Question No 1:

Definitions
1) Protocol: IP (Internet Protocol) is the primary network protocol used on the Internet,
developed in the 1970s. Data on an Internet Protocol network is organized into packets. Each
IP packet includes both a header (that specifies source, destination, and other information
about the data) and the message data itself.
2) Point to Point connection: a point-to-point connection refers to a communications
connection between two nodes or endpoints. An example is a telephone call, in which one
telephone is connected with one other, and what is said by one caller can only be heard by
the other.
3) Multipoint Connection: A connection between more than two data stations via one or more
other intermediate stations. Or A connection between more than two data stations via one or
more other intermediate stations.
4) Text: In information technology, text is a human-readable sequence of characters and the
words they form that can be encoded. In data communications, text is represented as a bit
pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or Is). Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to
represent text symbols. Each set is called a code, and the process of representing symbols
is called coding
5) Images: An image is a visual representation of something or in case of computer system an
image is an exact replica of the contents of a storage device (a hard disk drive or CD-ROM for
example) stored on a second storage device. Images are also represented by bit patterns. In
its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each
pixel is a small dot.
6) Numbers: Mathematical representation. In computer everything is represented in the form of
numbers, back end processing is done by converting images, text into binary number
sequences. Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is
not used to represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to
simplify mathematical operations
7) Message: a message can be the unit of information or data that is transmitted from one
program or user to another Or a message is data in a specified format that describes an event, a
request, or a reply between programs.
8) DataCommunication:
electronic transmission of information that has been encoded digitally (as for storage andproces
sing by computers)
9) Bandwidth: bandwidth is the width of the range (or band) of frequencies that an
electronic signal uses on a given transmission medium. In this usage, bandwidth is expressed
in terms of the difference between the highest-frequency signal component and the lowest-
frequency signal component. A typical voice signal has a bandwidth of approximately three
kilohertz (3 kHz)
10) Noise: Noise is unwanted electrical or electromagnetic energy that degrades the quality of
signals and data. Noise occurs in digital and analog systems, and can affect files and
communications of all type
Qusetion No 2
Analog Signal Digital Signal
Analog signal is a continuous signal which
represents physical measurements.
Digital signals are discrete time signals
generated by digital modulation.
Analog is conveyed by electrical current
variations
Digital signals are relayed as a series of values
that a device can read, such as a digital
television.
analog signal degrades over time and space and
are slow.
digital is faster and more efficient than analog

Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex
a network cable or
communications channel
can only send information
in one direction; it's a one-
way street.
capable of sending
information in both
directions between two
nodes, but only one
direction or the other can
be utilized at a time
a connection between two
devices is capable of
sending data in both
directions simultaneously


Question No 3
Data communication:
Data communications means the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable
Characteristics of Data Communication
data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness,
and jitter.
1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the
intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless.
In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the
same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called
real-time transmission.
4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every
3D ms. If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven
quality in the video is the result.
Communication block diagram



The functions of the each systems are described here.

Transmitter:
Transmitter is the first component in this block diagram. Using this system we can generate the
messages which is to be sent through this system.
Encoder:
Encoder is the second element in the communication system. It performs the encoding of the given
data, which means that this system converts the messages in the form of symbols for transmission
purpose. In this system, a sequence of characters are created in a special format for an effective
transmission. This encoding system is used for security purpose.
Noisy Channel:
This is the third block in the block diagram of communication system. Noisy channel is nothing but
the medium through which the message is transmitted. Messages are conveyed through this
channel. Different channels have different strengths and weaknesses. Each channel has its own
frequency and different applications have different operating frequencies.
Decoder:
Decoder is used to decode the encoded message and retrieve the actual message. Decoding must
be done correctly . If this part is not performed well then the message which is received might not be
correct
This encoding and decoding will be very help full in military and mobile communications.
Receiver:
This is the final block in block diagram of communication system. This can be said as the target to
which the information need to be delivered.

Question No 4


The seven ISO layers are explained in more detail below:
Layer 7 The application layer: This is the layer at which communication partners are identified, quality of service is
identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified. (This
layer is not the application itself, although some applications may perform application layer functions). It represents
the services that directly support applications such as software for file transfers, database access, email, and network
games.
Layer 6The presentation layer: This is a layer, usually part of an operating system, that converts incoming and
outgoing data from one presentation format to another (for example, from a text stream into a popup window with the
newly arrived text). This layer also manages security issues by providing services such as data encryption and
compression. Its sometimes called the syntax layer.
Layer 5The session layer: This layer allows applications on different computers to establish, use, and end a
session/connection. This layer establishes dialog control between the two computers in a session, regulating which
side transmits, and when and how long it transmits.
Layer 4The transport layer: This layer handles error recognition and recovery, manages the end-to-end control (for
example, determining whether all packets have arrived) and error-checking. It ensures complete data transfer.
Layer 3The network layer: This layer handles the routing of the data, addresses messages and translates logical
addresses and names into physical addresses. It also determines the route from the source to the destination
computer and manages traffic problems (flow control), such as switching, routing, and controlling the congestion of
data packets.
Layer 2The data-link layer: This layer package raw bit from the Physical layer into frames (logical, structures packets
for data). It is responsible for transferring frames from one computer to another, without errors. After sending a frame,
it waits for an acknowledgment from the receiving computer.
Layer 1The physical layer: This layer transmits bits from one computer to another and regulates the transmission of
a stream of bits over a physical medium. This layer defines how the cable is attached to the network adapter and what
transmission technique is used to send data over the cable.



Question No. 5
Topology: Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of
a computer network. Essentially, it is the topological structure of a network, and may be depicted
physically or logically.
Physical topology is the placement of the various components of a network, including device location
and cable installation, while logical topology illustrates how data flows within a network, regardless of
its physical design. Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates, or signal
types may differ between two networks, yet their topologies may be identical.
Mesh Topology
In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer and other devices, are
interconnected with one another. Every node not only sends its own signals but also relays data
from other nodes. In fact a true mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every
other node in the network. This type of topology is very expensive as there are many redundant
connections, thus it is not mostly used in computer networks. It is commonly used in wireless
networks. Flooding or routing technique is used in mesh topology.

Advantages
Traffic Abundance
Due to the fact that every connected device to a mesh topology is a node, a mesh topology can
withstand high amounts of traffic. Also the interconnection of many devices at once also means that
simultaneous transfers do not hinder or affect the network in anyway.
Reliability
Mesh topologies do not collapse if a single node disconnects or has connection issues. This is because
each node is singularly connected to many different ones. One device falling off the network will not
affect file transfers as this topology will allow your connection to find alternatives very quickly.
Ever growing
Mesh topologies arent affected by size or a shortage of users. As previously stated the internet
functions on the mesh topology. The internet is constantly growing with more and more devices
connecting and information being flooded into the network. This creates a large hub of data and
useful information that many users connected to the network can avail.
Disadvantages

Highly expensive
The layout of a mesh topology requires constant supervision and is very expensive to implement.
However once implemented a mesh topology can bring back a lot of the lost revenue.
High maintenance
Mesh topologies are very hard to maintain and manage. They require constant supervision due to
redundancies and failures in the network. However a capable team of administrators can manage a
mesh topology without too much of a hassle