to +ive everyone a clearer picture
o) the situation and Fust ho it as violatin+ the
ri+hts o) omen and dama+in+ the very )abric o)
the nation5 6en as ell as omen needed to be
educated about the ri+hts o) omen and to see
more clearly that violence as never an anser to
a problem ithin the home, or anyhere else5 7t
the same time, the +overnment had to be lobbied
to pass le+islation that ould +ive omen some
protection a+ainst the violence they ere
experiencin+5 Aomen also needed sa)e houses and
re)u+es here they could +o, ith or ithout
children, to escape beatin+s5
>rom this meetin+ o) omen in 2an?ania, the
2an?ania 6edia Aomen=s 7ssociation 3276A74 as
)ormed, ith a special mission to )ace head0on the
.uestion o) violence a+ainst omen5 276A7 no
has a re+ular nesletter, a resource centre, a crisis
centre, and a re)u+e )or omen5 *as have been
passed stren+thenin+ the ri+hts o) omen, and
omen layers have Foined the eDort to put an
end to violence a+ainst omen5
!omen activists at the local level
/tories o) omen activists in their on small
villa+es, tons, and settlements are numerous,
and it seems almost impossible to choose one over
another5
2he /uva Crisis Centre in >iFi is the result o) a +roup
o) local omen activists ho sa the need to set
up a place )or omen to +o hen they have been
violated in some ay, hether by beatin+, rape, or
any other )orm o) violation5
*ocal omen activists in Croatia, Bosnia0
&er?o+ovina, and /erbia re+ularly held peace vi+ils
and marched across )ront lines to )ace soldiers and
ta9e home sons and )athers involved in the battles5
Aomen in /erbia ran rape0crisis centres )or omen
o) Bosnia0&er?o+ovina and or+ani?ed protest
marches a+ainst the leaders o) their country ho
perpetuated ar5
*ocal omen activists protest a+ainst the custom
o) burnin+ brides and idos in India and protect
omen ho have been threatened or hurt by
domestic violence5
*ocal omen activists in re)u+ee camps in Croatia,
$uantanamo Bay, India, *iberia, /omalia, 2hailand,
and many more parts o) the orld are the ones
ho lobby )or Fustice, run the soup 9itchens,
educate the children, and loo9 a)ter the health o)
the )amily5
Concl2sion
7lthou+h most re+ions o) the orld have been
inEuenced by the activism o) omen, almost no
mention is made o) these eDorts hen history or
pro+ress in any area o) development is recorded5
But there can be no serious discussion o) +ender
and development ithout the reco+nition o) the
vital part the omen=s movement has played5
*eference
Dorsey, L5 #''K5 2he transnationali?ation o)
omen=s movements- toards a +lobal culture
o) omen=s human ri+hts5 Paper presented at
the 7merican Political /cience 7ssociation
Con)erence, !e Gor9, !G, </75
APPEND(L 0E9 CONCEPTS
Agents
Ordinary people ho create historical chan+e
throu+h the activities and stra++les o) their
everyday lives5 Compare this ith @chan+e a+ent,@
an especially 9noled+eable person or
or+ani?ation that brin+s chan+e to others5
Androcentric
6ale centred, a masculine point o) vie5
Androcentrism
7 term developed by )eminist theorists to describe
the dominant orldvie that, until recently, mostly
excluded the experiences o) omen )rom its
analyses5 2his term also re)ers to an approach
ta9en to 9noled+e and the production o)
9noled+e5
Ass2mption
7 supposition that is ta9en to be true but mi+ht not
be based on )actual evidence5
7iological determinism
7 vie on hich it is ar+ued that human social
behaviour is the result o) )actors inherent to the
biolo+ical ma9eup o) human bein+s5 2his is o)ten
contrasted ith explanations o) human behaviour
based on social or sociopsycholo+ical )actors5
Class
7 social or economic division in society5 2heorists
sometimes diDerentiate beteen economic class
3based on access to economic resources or
material +oods4 and social class 3based on status,
presti+e, )amily bac9+round, and other )actors45
One=s class is de8ned lar+ely by one=s relationship
to the means o) productionJ the capitalist class
ons the means o) production5
Comprador class
Llites in the /outh ho collaborate ith the
dominant capitalist class in the !orth and ensure
the continued subordination o) the /outh to the
!orth5
Deconstr2ct
2o examine the underlyin+ assumptions attached
to certain concepts5
Deconstr2ction
7n analysis o) the derivations, contexts, and uses
o) lan+ua+e or discourse, conducted to unpac9
their implicit poer relations and hidden a+endas5
Disco2rse
7n historically, socially, and institutionally speci8c
structure o) statements, terms, cate+ories, and
belie)s5
Economic growth
2he assumption that increased economic
productivity and exchan+e constitute the basic
re.uirement )or development5 It is measured by
mar9et output, $!P, per capita income, etc5
ECcienc"
<sually )ocuses on technolo+ical and economic
eCciency as measured by standard economic
output0input 3i+norin+ nonmar9et inputs and
outputs45
Egalitarianism
Relations based on the more or less e.ual
participation o) all adults hi the production o) basic
necessities, as ell as in their distribution or
exchan+e and hi their consumption5#
Epistemolog"
7 theory o) 9noled+e, a strate+y )or Fusti)yin+
belie)s5
EH2al opport2nit"
Conditions that must be created so that omen
have the same options as men and the same li)e
chances5
Essentialism
*umpin+ a variety o) cate+ories into one, i+norin+
diDerences, and emphasi?in+ similarities, despite
little evidence )or such a +enerali?ation5
Ethnicit"
$roup associations based on any combination o)
common characteristics, includin+ culture,
lan+ua+e, reli+ion, phenotype, +eo+raphic re+ion,
and ancestry5 It is reco+ni?ed that historical and
social )actors shape the )ormation o) ethnic +roups
and besto on them a distinct identity5
#
Ltienne, 65J *eacoc9, L5, ed5 #'805 Aomen and coloni?ation5 Prae+er Publishers, !e Gor9, !G,
</75
Ethnocentric
Believin+ that one=s on race, nation, or culture is
superior to all others5
E/port>processing ;ones
7reas set up by countries )or 2!Cs to manu)acture
products )or export, )ree o) normal tariD and tax
re+ulations and o)ten also )ree o) labour and
environmental re+ulations5
Feminist
7n individual ho is aare o) the oppression,
exploitation, or subordination o) omen ithin
society and ho consciously acts to chan+e and
trans)orm this situation5
Fle/i1ilit"
2he ability o) companies to .uic9ly adapt to
chan+es in mar9ets, technolo+y, and competition5
>lexibility strate+ies include tyin+ a+es to
productivity or pro8ts, eliminatin+ lon+term
commitments to or9ers by subcontractin+ and or
oDerin+ part0time or9, and 8ndin+ cheaper
sources o) labour5
Fordism>post>Fordism
@>ordism@ describes the post0Aorld Aar It re+ime
o) accumulation based on mass production o)
standardi?ed products, coupled ith +roth o)
mass consumption5 &i+h a++re+ate demand as
maintained by institutional arran+ements
promotin+ hi+h a+es and a "eynesian state5
@Post0>ordism@ re)ers to the brea9don o) these
arran+ements since the mid0#'B0s, as a result o)
chan+es in technolo+y and international
competition5 In post0>ordism, production is more
decentrali?ed, speciali?ed, and Eexible and
re.uires ne institutional arran+ements to respond
to the pressures o) +lobali?ation5
Gender 1arriers
Obstacles to e.uality that may exist in the las,
norms, and practices o) a society and can be
identi8ed and removed5
Gender relations
7 society=s socially constructed relations beteen
omen and men5
Glo1al feminism
2he celebration o) diDerent )eminisms, +rounded in
the speci8cities o) omen=s multi)arious
experiences5 2his ill not occur until omen )rom
all racial +roups believe that )eminism reco+ni?es
their lived realities and incorporates those realities
into )eminist theories5
Glo1ali;ation
2he idea that the orld economy has reached a
ne level o) inte+ration5 &ei+htened capital
mobility ith +lobali?ation means that companies
operate orldide, creatin+ a @+lobal assembly
line@J +oods, capital, and, to a lesser extent, people
move around the +lobe5
Grand theories) or metanarratives
$rand theories, such as liberal and 6arxist
)rameor9s, claim universal validity and thus the
capacity to explain +lobal realities, particularly
modernity5
8"pothesis
7 supposition made as a startin+ point )or )urther
investi+ation5
(dentit"
7 cluster o) ideas and lan+ua+e or discourse that
de8nes the ay most people behave and thin9
about a subFect and that increasin+ly )orms the
bases o) maFor cleava+es amon+ people5
(deolog"
7ny body o) discourse that has the eDect o)
mas9in+ and sustainin+ poer relations and
ine.uality5
4a1eling
Reducin+ the complex experiences o) an individual
or +roup to one dimension, thereby controllin+
them more eDectively and ma9in+ it more diCcult
)or them to +ain credibility )or their on stru++les5
.etatheories) or metanarratives
#ee +rand theories, or metanarratives5
.etropole
2he capitalist countries that dominate the orld
economy, mostly )ound in Lurope and !orth
7merica in the #'10s and #'B0s5 #ee also
periphery5
.ode of prod2ction
2he or+ani?ation o) ealth creation in a society,
includin+ the technical @means o) production@ and
the @relations o) production,@ hich determine ho
controls production and ons the ealth produced5
.odel
7 +raphic representation o) the lin9s beteen
various phenomena and concepts on hich a
theory is based5
.2ltiple :eopardies
Racism, sexism, and classism simultaneously
experienced by omen )rom mar+inali?ed +roups,
especially visible minorities5 2his simultaneous
experience not only compounds these oppressions
but reconstitutes them in speci8c ays5
O1stacles to growth
Barriers that distort the @natural@ process o)
economic +roth5 I) this +roth does not occur,
then the obstacles or barriers must be identi8ed
and removed5
Patriarchal ideolog"
7 set o) ideas de8nin+ omen=s roles as diDerent
)rom, and subordinate to, those o) men5
Patriarch"
7 system o) male domination that is idespread
but historically speci8c and can vary over tune and
context5 Ori+inally, this term as used to describe
societies characteri?ed by @the rule o) the )ather,@
that is, the poer o) the husband or )ather over his
ives, children, and property5 2he term has no
come to re)er to the overall systemic character o)
oppressive and exploitative relations aDectin+
omen5
Peripher"
2he 2hird Aorld countries, characteri?ed by
underdeveloped economies and dependent
relations ith the metropole5 #ee also metropole5
Personal is political) the
2he vie that male domination and omen=s
resistance to male domination occur in both o) the
so0called public and private spheres5 2he concept
is o)ten associated ith radical )eminism5
Positivism
7 philosophical doctrine contendin+ that sense
perception is the only admissible basis o) human
9noled+e and precise thou+ht5 2his doctrine
became the basis o) a hierarchy o) 9noled+e
emphasi?in+ the sciences over theolo+ical or
metaphysical in.uiry5
Power
Personal, economical, political, or social
ascendancy and control exercised by one individual
or +roup over another5 O)ten this is most clearly
seen in relationships beteen people5 *iberal and
6arxist thin9ers associate poer ith control over
resources and institutions5 Postmodernists see
poer not as somethin+ held only by the rulin+
class but as somethin+ diDused throu+hout society,
exercised in many diverse ays by many diverse
people, and closely tied to control over 9noled+e
and discourse throu+h attitudes, perceptions, and
behaviour5
Prod2ction
Producin+ commodities )or the capitalist system
and producin+ the commodity @labour poer@ on a
+enerational basis5
Prod2ction relations
7 6arxist0derived concept that re)ers to the
or+ani?ation o) or9 and production amon+
+enders, classes, or other social +roupin+s in a
speci8c social and physical environment5
P21lic and private spheres
7 distinction de8nin+ the limits o) +overnmental
authority ith a vie to preservin+ individual
liberty5 Aomen have o)ten been associated ith
the private sphereJ men, ith the public one5
*ace
DiDerentiation o) human bein+s into various
subspecies5 2his is usually based on outard
physical 3or phenotypical4 )eatures, such as s9in
colour, )acial )eatures, and hair type5 6any social
scientists today reco+ni?e that race is de8ned
diDerently in diDerent societies and at diDerent
tunes and so is lar+ely socially determined5 2hey
pre)er, there)ore, to use the term ethnicity5 Race is
socially constructed and plays a crucial role in
omen=s experiences and opportunities5
*epresentation
7 term commonly used to re)er to an aspect o)
democratic processes that permits individuals or
+roups to select those ho ill carry )orard their
ideas and a+endas to hi+her authorities5 2he term
is used in a diDerent sense hi current theoretical
ritin+s to .uestion the poer relations implied by
havin+ one +roup convey in)ormation about
another +roup in authoritative ays that may deny
the people bein+ @represented@ the opportunity to
present their identity on their on terms5
*eprod2ction
2he biolo+ical reproduction o) children, that is,
childbirth and lactationJ the physical reproduction
o) the a+e labour )orce on a daily basis throu+h
domestic or9J and the social reproduction o) the
patriarchal capitalist system throu+h maintainin+
the ideolo+ical conditions that reproduce class and
+ender relations and the political and economic
status .uo5
*eserve arm" of la1o2r
*abour that is cheap and available )or capitalist
expansionJ acts to 9eep donard pressure on
a+esJ and includes unemployed or9ers and
potential a+e or9ers no doin+ domestic and
a+ricultural or95
*esistance
7ction or inaction, tal9 or silence, o)ten hidden or
covert, throu+h hich members o) oppressed
+roups indicate to themselves, each other, and,
more rarely, outsiders that they reFect the
conditions o) their oppression and the le+itimations
proDered by dominant +roups5
*estr2ct2ring
2he chan+es occurrin+ in companies and
economies as a result o) the rapidly chan+in+ orld
economy and hei+htened +lobal competition5 Both
economic )orces and policy choices shape
restructurin+5
Se/2al division of la1o2r
2he allocation o) tas9s and responsibilities in
society to omen and men5 In most ine+alitarian
societies, the tas9s allocated to omen have a
consistently loer value than those assi+ned to
men5
Social capital
7nythin+, other than capital, that enhances
economic per)ormance5
Social constr2ction of gender
2he social de8nition and determination o) ideas
and practices5 People socially de8ne and determine
and can there)ore chan+e the ideas and practices
related to )eminine and masculine characteristics,
activities, and ays o) relatin+ to one another5
StratiBcation
/tructured ine.ualities beteen +roups in society,
based on +ender, class, ethnicity, or other
distin+uishin+ characteristics5 7lthou+h systems o)
strati8cation have existed in virtually all societies,
si+ni8cant diDerences in ealth and poer emer+e
ithin state0based systems5
Take>oG
Period hen the barriers to development are 8nally
overcome and sel)0sustainin+ economic +roth can
be achieved5
Theor"
7 system o) ideas and principles )or explainin+ a
particular phenomenon5
Transnational corporations
Corporations that operate in many countries and
plan production, investment, and distribution
strate+ies across the borders o) nation0states5
his pa.e intentionally le/t blank
APPEND(L $ AC*ON9.S AND
A77*E6(AT(ONS
7CAA 7ssociated Country Aomen o) the Aorld
7ltAID 7lternative Aomen in Development S<nited /tatesT
C7>R7 Caribbean 7ssociation )or >eminist Research and 7ction
CO* Commonealth o) *earnin+
C/A Commission on the /tatus o) Aomen S<nited !ationsT
D7A! Development 7lternatives ith Aomen )or a !e Lra
LPI export0processin+ ?one
>OA >riends o) Aomen S2hailandT
$7D +ender and development
$7I2 $eneral 7+reement on 2ariDs and 2rade
$CID +ender concerns in development
$!P +ross national product
IDRC International Development Research Centre
I*O International *abour OCce
I6> International 6onetary >und
IA2C International Aomen=s 2ribune Centre
!7>27 !orth 7merican >ree 2rade 7+reement
!CA !ational Council o) Aomen
!$O non+overnmental or+ani?ation
!IC nely industriali?in+ country
/7P structural0adFustment pro+ram
/LA7 /el)0Lmployed Aomen=s 7ssociation SIndiaT
/I$7D /ummer Institute )or $ender and Development SCanadaT
276A7 2an?ania 6edia Aomen=s 7ssociation
2!C transnational corporation
<!C&R <nited !ations Commission on &uman Ri+hts
<!C/A <nited !ations Commission on the /tatus o) Aomen
<!LP <nited !ations Lnvironment Pro+ramme
<!I>L6 <nited !ations Development >und )or Aomen
</7ID <nited /tates 7+ency )or International Development
<AI <niversity o) the Aest Indies
A7D omen and development
A7!D Aomen and Development <nit S<AIT
AID omen in development
AAB Aomen=s Aorld Ban9in+
GAC7 Goun+ Aomen=s Christian 7ssociation
APPEND(L % CONT*(7=TO*S
A=T8O*S
7ar1ara 7aile" is a /enior *ecturer at the
<niversity o) the Aest Indies and has been actin+
as the Re+ional Coordinator o) the Centre )or
$ender and Development /tudies since #''15
Beteen #'80 and #''1, she as the /pecialist
*ecturer in Curriculum /tudies in the >aculty o)
Lducation5 Ahile there she also served as
Coordinator )or the Aomen and Development
/tudies Pro+ramme, beteen #'', and #''K5 Dr
Bailey has published in the area o) +ender and
education and its relationship to the social status
o) omen in Hamaica and the ider Caribbean
re+ion5
65 E2dine 7arritea2 is a *ecturer and &ead o) the
Centre )or $ender and Development /tudies at the
<niversity o) the Aest Indies, Cave &ill, Barbados5
/he has been involved in the research,
administration, and coordination o) re+ional
proFects in the Caribbean5 Currently, she is ritin+
on +ender and development plannin+ in the
postcolonial Caribbean and +ender and economic
relations5 &er most recent publication is
@Postmodernist >eminist 2heori?in+ and
Development Policy and Practice in the 7n+lophone
Caribbean@ in
%e)inis)FPost)odernis)F!e(elop)ent, edited by
6arianne &5 6archand and Hane *5 Parpart
3Routled+e, #''545
.5 Patricia Connell" is a Pro)essor Lmeritus at
/aint 6ary=s <niversity in &ali)ax, !ova /cotia,
Canada5 Dr Connelly is the author o) Last 4ired,
%irst %ired3 $o)en and the Canadian $ork %orce,
coauthor o) $o)en and the Labour %orce, and
coeditor o) %e)inis) in Action3 #tudies in Political
Econo)y5 /he has published numerous articles on
omen=s or95 &er current research is in the areas
o) social policy, economic restructurin+, and
+ender5
Elsa 4eo>*h"nie is a Pro)essor and Deputy
Principal o) the 6ona campus o) the <niversity o)
the Aest Indies5 /he has carried out research in
education ith a )ocus on +ender issues and
diDerences in sociali?ation and achievement o)
very youn+ children, as ell as youn+ adults5 Dr
*eo0Rhynie has authored or coauthored several
articles in boo9s and Fournals, the most recent
bein+ 'ender and Mainstrea)in. in Education, a
re)erence manual developed by the
Commonealth /ecretariat )or $overnments and
other sta9eholders5
Tania .2rra" 4i is an 7ssociate Pro)essor in the
Department o) /ociolo+y and /ocial 7nthropolo+y,
Dalhousie <niversity, &ali)ax, !ova /cotia, Canada5
/he teaches in the areas o) economic
anthropolo+y, development, )amily, and social
theory5 /he is the author o/ Malays in #in.apore3
Culture, Econo)y and +deolo.y 3Ox)ord <niversity
Press, #'8'45 &er current research )ocuses on
class0and +ender0structurin+ issues in the context
o) a+rarian trans)ormation in the Indonesian
uplands5
.artha .acDonald is a Pro)essor in the
Lconomics Department at /aint 6ary=s <niversity
in &ali)ax, !ova /cotia, Canada5 Dr 6acDonald is
coauthor o) $o)en and the Labour %orce5 &er
research and publications are in the area o) omen
and the economyJ her recent or9 is on +ender
and economic restructurin+ and )eminist
economics5 /he is Mice0President o) the
International 7ssociation )or >eminist Lconomics5
.a/ine .cClean is a *ecturer in the Department
o) 6ana+ement /tudies at the Cave &ill campus o)
the <niversity o) the Aest Indies, here she
teaches mar9etin+, strate+ic mana+ement, and
entrepreneurship5 7 )ormer Coordinator o) the
Aomen and Development /tudies $roup at Cave
&ill, she has published in the areas o) strate+ic
mana+ement in small businesses in Barbados and
credit unions5 Aith Diane Cummins, she is
completin+ a mono+raph on entrepreneurship in
Barbados, and currently she is carryin+ out a study
on omen in microenterprises in Barbados5
3eanette .orris is currently &ead o) the /chool o)
Lducation, <niversity o) the Aest Indies, /t
7u+ustine5 /he is a *ecturer in the 2eachin+ o)
6odern *an+ua+es and teaches a post+raduate
course in .ualitative research methods5 /he is a
resource person )or modern lan+ua+es ith the
Caribbean Lxaminations Council and as a
Coordinator o) the Aomen and Development
/tudies $roup on the /t 7u+ustine campus5 /he is
a member o) the Caribbean /tudies 7ssociation,
the 7merican Lducational Research 7ssociation,
and the 7merican Council on the 2eachin+ o)
>orei+n *an+ua+es5 &er research interests lie in the
area o) +ender issues in education and )orei+n0
lan+ua+e education5
3ane 45 Parpart is a Pro)essor o) &istory, Aomen=s
/tudies, and International Development /tudies at
Dalhousie <niversity, &ali)ax, !ova /cotia, Canada5
Dr Parpart is the author o) Labour and Capital on
the A/rican Copperbelt and the coeditor o) several
boo9s on omen, development, and 7)rica5 /he
coedited a collection, entitled
%e)inis)FPost)odernis)F!e(elop)ent
3Routled+e, #''54, ith 6arianne 6archand5 /he is
involved in research and teachin+ on +ender and
development theory, as ell as on the issues o)
+ender and the construction o) a middle0class
identity in southern 7)rica5
*hoda *eddock is &ead and /enior *ecturer at
the Centre )or $ender and Development /tudies o)
the <niversity o) the Aest Indies, /t 7u+ustine5 7t
the time o) ritin+, she as a *ecturer in the
Department o) /ociolo+y5 Dr Reddoc9 is a omen=s
activist and the author o) numerous publications,
includin+ $o)en, Labour and Politics in rinidad
and oba.o3 A 4istory5
Anne S5 !alker has been the Lxecutive Director
o) the International Aomen=s 2ribune Centre 3IA2C4
since its inception in #'B1, a year a)ter the to
international Aomen=s Gear meetin+s held in
6exico City5 7 )eminist, activist, educationist, artist,
and riter, Dr Aal9er has spearheaded IA2C=s
support )or omen=s initiatives ith a pro+ram o)
technical assistance and trainin+J collaborative
proFectsJ s9ills0sharin+J and the collection,
production, and dissemination o) in)ormation on a
ide ran+e o) omen and development issues5 Dr
Aal9er or9s collaboratively ith omen=s +roups
in 7)rica, 7sia, *atin 7merica and the Caribbean,
the 6iddle Last, and the Paci8c to advance the
status o) omen5
his pa.e intentionally le/t blank
A1o2t the (nstit2tion
2he International Development Research Centre
3IDRC4 is committed to buildin+ a sustainable and
e.uitable orld5 IDRC )unds developin+0orld
researchers, thus enablin+ the people o) the /outh
to 8nd their on solutions to their on problems5
IDRC also maintains in)ormation netor9s and
)or+es lin9a+es that allo Canadians and their
developin+0orld partners to bene8t e.ually )rom a
+lobal sharin+ o) 9noled+e5 2hrou+h its actions,
IDRC is helpin+ others to help themselves5
A1o2t the P21lisher
IDRC Boo9s publishes research results and
scholarly studies on +lobal and re+ional issues
related to sustainable and e.uitable development5
7s a specialist in development literature, IDRC
Boo9s contributes to the body o) 9noled+e on
these issues to )urther the cause o) +lobal
understandin+ and e.uity5 IDRC publications are
sold throu+h its head oCce in Ottaa, Canada, as
ell as by IDRC=s a+ents and distributors around
the orld5 2he )ull catalo+ue is available at
http-::5idrc5ca:boo9ti.ue:5