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f
=
P
f
A
f
=
215 lb
0.02 in
2
= 10.75 ksi
The stress in the matrix is calculated in a similar manner. It is found that the load is
285 lb, the area is 0.08 in
2
, and therefore the stress is 3.5 ksi.
9.41 Repeat the calculations in Example 9.1 if (a) Nextel 610 ber is used and
(b) Spectra 2000 is used.
The dierence between these two problems is the stiness of the bers. For high-modulus
carbon bers, E = 415 GPa, while for Kevlar 29, E = 62 GPa. Using the same approach
as in Example 9.1 on p. 225, for high-modulus carbon bers we have
E
c
= (0.2)(415 GPa) + (1 0.2)(100 GPa) = 163 GPa
and
P
f
P
m
= 0.2
(415)
0.8(100)
= 1.0375
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Composite Materials: Structure, General Properties, and Applications 108
Therefore, P
f
= 0.51P
c
. For the Kevlar, E
c
= 92.4 GPa, P
f
/P
m
= 0.155, or P
f
= 0.13P
c
.
9.42 Refer to the properties listed in Table 7.1. If acetal is reinforced with E-type
glass bers, what is the range of ber content in glass-reinforced acetal?
For E-type glass bers, the elastic modulus is obtained from Table 9.2 on p. 220 as 73
GPa. Acetal has an elastic modulus between 1.4 and 3.5 GPa, while for reinforced acetal
the modulus is listed as 10 GPa. If a composite is made with acetal and E-type glass
bers, its stiness is given by Eq. (9.5) on p. 225, which can be solved for the volume
fraction of bers, x. For example, for the less sti acetal:
E
c
= 10 GPa = xE
f
+ (1 x)E
m
= x(73 GPa) + (1 x)(1.4 GPa) x = 0.12
or 12%. Using the same equation for sti acetal, we have x = 0.093, or 9.3%.
9.43 Plot the elastic modulus and strength of an aluminum metal-matrix compos-
ite with high-modulus carbon bers, as a function of ber content.
The stiness of high-modulus carbon bers is 415 GPa (see Table 9.2 on p. 220), while
the stiness of aluminum is 69 GPa (Table 2.2 on p. 59). The stiness is given by Eq.
(9.5):
E
c
= xE
f
+ (1 x)E
m
= x(415 GPa) + (1 x)(69 GPa) = (346 GPa)x + 69 GPa
The plot is shown below.
E
l
a
s
t
i
c
m
o
d
u
l
u
s
(
G
P
a
)
0
150
300
450
Volume fraction of fibers, x
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
9.44 For the data in Example 9.1, what should be the ber content so that the
bers and the matrix fail simultaneously? Use an allowable ber stress of
200 MPa and a matrix strength of 30 MPa.
The stress in the bers is given by
f
= P
f
/A
f
= P
f
/(xA
c
). The stress in the matrix is
m
=
P
m
A
m
=
1
1 x
P
m
A
c
Also, from Eq. (9.4) on p. 244:
P
f
=
A
f
E
f
A
m
E
m
P
m
=
xA
c
E
f
(1 x)A
c
E
m
P
m
=
x
1 x
E
f
E
m
P
m
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the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction ,storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
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Composite Materials: Structure, General Properties, and Applications 109
Substituting into the equation for ber stress gives
f
=
P
f
xA
c
=
1
1 x
E
f
E
m
P
m
A
c
Substituting E
f
/E
m
= 3,
f
= 200 MPa, and
m
= 50 MPa yields two equations (for
m
and
f
) and two unknowns (x and P
m
/A
c
). These are solved numerically to give a
value of x = 0.57.
9.45 It is desired to obtain a composite material with a target stiness of 10
GPa. If a high strength carbon ber is to be used, determine the required
ber volume if the matrix is (a) nylon, (b) polyester, (c) acetal, and (d)
polyethylene.
From Table 9.2, E
f
= 275 GPa, and from Table 7.1, E
nylon
= 2.1 GPa, E
polyester
= 2
GPa, E
acetal
= 2.45 GPa and E
polyethylene
= 0.25 GPa, where average values have been
taken when Table 7.1 gives a range of stinesses. From Eq. (9.5) on p. 223,
E
c
= 10 GPa = xE
f
+ (1 x)E
m
Therefore:
for nylon,
10 = x(275) + (1 x)(2.1)
or x = 2.89%.
for polyester,
10 = x(275) + (1 x)(2)
or x = 2.93%
for acetal,
10 = x(275) + (1 x)(2.45)
or x = 2.77%
for polyethylene,
10 = x(275) + (1 x)(0.25)
or x = 3.55%
9.46 A rectangular cantilever beam, 100 mm high, 20 mm wide, and 1 m long,
is subjected to a concentrated load of 50 kg at its end. (a) Consider a
polymer reinforced with high modulus carbon bers, with a ber volume
ratio of x = 10%. What is the maximum deection of the beam if the matrix
material is polyester? (b) Obtain the deection of the beam if aluminum or
steel was used, for the same beam dimensions. (c) What ber volume ratio
is needed to produce the same deection as the aluminum or steel beams?
(d) Determine the weight of the beams considered in parts (b) and (c), and
compare them.
For a cantilever, the maximum deection can be derived or looked up in a solid mechanics
textbook, and is
y
max
=
Fl
3
3EI
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the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction ,storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
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Composite Materials: Structure, General Properties, and Applications 110
where
I =
1
12
bh
3
=
1
12
(0.020)(0.10)
3
= 2.0 10
5
m
4
F = 50 kg = 490.5 N
and l = 1 m.
i. For high modulus bers, E = 415 GPa from Table 9.1 on p. 218. From Table 7.1
for polyester, E=2 GPa. From Eq. (9.5),
E
c
= xE
f
(1 x)E
m
= (0.10)(415) + (0.90)(2) = 43.3 GPa
Therefore, the deection is
y =
(490.5)(1)
3
3(43.3 10
9
)(2.0 10
5
)
= 0.0001888 = 0.189 mm
ii. This solution will use aluminum, but the same approach can be used for steel. Noting
that E = 70 GPa from Table 2.1, then the deection is
y =
(490.5)(1)
3
3(70 10
9
)(2.0 10
5
)
= 0.117 mm
iii. To obtain the same deection, one needs to design the composite to have the same
stiness as aluminum, so that E = 70 GPa. Therefore, from Eq. (9.5),
70 = x(415) + (1 x)(2)
or x = 0.165 = 16.5%.
iv. From Table 3.1, the density of aluminum is = 2700 kg/m
3
. The volume of the
cantilever is
V = (0.1)(0.02)(1) = 0.002 m
3
Therefore, the beam weighs (2700)(0.002) = 5.4 kg, or 53.0 N.
SYNTHESIS, DESIGN AND PROJECTS
9.47 What applications for composite materials can you think of in addition to
those given in Section 9.4? Why do you think your applications would be
suitable for these materials?
By the student. Other components that could benet from the weight savings oered
by graphite-epoxy reinforced plastics are landing-gear doors, fuselage doors, and cowl
components of the engine.
9.48 Using the information given in this chapter, develop special designs and
shapes for possible new applications of composite materials.
By the student. The approaches may include examining a particular component and
reproducing the geometry using a composite material. Alternatively, one can select a
particular aspect of composites (such as high strength-to-weight and stiness-to-weight
ratios) and design a product, such as a desk or sports equipment that is very lightweight.
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Composite Materials: Structure, General Properties, and Applications 111
9.49 Would a composite material with a strong and sti matrix and a soft and
exible reinforcement have any practical uses? Explain.
By the student. This type of composite probably will have a higher toughness than
the matrix alone, since the soft and exible reinforcement material could blunt a prop-
agating crack. However, its usefulness would depend on whether or not it has a higher
combination of strength and toughness than that of a composite with a ductile matrix
and strong reinforcement.
9.50 Make a list of products for which the use of composite materials could be
advantageous because of their anisotropic properties.
By the student. Some products where anisotropic properties of composites can be useful
are: cables, packing tape (where the ber is oriented to prevent boxes from opening
and generates a circumferential reinforcement), pressure vessels, tubing, and tires (steel-
belted radials).
9.51 Inspect Fig. 9.1 and explain what other components of an aircraft, including
the cabin, could be made of composites.
By the student. Other applications for composites in airplanes could be fuselage doors,
seats, overhead storage compartments, and trays and their brackets.
9.52 Name applications in which both specic strength and specic stiness are
important.
By the student. Specic strength and specic modulus are important in applications
where the material should be light and possess high strength and stiness. A few possible
applications are structural components for aircraft, helicopter blades, and automobile
body panels.
9.53 What applications for composite materials can you think of in which high
thermal conductivity would be desirable? Explain.
By the student. Composites with high thermal conductivity would be important for
applications such as heat exchangers (such as car radiators) and heat extractors in
nuclear reaction chambers.
9.54 As with other materials, the mechanical properties of composites are ob-
tained by preparing appropriate specimens and then testing them. Explain
what problems you might encounter in preparing such specimens for testing
in tension. Suggest methods for making appropriate specimens, including
their shape and how they would be clamped into the jaws of testing ma-
chines.
By the student. Testing composite materials is challenging because of the potential for
anisotropic behavior, which may lead to signicant warpage during the test. Better ap-
proaches would involve measuring deformations in more than one direction (as opposed
to conventional tests where typically only the longitudinal strain is measured). Tradi-
tional tensile specimens (see Fig. 2.1a on p. 57) can be used if no other strains are to be
measured, or if the ber orientation is known.
9.55 Developments are taking place in techniques for three-dimensional reinforce-
ment of composites. Describe (a) applications in which strength in the thick-
ness direction of the composite is important and (b) your ideas on how to
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Composite Materials: Structure, General Properties, and Applications 112
achieve this strength. Include simple sketches of the structure utilizing such
reinforced plastics.
The thickness direction is important in, for example, thick-walled pressure vessels. These
thick-walled pipes are common for high-pressure service of hydraulic uids, as well as for
residential water service. Radial reinforcement can be imparted using properly oriented,
discontinuous bers.
9.56 Design and describe a test method to determine the mechanical properties
of reinforced plastics in their thickness direction. (Note, for example, that
plywood is weak in its thickness direction.)
By the student. This is a very dicult problem with many potential answers, but with no
obvious answers. The mechanical properties in the thickness direction are very dicult to
measure because of the small thickness as compared with the surface area of a specimen.
An acceptable approach may be to derive the properties in the thickness direction by
performing tests in the other principal directions, and then applying a known failure
criterion.
9.57 As described in this chapter, reinforced plastics can be adversely aected by
the environmentin particular, moisture, chemicals, and temperature varia-
tions. Design and describe test methods to determine the mechanical prop-
erties of composite materials subjected to these environmental conditions.
By the student. Even simple experiments, such as tension tests, are suitable if they are
conducted in a controlled atmosphere. Chambers are commonly installed around test
specimens for such environmentally-controlled testing.
9.58 Comment on your observations on the design of the sailboard illustrated in
Fig. 9.8.
By the student. A number of observations are possible, including the use of a honeycomb
structure for light weight and sti performance, protected by an exterior skin. There
are several layers in the surf board, each for dierent reasons, such as wear resistance,
stiness, and toughness.
9.59 Make a survey of various sports equipment and identify the components
made of composite materials. Explain the reasons for and the advantages of
using composites in these specic applications.
By the student. Examples include rackets for tennis, badminton, and racquetball; base-
ball and softball bats; golf clubs; shing rods; and skis and ski poles. The main reason is
the light weight of these materials, combined with high stiness and strength, resulting
in superior performance.
9.60 Several material combinations and structures were described in this chap-
ter. In relative terms, identify those that would be suitable for applications
involving each of the following: (a) very low temperatures, (b) very high
temperatures, (c) vibrations, and (d) high humidity.
This is an open-ended problem with a large number of possible answers. Examples of
acceptable answers are:
i. At very low temperatures, most materials become brittle. One of the concerns with
a composite material is the eect of thermal strains, which would suggest selecting
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Composite Materials: Structure, General Properties, and Applications 113
a material with closely-matched thermal expansion coecients for ber and matrix
(see Section 3.6 on p. 93).
ii. For very high temperatures, ceramic-matrix composites are the superior choice, as
discussed in this chapter.
iii. In an environment where vibration is a concern, any composite is a good choice
because of damping due to energy dissipation at the matrix-ber interfaces.
iv. High humidity applications can utilize any of the materials described in this chapter,
except for polymeric matrices, such as nylons, which are hygroscopic.
9.61 Obtain a textbook on composite materials, and investigate the eective sti-
ness of a continuous ber-reinforced polymer. Plot the stiness of such a
composite as a function of orientation with respect to the ber direction.
For this case, let the subscripts m refer to the matrix and f to the ber. A temperature
increase in the composite causes a strain of
c
=
c
T; this strain is also the strain
encountered by both the ber and the matrix. We can then write:
f
=
f
T +P
t
/A
f
E
f
m
=
m
T +P
t
/A
m
E
m
where P
t
is an internal force which develops to ensure the ber and matrix have the
same strain. Since
f
=
m
, these equations can be equated to each other to obtain an
expression for P
t
:
f
T +
P
t
A
f
E
f
=
m
T +
P
t
A
m
E
m
P
t
=
(
m
f
)T
1
A
f
E
f
1
A
m
E
m
Now, by equating
c
to either
f
or
m
we obtain:
c
=
A
m
E
m
m
A
f
E
f
f
A
m
E
m
A
f
E
f
9.62 It is possible to make bers or whiskers with a varying cross section, or a
wavy ber. What advantages would such bers have?
A common failure mode for ber-reinforced polymers is the delamination of the ber
from the matrix. It is not uncommon for a relatively small stress to cause failure of the
interface between the ber and the matrix because of low adhesion between these two
materials. By using wavy bers, the strength of the ber/matrix interface is increased
by mechanical interference (locking) between the bers and the matrix. There is also a
larger interfacial area along which adhesion can take place, thus improving the interfacial
strength.
9.63 Describe how you can produce some simple composite materials using raw
materials that are available around a home. Explain.
By the student. For example, a composite material can be produced simply by mixing
common household glue with sewing thread, or by gluing several layers of fabric together.
Other examples include chocolate-chip cookies (with nuts), marbled rye bread, cement
mixed with wire reinforcement, and putty mixed with small nails.
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the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction ,storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
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Composite Materials: Structure, General Properties, and Applications 114
9.64 Gel spinning is a specialized process used in making bers with high strength
or special properties. Search the technical literature, and write a brief paper
on this subject.
By the student. Gel spinning is a special process used to obtain high strength or special
ber properties. The polymer is not completely melted or dissolved in liquid, but the
molecules are bound together at various points in liquid-crystal form. This operation
produces strong inter-chain forces in the resulting laments, that can signicantly in-
crease the tensile strength of the bers. In addition, the liquid crystals are aligned along
the ber axis by the strain encountered during extrusion. The laments emerge from
the spinneret with an unusually high degree of orientation relative to each other, further
enhancing strength. This process is also called dry-wet spinning, because the laments
rst pass through air and then are cooled further in a liquid bath. Some high-strength
polyethylene and aramid bers are produced by gel spinning.
9.65 Figure P9.65 shows a section of a three-dimensional weave that uses a binder
yarn to tie layers of bers together. Conduct a literature search, and deter-
mine the advantages and limitations of using three-dimensional weaves as
reinforcements in composite materials.
By the student. This is a challenging topic, requiring literature search. An example of
an orthogonal three-dimensional weave is shown in the accompanying gure, to give a
perspective to the items listed below.
In general, the following comments can be made regarding three-dimensional weaves as
compared to laminate composites:
The through-thickness properties can be tailored for a particular application and
can be superior for 3D-weaves.
3D woven composites have a higher delamination resistance and impact damage
tolerance than 2D laminated composites.
Dierent materials can be blended into a ber prior to weaving. Indeed, most
clothing involves blends of polymers or of polymers and natural bers such as cotton
or linen.
The size of the weave can be varied more easily to allow for changes in the structure
of such a material.
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the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction ,storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
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Composite Materials: Structure, General Properties, and Applications 115
3D woven composites are more dicult and expensive to manufacture than 2D
composites produced from laminated materials.
3D woven composites have lower mechanical properties than laminated composites.
2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from
the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction ,storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
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