THE REACTIVE POWER AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN POWER

GENERATION, TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION

A mini project submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirement for the Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
of the
Jawaharlal Nehr Te!h"#l#$%!al U"%&er'%()
Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
By
Name Regd. no
. D. Anuroop Reddy !"H#A!$!
$. Dharam %anthosh &umar !"H#A!$$
'. Narayan %el(am Harinath !"H#A!$')
). N. %hi(a &ishore !*H#A+$#
,nder -steemed .uidance of
&oyi %rini(as Rao
Assistant Di(isional -ngineer
$$!&/ %%, %hapurnagar
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
CMR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
*a"+la,#)a, Me+!hal R#a+, H)+era-a+./012013
A3P3 INDIA3
4011.14
CERTIFICATE
0his is to certify that the project entitled
THE REACTIVE AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN POWER
GENERATION, TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION
%ubmitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
of the Jawaharlal Nehr Te!h"#l#$%!al U"%&er'%() Hyderabad,
Andhra Pradesh is record of bonafied 1or2 carried out by
Name Regd. no
. D. Anuroop Reddy !"H#A!$!
$. Dharam %anthosh &umar !"H#A!$$
'. Narayan %el(am Harinath !"H#A!$')
). N. %hi(a &ishore !*H#A+$#
3ollege4 CMR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
*#"+la,#)a, Me+!hal R#a+, H)+era-a+ 5 /012013
,nder our super(ision and guidance of
&oyi %rini(as Rao
Assistant Di(isional -ngineer
$$!&/ %%, %hapurnagar
Head of the Department -5ternal -5aminer
A!,"#wle+$6e"(
6ith great pleasure 1e 1ant to ta2e this opportunity to e5press our
heartfelt gratitude to all the people 1ho helped in ma2ing this project 1or2 a
grand success.
6e are (ery much than2ful to 7r. 8-5ternal .uide9 for gi(ing us this
opportunity to do this project. 1e e5press our deep sense of gratitude to 7r.
8-5ternal .uide9 for his constant guidance throughout our project 1or2.
:irst of all 1e 1ould li2e to than2 7r. ..De(a Das, Head of the
Department of -lectrical ; -lectronics -ngineering, for being moral support
throughout the period of our study in 37R3-0.
6e are highly indebted to Principal Prof. 7. Ramalinga Reddy, for
gi(ing us the permission to carry out this project.
6e 1ould li2e to than2 the 0eaching ; Non< teaching staff of
Department of -lectrical ; -lectronics -ngineering for sharing their
2no1ledge 1ith us.
=ast but not the least> 1e e5press our sincere than2s to 7r. 3h. .opal
Reddy, %ecretary, 37R group of institutions, for his continuous care to1ards
our achie(ements.
7r. D. Anuroop Reddy
7r. Dharam %anthosh 2umar
7r. Narayan %el(am Harianth
7r. N. %hi(a &ishore
=?%0 +: :?.,R-%
%.N+ :?..N+ D-%3R?P0?+N PA.-
N+
$. Po1er 0riangle
$
$ $.$ Beer<7ug analogy
)
' '. %ingle 8fi5ed9 po1er factor correction
!
) '.$ .roup po1er factor correction

# '.' Bul2 compensation

$
@ ). /oltage collapse
$)
* #. 0he sources and sin2s of reacti(e po1er
'
" *. An electric motor requires acti(e po1er P and reacti(e po1er A
from the po1er system
')
B *.$ 0he Nature +f Reacti(e -nergy
'#
! B. ?ndi(idual compensation
)!
B.$ 3entraliCed compensation
)$
$ B.'
0ransformer reactance per phase ))
' B.)
Reacti(e po1er absorption by series inductance )#
) B.# Po1er transmission system4 8a9 simplified model> 8b9 phase diagram
)@
# B.@ 0ransmission system 1ith shunt compensation4 8a9 simplified
model> 8b9 phase diagram> 8c9 po1er<angle cur(e
)"
@ B.* 0ransmission system 1ith series compensation4 8a9 simplified
model> 8b9 phase diagram> 8c9 po1er<angle cur(e
#!
* B." Phasor diagram of impro(ing po1er factor
#$
" B.B principle of automatic compensation of an installation
#'
B B.! .lobal compensation
##,#@
$! B. 3ompensation by sector
#*,#"
$ B.$ ?ndi(idual compensation
@!
$$ B.'8a9 A .c. generator supplying a load
@$
$' B.'8b9 0he phasor diagram 1hen the line is deli(ering a comple5 po1er of
8P D j A9 /A
@#
$) B.'8c9 0he phasor diagram 1hen the line is deli(ering a comple5 po1er of
8P D j A9 /A i.e. 1ith the load fully compensated
@'
$# B.)8a9 =ong distribution feeder supplying a concentrated load
@$
$@ B.)8b9
Along feeder 1hich supplies heart for city from a sEs located a1ay
from the city. 0his feeder can be appro5imated by feeder ' for
compensation studies
@#
$* B.#
Reacti(edemand daily cur(e as a typical feeder sho1ing the
capacitor compensation requirements 89fi5ed capacitor 8$9time
s1itched capacitor 8'9 (oltage s1itched capacitor.
@*
$" B.@ 3apacitor ,nit.
@B
$B B.* -5ternally fused shunt capacitor ban2 and capacitor unit.
*!
'! B." ?nternally fused shunt capacitor ban2 and capacitor unit.
*$
' B.B :use less shunt capacitor ban2 and series string
*'
'$ B.$! /oltage differential application to grounded 8a9and ungrounded 8b9
ban2s.
*#
'' B.$
8a9typical &/ distributions 8b9 the abo(e feeder 1ith leads
aggregated
"$
') B.$$ 8a9 ,niformly loaded feeder 1ith lumped sum load at the end
8b9Reacti(e current distributors is the feeder in B.$8a9
")
'# B.$'
Reduction of declared ma5imum 2/A by po1er<factor impro(ement
B)
'@ B.$) %eries compensation in a substation
B@
'* B.$# 3ircuit diagrams and Phasor diagram of series compensation
B@
'" B.$@ :i5ed %eries 3apacitor 8:%39
B*
'B B.$* %eries<connected :A30% controllers4 8a9 03%R and 0%%R> 8b9
0%%3> 8c9 %%%3
!!
)! B.$" 0hyristor F 3ontrolled %eries 3apacitor 803%39
!
) B.$B 0hyristor F Protected %eries 3apacitor 80P%39
!$
)$ B.'! %tatic compensator in a substation
!#
)' B.' 3ircuit diagram of static compensator
!@
)) B.'$ %/3 plus
!*
)# B.'' %/3 plus
!"
)@ B.') Reacti(e po1er (s system (oltsge
!B
)* B.'# %0A03+7 topologies4 8a9 %0A03+7 based on /%? and 3%? 8b9
%0A03+7 1ith storage
!
)" B.'@ /<? characteristics of %/3 and %0A03+74 8a9 %/3> 8b9 %0A03+7

)B B.'* Basic configuration of %%%3 8$9 equi(alent circuit of %%%c

)
#!
B.'"
%ho1s an e5ample of a simple po1er transmission system 1ith an
%%%3 operating both in inducti(e and capaciti(e modes, and related
phasor diagrams.
@
#
B.'B 7echanical %1itched 3apacitor 87%3E7%3DN9
"
#$ B.)! -qui(alent circuit 7echanical %1itched 3apacitor 87%3E7%3DN9
$!
#' B.) .i(es a graphic illustration of the (ariation of (V, I) as a function of
Qc.
$@

=?%0 +: 0AB=-%
%.N+ 0AB=-
N+
D-%3R?P0?+N PA.-
N+

'. Ad(antages and disad(antages of P:3 methods

$'
$
B. Appro5imate (alues of reacti(e po1er
)
'
B.$
Reacti(e po1er compensation methods
B)
)
B.' 0he impact on the short<circuit le(el, the transmission phase
angle and the (oltage after load rejection
B@
#
!. ?nitial readings of 76H, 7/ARH, 7/AH of Po1er
0ransformer 8"!7/A, #!7/A, #!7/A9.
'
@
!. final readings of 76H, 7/ARH, 7/AH of Po1er 0ransformer
8"!7/A, #!7/A, #!7/A9.
'

3+N0-N0%
3HAP0-R
N+
D-%3R?P0?+N PA.-N+
?ntroduction
$ Reacti(e po1er $
' Po1er :actor 3oncepts @
) 6hy 6hy do 1e need to impro(e reacti(e po1erG $)
# 0he %ources of Reacti(e po1er '!
@ Different types of reacti(e po1er '
*
0he importance of reacti(e po1er in Po1er
.eneration, 0ransmission ; Distribution
''
"
Reacti(e Po1er =imitations and its disad(antages '"
B
3ompensation of Reacti(e Po1er 'B
!
3ase study '

3onclusion ''
<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
<
%pecification of respecti(e equipments
<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
<
Bibliography


AB%0RA30
0he project report is on the role of reacti(e po1er and its importance in
po1er generation, transmission and distribution systems.

No1adays the po1er utiliCation for industrial purpose and also household
has increased drastically. %o the acti(e po1er and reacti(e po1er has major role to
play. Although the reacti(e po1er physically doesnHt e5ist it does effect the total
po1er consumption.
%o it includes the
< I0he importance of the reacti(e po1er in po1er generation.
< IDifferent types of reacti(e po1er and its effect on the po1er consumption
< I0he importance of reacti(e po1er compensation techniques and the de(ices
1hich reduces po1er consumption costs.
< IDesign and constructional features of the capacitor ban2s and also
installation of the capacitor ban2s at $$!2(E'$2(E''2( substation.
< I functioning and failures occur in capacitor ban2s.
< I0he protection of capacitor ban2s.
< IAd(antages and disad(antages of using capacitor ban2s and other de(ices
for
reacti(e po1er compensation.
< I0he abo(e mentioned concepts are mainly to impro(e po1er factor
correction 1hich in turn reduces the electricity consumption and electricity
consumption and electricity costs. %o it also include the different types of
po1er factor correction li2e indi(idual correction, group correction and their
ad(antagesE disad(antages.
:inally this project includes the study of the reacti(e po1er and its effects on
the po1er generation, transmission and distribution.
8i9
CONTENTS
AbstractJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ. 8i9
3hapter 4 ?ntroduction JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ..
. ?ntroductionJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ..
3hapter $4 Reacti(e Po1erJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ.$.
$. 6hat is reacti(e po1erG JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ.$
$.. 3onfusionsJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ'
$..$ AnalogiesJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ...'
3hapter '4 Po1er :actor 3onceptsJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ.@
'. Po1er :actor 3alculationsJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ..*
'.$ 6hy do 1e need to impro(e Po1er factorG ................................"
'.' Po1er factor correctionJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ....B
'.'. %ingle 8fi5ed9 po1er factor correction JJJJJJJ.!
'.'.$ .roup po1er factor correctionJJJJJJJJJJ..!
'.'.' Bul2 compensationJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ
'.) Po1er quality problems related to the po1er factor correctionJ'
'.# Ad(antages and disad(antages of the methods of P:3JJJ$$

3hapter )4 6hy do 1e need to impro(e po1er factorJJJJJ.. J$).
). /oltage collapseJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ.$)
).. Pro5imity to instabilityJJJJJJJJJJJJJ...$#
4.1.2 Voltage transients...26.
).$ /oltage 3oordinationJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ.$*
).$. /oltage %cheduleJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ...$*.
).$.$ 0ransformer tap settingsJJJJJJJJJJJJJ.$"
).$.' Reacti(e de(ice settingsJJJJJJJJJJJJJ.$"
).$.) =oad shedding schemesJJJJJJJJJJJJJ.$"
).' /oltage ; reacti(e po1er controlJJJJJJJJJJJ$"
3hapter #4 0he sources and sin2s of reacti(e po1erJJJJJJJ.'!
3hapter @4 Different types of reacti(e po1erJJJJJJJJJJ'$
3hapter *4 ?mportance of reacti(e po1er in generation, transmission and
Distribution JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ''
*. Plant and appliances requiring reacti(e energyJJJJJJ'#
*.$ 0ransformers produce reacti(e po1ers &/AR lossesJJJJ'@
*.' =ines and cablesJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ..'*
3hapter "4 Reacti(e po1er limitations and its disad(antagesJJJJ'"
". =imitationsJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ..........'"
".$ Disad(antages JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ'"
3hapter B4 3ompensation of reacti(e po1erJJJJJJJJJJ...'B.
B. 6hy compensation of reacti(e po1er is requiredG JJJJJ'B
B.$ 3ompensation systemsJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ)!
B.$. ?ndi(idual compensationJJJJJJJJJJJJ..)!
B.$.$ 3entraliCed compensationJJJJJJJJJJJJ)$
B.$.' 7i5ed compensationJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ)'
B.' Reacti(e po1er compensation for different equipmentsJJJ)'.
B.) Degree of reacti(e po1er compensationJJJJJJJJJ#.
B.# -quipment for compensating reacti(e energyJJJJJJJ#$
B.#. 6here to install capacitorsG ...........................................#)
B.#.$ 3apacitor ban2s in distribution systemsJJJJJJ...@
B.#.' Precautions considered during installations of capacitor
ban2s JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ.@@
B.#.) Protection for capacitor ban2sJJJJJJJJJJ.@*
B.#.# -conomic justification for use of capacitors JJJJ...**
B.@ Reacti(e po1er compensation methodsJJJJJJJJJ.B)
B.* 0ypes of Reacti(e Po1er 3ompensation and 3ontrol JJJ...B#
B." 3lassification of compensating de(icesJJJJJJJJJ$
B.B 6hat 2ind of compensating de(ices 1ill be used for a particular
caseG JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ$
B.! 7erits ; Demerits of using compensating de(ices for
compensation of reacti(e po1er JJJJJJJJJJJ..$
B. Ad(antages of reacti(e energy compensationJJJJJJ..$$
B.$ Relationship bet1een the po1er of the capacitors and the
impro(ement of 3os8/, ?9JJJJJJJJJJJJJJ$#
B.' Determining compensation po1er in relation to the
energy bill JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ...$@
B.) %earch for optimum compensationJJJJJJJJJJ..$*

3hapter !4 3ase %tudyJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ..'
3hapter 4 3onclusion JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ.)
13 INTRODUCTION
0he purpose of this project is to pro(ide the brief idea of reacti(e po1er
impact on the po1er systems.
As reacti(e po1er is a concept that describes the energy mo(ement in A.3
systems arising from the production of electric and magnetic fields. 0hese fields store
energy through each A.3 cycle. De(ices 1hich store energy by (irtue of magnetic
field produced by a flo1 of current are said to absorb reacti(e po1er4 those 1ho store
energy by (irtue of electric fields are said to generate reacti(e po1er.
Reacti(e po1er flo1 can gi(e rise to substantial (oltage changes across the
transmission systems, this (oltage changes does effect or disturb the balance bet1een
the sources of generation and points of demand. %o reacti(e po1er flo1 in po1er
system must be carefully controlled 1ithin acceptable (oltage limits.
0o control the reacti(e po1er, transmission systems should secure the
transmission net1or2s to the defined (oltage and stability criteria, 1hich is
predominantly achie(ed through circuit arrangements , transformers, and shunt or
static compensation using /AR systems, (ariable reactors, mechanically s1itched
capacitor ban2s, synchronous condensers, induction motors etc.,
By controlling the reacti(e po1er the charges on the electricity bill can be
controlled , because the reacti(e po1er flo1 can decrease the real po1er consumption
due to the heating effect in the transmission and distribution conductors caused by the
bac2 and forth mo(ement of the reacti(e po1er, 1hich in turn effect the life
e5pectancy of the respecti(e conductors.
:rom the abo(e mentioned reacti(e po1er compensation the capacitor ban2s
are the efficient and lo1 cost de(ice compared to other de(ices.
%o, here the brief study of capacitor ban2s is done . that is it includes the
protection and allocation of capacitor ban2s on the transmission net1or2s and
distribution feeders, and also the reacti(e po1er charge analysis has been described
using the capacitor ban2 reacti(e po1er compensation.

43 REACTIVE POWER
$. 6hat is reacti(e po1erG

Po1er factor is defined as the ratio of real po1er to apparent po1er. 0his
definition is often mathematically represented as 26E &(a, 1here the numerator is the
acti(e 8real9 po1er and the denominator is the 8acti(eD reacti(e9 or apparent po1er.

Reacti(e po1er 8Q) K ?V? ?I? %in 8V, I9 Lin (ar or k(arM

:ig$. Po1er 0riangle
S 4 Apparent po1er
P 4 Acti(e po1er
Q 4 Reacti(e po1er
8V, I94 Phase displacement bet1een the apparent po1er and the acti(e po1er 8equal to
the phase displacement bet1een the current and (oltage9

?n the case 1here there are no harmonics, the acti(e, reacti(e and apparent
po1ers are e5pressed as follo1s4
P KVI 3os (V, I)
Q KNVI %in (V, I)
S KVI

Hence SOS 7 POP8 QOQ

?n this case 3os (V, I) KP/S is called the po1er factor.

$
0hough the definition is (ery simple, the concept of reacti(e po1er is (ague or
confusing e(en to many of those 1ho are technically 2no1ledgeable.

-5planation for reacti(e po1er says that in an alternating current system, 1hen
the (oltage and current go up and do1n at the same time, only real po1er is transmitted
and 1hen there is a time shift bet1een (oltage and current both acti(e and reacti(e po1er
are transmitted. But, 1hen the a(erage in time is calculated, the a(erage acti(e po1er
e5ists causing a net flo1 of energy from one point to another, 1hereas a(erage reacti(e
po1er is Cero, irrespecti(e of the net1or2 or state of the system. ?n the case of reacti(e
po1er, the amount of energy flo1ing in one direction is equal to the amount of energy
flo1ing in the opposite direction 8or different parts <capacitors, inductors, etc< of a
net1or2, e5change the reacti(e po1er9. 0hat means reacti(e po1er is neither produced
nor consumed.
But, in reality 1e measure reacti(e po1er losses, introduce so many equipments
for reacti(e po1er compensation to reduce electricity consumption and cost.
$.. 3onfusions4

0he undisputable la1 of conser(ation of energy states, Penergy can neither be created
nor be destroyedQ yet 1e tal2 about 3onser(ation of -nergyRR 0he confusions erupt 1hen 1e
yells out the theory of conser(ation ignoring other theories of thermodynamics < li2e one,
1hich states that entropy 8lo1 quality energy9 is e(er increasing. 7athematical sum of total
energy has no meaning to an energy user, and hence he must be concerned about the efficiency
of con(ersion and conser(ation of energy. %imilarly, though 1e can mathematically pro(e that
loss in reacti(e po1er is no real loss and no reacti(e energy is lost, 1e ha(e se(eral other
reasons to be concerned about reacti(e po1er impro(ement. 0his can be better e5plained by
physical analogies.
$..$Physical Analogies4

%uppose ? 1ant to fill a 1ater tan2 1ith 1ater, one buc2et at a time. +nly 1ay is to
climb a ladder, carrying a buc2et of 1ater and pouring the 1ater into the tan2. +nce ? fill up
'
the tan2, then ? ha(e to go do1n the ladder to get more 1ater. ?n this one cycle of going up
the ladder and coming do1n ? ha(e done some 1or2 or the energy required to go up is more
than the energy required for coming do1n. ?f ? had climbed the ladder 1ith an empty buc2et,
and ? had come do1n 1ith the same buc2et ? am not doing any 1or2. 0he energy for
up1ard and do1n1ard motion is the same. 0hough ? ha(e not done any 1or2 F 1orth
paying for< ? require some energy. 0hat is, the energy that it ta2es to go up and do1n a
ladder carrying nothing either 1ay requires reacti(e po1er, but no real po1er. 0he energy
that it ta2es to go up a ladder carrying something and come do1n 1ithout carrying anything
requires both real po1er and reacti(e po1er. 0he analogy can be e5tended for e5plaining '
phase system if ?f 1e put ' ladders going up to the tan2 and ' people climb up in sequence
such that there is al1ays a steady flo1.

Another analogy, a bit simplistic, is the PBeer 7ug analogyQ.

:ig$.$ Beer<7ug analogy
Po1er :actor K Acti(e po1erEApparent po1er K 26E2/A
K Acti(e po1erE 8Acti(e Po1er DReacti(e Po1er9
K 26E 826 D&/AR9
K BeerE8Beer D:oam9
0he more foam 8higher 2/AR9 indicates lo1 po1er factor and (ice (ersa. 8?n
-lectrical terms 26, 2/A, and 2/Ar are (ectors and 1e ha(e to ta2e the (ector sum9.
6hat causes lo1 po1er factor in -lectrical %ystemG

/arious causes, 1hich can be attributed for lo1 P:, may be listed as follo1s.
)

. ?nducti(e loads especially lightly loaded induction motors, and
transformers.
$. ?nduction :urnaces
'. Arc =amps and arc furnaces 1ith reactors.
). :ault limiting reactors
#. High /oltage.

0he reacti(e po1er required by these loads increase the amount of apparent
po1er in the distribution system and this increase in reacti(e po1er and apparent
po1er results in a lo1er po1er factor.
#
93 POWER FACTOR CONCEPTS

0he term po1er factor is defined as a ratio of the current dra1n that produces
real 1or2 to the total current dra1n. =i2e most aspects of modern electrical systems,
po1er factor is a comple5 issue intert1ined 1ith utility rate structures, economic
consideration and system capacities. Po1er factor ranges from .!, or unity, to near Cero.
?ncandescent lighting load share resisti(e and result in a po1er factor of .!, or !!
percent. 0he po1er factor ratio becomes less than unity 1hen loads dra1 reacti(e and or
harmonic currents in addition to the current that does real 1or2. Real 1or2 performed by
motors, heaters, and lights is a result of the current in phase 1ith the (oltage. 0his real
1or2 is measured as acti(e po1er in 21, and can be equated to hp, cal, or lumens based
on the efficiency of the de(ice con(erting the electrical po1er to another form of po1er.
-lectrical po1er, e5pressed in &6, is the capacity to do 1or2. 0his is equi(alent
to po1er in a mechanical system in that force, or (oltage, accompanied by displacement,
or current flo1, deli(ers po1er. No 1or2 is done, ho1e(er, and no energy is e5pended
unless po1er is applied o(er a period of time. 6hen po1er is applied o(er a period of
time, energy e5pressed in 21h is e5pended and 1or2 is performed. ?nducti(e loads such
as motors, transformers, and lighting ballasts constitute a large portion of the load at most
industrial facilities and to a lesser e5tent in commercial buildings. 0he inductance of these
de(ices causes the current to lag behind the (oltage. 0his lagging effect is caused by the
magnetiCing current required for operating these electro<mechanical de(ices. 6ithout this
magnetiCing current, the de(ices 1ould not 1or2. 0hus the lagging po1er factor effect is
a fact of life that must be addressed.
3urrent not operating in phase 1ith the (oltage does not produce any real
1or2, and therefore cannot be billed as 21h of electrical energy consumed. Ho1e(er,
as these amperes of magnetiCing current Smo(e bac2 and forthS in the distribution
equipment, they do place an additional burden on the electrical system. 0hese
magnetiCing amps cause additional heating to occur in equipment and conductors
upstream from the load resulting in a(oidable energy loss. 0his current contributes to
reacti(e po1er 2no1n as 2ilo(olt amperes reacti(e 82(ar9. Because the utility
company must in(est in
@
o(er siCed equipment and lose energy in transmission to ser(e lo1 po1er factor loads,
a penalty is commonly assessed on the electric bill to reco(er these equipment costs
and the lost energy from the magnetiCing current flo1ing through the equipment and
conductors. At present in ?ndia only industrial loads are under the penalty pur(ie1.
3apaciti(e components in an electrical system cause the current to lead the (oltage.
0he leading current of a capacitor 1ill counteract the lagging current required by an
inducti(e de(ice and cancel the effect of the lagging current. %ince (ery fe1
capaciti(e components e5ist in typical electrical systems, capacitors or synchronous
machines often are used to supply leading current to meet the 2(ar requirements of
inducti(e loads. 0his reduces the 2(ar demand on the utility supply and the
components in the PD%. +(er correction 1ith too much capacitance can cause a
leading po1er factor of less than unity. 0his situation is undesirable and can cause
o(er (oltage conditions, system instability and resonance to occur.
'. Po1er :actor 3alculations4

0he po1er factor ratio measures the relati(e amounts of 1or2<producing acti(e po1er
measured in 21 (ersus the total apparent po1er 82(a9. Po1er factor is defined as the cosine
83os9 in the follo1ing equations4

Po1er K /rms ?rms
3os 8/, ?9 K 21 E 2(a
7ost -lectricity Distribution 3ompanies ha(e today adopted the carrot and stic2
policy to1ards industrial consumers. 0hey offer financial re1ards for maintaining a po1er
factor greater than the stipulated minimum and le(y a penalty from users 1ho do not attain
the minimum. 0raditionally, po1er factor is based on the #! HC fundamental frequency.
Harmonic currents dra1n by adjustable speed dri(es, P3%, P=3s, and electronic office
equipment are increasing in the modern facility. As a result, po1er factor no1 must be
(ie1ed in reference to harmonic frequencies of the #! HC fundamental. 3on(entional
po1er factor is no1 called displacement po1er factor to relate it to the displacement
bet1een the system current and (oltage 1a(eforms. Distortion po1er factor, on the other
*
hand, ta2es into account the harmonic 3urrent that do not contribute to the real 1or2
produced by the load. Distortion po1er factor is defined as the ratio of the fundamental
component of the line current to the total line current. 0he total po1er factor is thus a
combination of both displacement and distortion po1er factors.
'.$ 6hy do 1e need to impro(e Po1er factorG
Reduction in the cost of electricity

An impro(ement of the po1er factor of an installation presents se(eral
technical and economic ad(antages, notably in the reduction of electricity bills.
.ood management in the consumption of reacti(e energy brings economic
ad(antages. 0hese notes are based on an actual tariff structure commonly applied in
-urope, designed to encourage consumers to minimiCe their consumption of reacti(e
energy.
0he installation of po1er<factor correction capacitors on installations permits
the consumer to reduce his electricity bill by maintaining the le(el of reacti(e<po1er
consumption belo1 a (alue contractually agreed 1ith the po1er supply authority. ?n
this particular tariff, reacti(e energy is billed according to thetan T criterion.
But

0he po1er supply authority deli(ers reacti(e energy for free4
?f the reacti(e energy represents less than )!U of the acti(e energy 8tan T V
!.)9 for a ma5imum period of @ hours each day 8from !@<!! h to $$<!! h9 during
the most<hea(ily loaded period 8often in 1inter9
6ithout limitation during light<load periods in 1inter, and in spring and
summer.
During the periods of limitation, reacti(e energy consumption e5ceeding )!U
of the acti(e energy 8i.e. tan T I !.)9 is billed monthly at the current rates. 0hus, the
"
quantity of reacti(e energy billed in these periods 1ill be4
2(arh 8to be billed9 K 26h 8tan T <!.)9 1here4

< 26h is the acti(e energy consumed during the periods of limitation
< 26h tan T is the total reacti(e energy during a period of limitation
< !.) 26h is the amount of reacti(e energy deli(ered free during a period of
limitation tan T K !.) corresponds to a po1er factor of !.B' so that, if steps are ta2en
to ensure that during the limitation periods the po1er factor ne(er falls belo1 !.B',
the consumer 1ill ha(e nothing to pay for the reacti(e po1er consumed.

Against the financial ad(antages of reduced billing, the consumer must
balance the cost of purchasing, installing and maintaining the po1er factor
impro(ement capacitors and controlling s1itchgear, automatic control equipment
81here stepped le(els of compensation are required9 together 1ith the additional 26h
consumed by the dielectric losses of the capacitors, etc.
?t may be found that it is more economic to pro(ide partial compensation
only, and that paying for some of the reacti(e energy consumed is less e5pensi(e than
pro(iding !!U compensation.

0he question of po1er<factor correction is a matter of optimiCation, e5cept in
(ery simple cases.
'.' Po1er :actor 3orrection4

0he t1o most common types of de(ices used for po1er factor correction
are capacitors and tuned harmonic filters.
3apacitors can be applied easily and commonly are used in industrial and
commercial facilities 1hich ha(e minimum amount of harmonics. Both single<(alue ban2s
and automatically s1itched (ariable ban2s are a(ailable. +(erheating problems 1ith
capacitor ban2s are becoming more common as harmonic current le(els increase.
:urthermore, s1itched capacitor ban2s, 1ithout appropriate design precautions, also can
B
cause high<(oltage s1itching surges as capacitors are s1itched in and out of ser(ice.
Different types of po1er factor correction4
93931 S%"$le :;%<e+= >#wer ;a!(#r !#rre!(%#"?

Put in practice by connecting po1er capacitor directly to terminals of a de(ice that
has to be compensated. 0han2s of this solution, electric grid load is minimiCed, since
reacti(e po1er is generated at the de(ice terminals. 0his method eliminates controlling
de(ices, since capacitor is being s1itched on and off by means of the same s1itch as the
de(ice. 0he main disad(antage of this method, is that the capacitor is not being used 1hen
the de(ice is not operating. 7oreo(er, the series of type capacitors offered by
manufacturers is not al1ays sufficient to meet the requirements.

:ig.'. %ingle 8fi5ed9 po1er factor correction
0he figure abo(e depicts capacitors ban2s 83B9 connection in an e5ample electric
system. ?t is noticeable, that each 3B is connected directly to a particular load.
93934 Gr#> >#wer ;a!(#r !#rre!(%#"?

0his method is more effecti(e than the pre(ious one. .roup P:3 assumes
compensation of a group of loads supplied by the same s1itchgear.
!
3apacitor ban2 is usually controlled by the microprocessor based de(ice called
po1er factor regulator. Beside this method, force applying protection for po1er
capacitors.
:ig.'.$.roup po1er factor correction

?n this case, capacitor ban2s are connected to the bus<bars, 1hich supply a
group of loads.

93939 Bl, !#6>e"'a(%#"?
0his method assumes one compensating de(ice for the 1hole object8 inside
the transformer station or in s1itching station9. 0his solution minimiCe total reacti(e
po1er to be installed and po1er factor can be maintained at the same le(el 1ith the
use of automatic regulation 1hat ma2es the P: close to the desired one. 0he dra1bac2
is that supplying and distribution net1or2, transformer as 1ell as mains supplying all
the equipment is loaded by reacti(e current.
0his type of compensation method demands capacitor ban2s to ha(e 1ide
range of po1er regulation, 1hich can be determined by $)h measurements at the
place of 3B installation. 0his is not the best solution for large electric system,

especially 1hen the distance bet1een the source and nonlinear recei(ers is long .
0he longer distance, the bigger losses in transmission system. :or this reason most
commonly used method of P:3 is the group compensation, 1hile for nonlinear loads
of big po1er single compensation is applied.

?n the matter of fact, each method can be applied for reacti(e po1er
compensation in po1er grid, but each 1ith different effecti(eness. ?n order to put in
practice particular method, it is necessary to fulfill some conditions. 0he factors that
decide about the choice of satisfying methods are as follo1s4
<NNumber of recei(ers in a grid and ho1 many of them need P:3
<NDemanded le(el of grid compensation
<N%iCe and grid comple5ity
<Possibility of 3B arrangement
<0ype of equipment connected to the compensated mains and its beha(ior.
8inducti(eEcapaciti(e9
<NHigher order harmonic presence sometimes, depending on the factors
listed abo(e, more than one method has to be applied in order to meet the
P:3 requirements.
.
:ig '.' Bul2 compensation
$
'.) PA PR+B=-7% R-=A0-D 0+ P+6-R :A30+R 3+RR-30?+N

?t is ironic to thin2 that as steps are being ta2en to impro(e the operating
efficiency at a facility, those (ery steps may be ad(ersely affecting the facility in other
1ays. 0his is sometimes the case 1hen po1er factor correction capacitors are
installed at a facility. As an e5ample, general application of capacitors on motors,
1hen applied 1ithout regard to the connected system, can result in the in ad(ertent
tuning of a system to a dominant harmonic. 80he implications of this are discussed
further belo19.Although Pharmonic problemsQ are attributed to many po1er system
problems, it is sometimes o(erly used. 0here are other ramifications associated 1ith
the use of po1er factor correction capacitors such as (oltage rise and s1itching
transients. -ach of these po1er quality concepts 1ill be discussed in turn.
8a9 HAR7+N?3 R-%+NAN3-

A common problem that occurs 1hen po1er factor correction capacitors are
installed on a system is harmonic resonance. 6hen this occurs, the po1er system at a
facility is tuned to a specific frequency due to a combination of the system inductance
and the added capacitance. 0he system PresonatesQ at this frequency, if there are
loads at or near the installation that produce that harmonic. 6hen this occurs, the
normal flo1 of harmonic currents, from load to utility source, is altered. 6hen the
currents can flo1 normally, they combine 1ith other load currents across the system.
?f the bul2 of those loads are linear, there 1ill not be a significant percentage of
distorted current. Ho1e(er, 1hen the flo1 is altered by the installation of capacitors,
distortion le(els may rise, causing problems 1ithin a plant, at nearby utility customers
or at system substations or currents may flo1 1here they are not desired.

6hen parallel resonant conditions e5ist, shunt capacitor ban2s appear to the
harmonic source as being in parallel 1ith the system source reactance 8or short circuit
reactance9. 6hen harmonic currents, from the harmonic source, flo1 through this
high impedance circuit, high harmonic (oltages de(elop. 0he high harmonic (oltages
can result in an o(er(oltage condition on the capacitors themsel(es andEor high
'
(oltage distortion. +(er(oltage conditions can e5ceed the (oltage rating of the
capacitor and result in capacitor failure. High (oltage distortion can result in the mis<
operation or failure of equipment. 6hen series resonant conditions occur, the c
capacitor appears to be in series 1ith line impedance, as seen from the harmonic
source. 0his presents a lo1 impedance path to the flo1 of harmonic currents.
3urrents, then, 1ill flo1 on the system in 1ays that 1ere unintended. 0his can result
in interference on communications circuits that may be nearby, e5cessi(e (oltage
distortion at the capacitors or conductor heating. ?f the capacitors are placed at the end
of long feeders, harmonic (oltage distortion can occur at the capacitor ban2 since the
ban2 acts as a Wsin2H for harmonic currents originating else1here on the system. ?f the
capacitors are placed on the secondaries of ser(ice transformers, the
capacitorEtransformer combination can appear li2e a series tuned filter. %ince this
combination beha(es li2e a sharply tuned filter, its resonance at a significant harmonic
1ould result in a (ery lo1 impedance path. 0his 1ould result in a high (oltage
distortion on the secondary 1hile the primary distortion 1ould remain 1ithin the
limits of ?--- #B.3apacitors can fail 1ith as little as !U of fifth harmonic content
and this can ta2e place 1hen there are no other noticeable effects on the system. ?t
has been estimated that '!<)!U of capacitor installations are not fully functional due
to e5cessi(e harmonic currents.
?n a system that is parallel or series resonant, load has a significant influence
on the harmonic distortion. As the load on the system increases, the o(erall damping
factor of the circuit increases and the sharpness of the resonance decreases. 6hen the
load decreases, the damping factor also decreases and sharpness of the resonance
increases. 0he sharpness of the resonance determines the impedance that is seen by
the harmonic currents. 0herefore, harmonic (oltage distortion 1ill be 1orse on
lightly loaded systems or 1hen the system load is mostly motors.
Resonant conditions and the influence of load become particularly important
1hen a plant is operating from on<site generators. 0he steady state positi(e sequence
reactance of a generator is much higher than the utility source impedance mentioned
abo(e. As a result, harmonic currents produce higher harmonic (oltages and o(erall
(oltage distortion.
)
Additionally, generator regulators and control systems are sensiti(e to distortion on
the (oltage bus. ?f the non<linear load on a plant is a significant percentage of the
o(erall generator load, the generator may not stay online. :urthermore, high
harmonic currents cause heating in the alternator iron 1hich can lead to premature
failure.
8b9 %6?03H?N. 0RAN%?-N0%

As mentioned earlier, capacitors are used at all (oltage le(els. ,tilities install
them at (arious locations on their transmission and distribution systems for (oltage
and /AR support. 6hen the utility energiCes a discharged capacitor, the bus (oltage
1ill momentarily collapse. 0his occurs because the (oltage across a capacitor cannot
change instantaneously. 0his is follo1ed by an oscillatory reco(ery that lasts about X
of a cycle. 0he o(ershoot associated 1ith this oscillation can result in a (oltage that
has a theoretical pea2 (alue of t1o times the ma5imum (alue of the@!HC sine 1a(e
8crest (oltage9. 0he same effect can occur 1hen a capacitor is s1itched off, if re<
stri2e occurs during the s1itching operation. 0ransients of this magnitude and
duration are usually not a problem on the utility system but they can produce
problems at a user facility. %e(ere o(er<(oltage scan appear on facility capacitors
through a phenomenon 2no1n as (oltage magnification. 0he (oltage at the end<user
capacitor can be greater than the (oltage at the utility capacitor. 0his translates to a
pea2 (oltage 1ith a theoretical upper (alue of )!!U although this is rarely seen. 0he
highest transient (oltages occur at the lo1 (oltage capacitor ban2 1hen the
characteristic frequency of the s1itching transient is nearly equal to the resonant
frequency of the lo1 (oltage system and 1hen the s1itched capacitor is ten or more
times the siCe of the lo1 (oltage capacitor. 0he ?--- %tandard for %hunt Po1er
3apacitors, AN%?E?--- %td. "<BB$ specifies that capacitors Pmay reasonably be
e5pected to 1ithstandQ transient o(er<(oltages from $!#U < '#)U of rated pea2 2/
8depending on the number of times a year the o(er<(oltage occurs9..enerally
spea2ing, the (oltage magnification 1ill not result in capacitor damage. 0he problem
that usually occurs is the failure or mis<operation of sensiti(e loads in the facility
1here the lo1 (oltage capacitors are installed.
#
8c9 /+=0A.- R?%-

At many facilities, fi5ed capacitors are used to reduce cost. :i5ed capacitors
are those that are permanently connected to the load bus and are not s1itched on and
off as the load changes. 6hen the load on the facility is lo1, the (oltage may increase
due to the capacitor being siCed for the higher load. 0he limit on steady state (oltage
is generally ta2en to be !U of the rated (oltage. ?f the (oltage is allo1ed to rise
abo(e this point, transformers 1ill saturate and o(erheat, mis<operation of equipment
may occur and equipment life 1ill be reduced. ?f the pre(ailing bus (oltage happens
to be high, due to conditions on the distribution system feeding the facility, the
(oltage rise 1ould be added to this already higher (oltage. 0herefore, system (oltage
should be chec2ed 1hen considering (oltage rise.
8d9 :A3?=?0Y %,R/-YEN-6 3APA3?0+R ?N%0A==A0?+N%

3apacitor installations are usually straightfor1ard, ho1e(er, a number of
steps can be ta2en to ensure that the ma5imum benefit is deri(ed and there 1ill be no
problems 1hen the capacitors are installed. :or e5ample, a comprehensi(e facility
sur(ey and cost analysis 1ill indicate 1hether the benefit from the installation
justifies the cost. 7any times, 1hen a decision has been made to install po1er factor
correction capacitors, the cost analysis has been limited to an e5amination of the
utility bills and an estimation of the li2ely sa(ings. ?n most cases this is probably
sufficient. However, whenever po1er quality issues to consider, this type of
analysis may not re(eal all of the costs.
0he presence of non<linear loads, utility capacitors and mis<operating
equipment might indicate that po1er quality problems e5ist and could be made 1orse
by adding capacitors to a system. 0he true final cost may also include e5tended
monitoring, an engineering study, re<location of e5isting capacitors, filter design and
installation, s1itching equipment andEor follo1<up measurements and re1or2. 0o
determine 1hat elements may be required, it is best to begin 1ith a facility sur(ey to
identify non<linear loads, the siCe of the ser(ice entrance transformer, other plant data
and utility information.
@
0his information, ta2en together, is usually sufficient. ?n some cases, additional
information is required 1hich may in(ol(e e5tended monitoring andEor (erification of
the system one<line diagram. 0he cost analysis 1ould ta2e into consideration the
additional requirements and indicate 1hat the true costs 1ill be. After data has been
collected on the facility, a quic2 assessment can be made to determine 1hat le(el of
effort may be required to complete an installation. :or a simple installation, 1here
there are no non<linear loads, the process may be as simple as siCing the capacitor and
ha(ing it installed.
8e9 ?% AN -N.?N--R?N. %0,DY R-A,?R-DG
0he follo1ing chec2list identifies situations 1here an engineering study is
probably required. 0his chec2list can be used if4
< 3apacitors are being added for the first time
< 3apacitors are currently installed and additional capacitors are being added
< 3apacitors are currently installed and problems are being encountered.
Are capacitors being added to a system 1here $!U of the connected load is
harmonic sourcesG Ha(e there been une5plained operations of fuses or other
protecti(e de(icesG Are measured R7% capacitor currents '#U 8or greater9 of rated
currentG Ha(e there been any failures of capacitors currently installed at the facilityG
Ha(e there been any instances of s1elling or unusual noises on capacitors currently
installed at the facilityG Ha(e there been une5plained failures or mis<operations of
sensiti(e equipmentG Ha(e there been an unusual number of motor failures or
une5plained motor failuresG Has the utility imposed harmonic limitsG ?s a plant
e5pansion currently being planned that might include additional harmonic sourcesG ?s
there on<site generation that 1ill pro(ide po1er to a significant number of harmonic
sourcesG
8f9 7?0?.A0?+N 0-3HN?A,-%
Detuning Reactors4
Detuning reactors are connected in series 1ith po1er factor correction capacitors to
*
reduce harmonic currents and to ensure that the series resonant frequency does not
occur at a harmonic of the supply frequency.
0he reactors are usually chosen and rated as either #U or *U reactors. 0his
means that at the line frequency, the capaciti(e reactance is reduced by #U or *U.
,sing detuning reactors results in to a lo1 impedance, increasing the current, so the
capacitance 1ill need to be reduced for the same le(el of correction.
6hen detuning reactors are used in installations 1ith high harmonic (oltages,
there can be a high resultant (oltage across the capacitors. 0his necessitates the use of
capacitors that are designed to operate at a high sustained (oltage. 3apacitors
designed for use at line (oltage only, should not be used 1ith detuning reactors.
3hec2 the suitability of the capacitors for use 1ith line reactors before installation.

0he detuning reactors can dissipate a lot of heat. 0he enclosure must be 1ell
(entilated, typically forced air cooled. 0he detuning reactor must be specified to
match the &/AR of the capacitance selected. 0he reactor 1ould typically be rated as
$.#&/AR #U meaning that it is a #U reactor to connect to a $.#&/AR capacitor.
8h9 D-0,N?N.
De<tuning a system refers to techniques that are used to change the resonance
point of a system and mo(e it a1ay from significant harmonics. As mentioned earlier,
1hen shunt po1er factor correction capacitors are added to a system, the parallel
combination of these capacitors and the system source impedance can tune the system
to resonate at a particular harmonic frequency. 0his high impedance path is the
source of harmonic (oltages 1hen harmonic load current flo1s through the system.
+ne technique used to de<tune a system is to add a reactor to the system. Harmful
resonance conditions are generally bet1een the shunt capacitors and the source
impedance. 0he reactor is added bet1een the source and the capacitor ban2. An
effecti(e 1ay to do this to add the reactor in series 1ith the capacitor ban2 to mo(e
the system resonance point 1ithout tuning the capacitor to create a filter.
"
Another method that can be used is to change the siCe of the capacitor ban2 being
considered. 0his is often one of the least e5pensi(e options. ?f the capacitor can be
siCed to mo(e the resonance point 1ithout impacting other operational aspects
8o(erEunder correction, (oltage rise, etc.9 there 1ould be no requirements for other
mitigation. De<tuning can also be accomplished by mo(ing capacitors to a point in the
system 1ith a different short<circuit impedance. 0his can also be considered if the
installation of a capacitor causes telephone interference problems. ?n many cases, the
capacitor cannot be mo(ed far enough in a plant to ma2e a difference, ho1e(er the
technique should not be dismissed outright. ?f capacitors are currently installed and
problems related to harmonic current sources ha(e been encountered, it may be cost
effecti(e to remo(e the capacitors. ?n this case, a comprehensi(e cost<benefit analysis
must be performed.
8i9 :?=0-R?N.
?n some situations it may be necessary to install filters to minimiCe the
harmonic currents that are flo1ing on a system. .enerally, filters pro(ide a lo1
impedance path to shunt the harmonic currents rather than them flo1ing bac2 through
the distribution system. :ilters also change the system frequency response, most
often, but not al1ays for the better.
Adding a filter creates a sharp parallel resonance point at a frequency belo1
the filerHs tuned frequency. :ilters are tuned slightly belo1 the harmonic in case there
is a change to the system or there is a component failure, either of 1hich might mo(e
the resonance point into the filter. :ilters typically cost about three times 1hat a
simple capacitor installation might cost. :ilters are usually applied close to the
component in a system 1here there is significant generation of harmonic currents.
0hese filters are typically tuned to the fifth harmonic, for three phase loads, and the
third harmonic for single<phase loads. 0hese frequencies represent the lo1est
harmonic usually encountered on these systems and the first filter in a system should
be tuned to the lo1est frequency. :ilter application is not as simple as simple
capacitor application.
B
Analysis that may range in scope from a sur(ey to long term monitoring and computer
modeling may be required. :ilter capacitors are usually 1ired in a delta configuration
on )"!(olt systems. As a result, they are largely ineffecti(e 1hen it becomes
necessary to control third<harmonic currents. ?f triplen harmonics are determined to
be a problem, other configurations can be used. :ilters should be placed on a bus
1here the a(ailable fault current is e5pected to remain constant. Although the notch
frequency of the filter 1ill not change, the system resonance point might mo(e.
:inally, filters must be designed 1ith the capacity of the bus in mind. 0he filter
cannot be siCed solely on the load that is producing the harmonic.
8j9.R+,P?N. +: =+AD%
?n installations 1here there are se(eral harmonic current sources, it may be
possible to electrically group the loads. As an e5ample, this technique is used 1hen
the sources are @<pulse motor dri(es. .roups of @<pulse dri(es can be fed from
transformers 1ith different 1inding configurations. ?f the loads are balanced, the fifth
and se(enth harmonics tend to cancel 1ith the net profile being closer to that of a $<
pulse dri(e.
?n a configuration such as this, the lo1est harmonic 1ould be the ele(enth or
thirteenth. 0his not only mo(es the predominant harmonic a1ay from typical
resonance points but it results in higher frequency harmonics. High frequency
harmonics do not ha(e enough energy to damage a system, as 1ould a lo1 order
harmonic. ?n addition to grouping loads for transformer feeds, the grouping also
allo1s some cancellation that naturally occurs from the statistically random nature of
loads and the corresponding harmonic spectrums. Although this cancellation is not of
the magnitude discussed abo(e, it is note1orthy.
8h9 -A,?P7-N0 3HAN.-%

?f it is determined that po1er factor correction capacitors may affect po1er
quality at a facility, one solution may be to ma2e some equipment changes. 0his may
mean replacing some equipment 1ith ne1er technology equipment or adding
enhancements to that equipment.
$!
?f adjustable speed dri(es 1ere installed 1ithout isolation transformers or line
side reactors, consideration can be gi(en to adding the appropriate equipment to the
installation. 0ransformers and line reactors can pro(ide solutions to a number of
problems.
=ine reactors are a cost<effecti(e 1ay to eliminate nuisance tripping of dri(es
due to the transient o(er<(oltages that result from utility capacitor s1itching. ?n
addition, line reactors prolong the current pulse that is typical of the rectifiers on the
input of these dri(es. 0his results in a different, and much impro(ed, harmonic
current spectrum. Determining the correct reactor siCe, for transient (oltage isolation,
requires a detailed transient simulation that ta2es into account utility capacitor siCe
and transformer rating. %tandard isolation transformers can pro(ide the same sort of
transient isolation but siCe and cost considerations may preclude this option.
%pecialiCed transformers that pro(ide harmonic mitigation may also be used. Any
equipment added should be installed close to the dri(e and electrical connections
should be 2ept as short as possible. ?f grouping of @<pulse adjustable speed dri(es is
not practicable, consideration may be gi(en to replacing an older technology dri(e
1ith a ne1er one or 1ith a$<pulse unit.
8g9 ,0?=?0Y %,PP+R0

?f (oltage transients resulting from utility s1itching are ha(ing an effecti(e on
po1er quality at a facility, consideration can be gi(en to discussing mitigation
techniques 1ith the utility. 0here are a number of techniques that the utility can use to
minimiCe these effects. 0he most common control techniques are pre<insertion
de(ices and controlled closing. 6hen pre<insertion is used, a resisti(eEreacti(e
element is inserted in to the circuit briefly to damp the first pea2 of the transient.
6hen reactors are used, they are helpful in limiting the higher frequency components.
3ontrolled closing in(ol(es using a control system to ensure that the capacitor
s1itching mechanism closes 1hen the (oltage on the capacitor closely matches the
system (oltage 1hen the contacts mate. 0his a(oids the step (oltage that causes the
circuit to oscillate. :inally, it may be possible to schedule the s1itching at a time that
1ill ha(e the least impact on the facility.
$
0he timing may be coordinated 1ith the s1itching of facility capacitors or the start up
of a process. 0his may in(ol(e s1itching on capacitors before they are needed but
this should not ha(e ad(erse effect, particularly if a thorough analysis has been
completed.
93/ A+&a"(a$e' a"+ +%'a+&a"(a$e' #; (he 6e(h#+' #; PFC
+nce all P:3 methods 1ere discussed in pre(ious section, one can focus on
ad(antages and dra1bac2s of each one.
P:3 method Ad(antages Disad(antages
<3ompensation at the place <7aintains demanded
:i5ed
of
reacti(e po1er generation
<7inimiCe the load at mains
<%mall capacitor po1er
<no regulator for control,
multi<
le(el 3B
tan8/, ?9 only for one piece
of equipment
<%1itching the de(ice off
stops operation of
capacitor ban2.
<Big amount of
compensating units.
<Does not compensate
1hole grid
.roup
<7inimiCed number of
capacitor
ban2s compared to single
compensation method
<Particular parts of the
mains are
being compensated8closer
to
the source9
<Poor adaptation to the
main
parameters
</ery often needs to
controlling
De(ices8P:R9
<7ore e5pensi(e than bul2
compensation in terms of
the bigger number of
capacitor ban2s
Bul2
<0he cheapest method
<=imited number of
capacitor
ban2s
<-nsure constant tan8/, ?9
(alue only at the terminals
<7ains inside an object is
not sufficiently
compensated.
<Ris2 of distortion and
resonance phenomenon
occurrence.
<0he most e5pensi(e of
motor compensation
<No additional distortions
< -ffecti(e compensation
method
compensation.
<-nergy losers for o(er
compensation of
synchronous and
synchroniCed.
<%horter life e5pectancy of
electric motor.
<.rid is not fully
compensated.
0ab'. Ad(antages and disad(antages of P:3 methods
$'
23 WHY DO WE NEED TO IMPROVE REACTIVE POWER@
Reacti(e po1er 8/AR9 is required to maintain Pthe (oltage to deli(er acti(e po1er
81atts9 through transmission lines. 7otor loads and other loads require reacti(e po1er to
con(ert the flo1 of electrons into useful 1or2. 6hen there is not enough reacti(e po1er,
the (oltage sags do1n and it is not possible to push the po1er demanded by loads
through the lines.
). /oltage collapse
:ig). /oltage collapse
6hen (oltages in an area are significantly lo1 or blac2out occurs due to the
cascading e(ents accompanying (oltage instability, the problem is considered to be a
(oltage collapse phenomenon. /oltage collapse normally ta2es place 1hen a po1er
$)
system is hea(ily loaded andEor has limited reacti(e po1er to support the load. 0he
limiting factor could be the lac2 of reacti(e po1er 8%/3 and generators hit limits9
production or the inability to transmit reacti(e po1er through the transmission lines.
0he main limitation in the transmission lines is the loss of large amounts of reacti(e
po1er and also line outages, 1hich limit the transfer capacity of reacti(e po1er
through the system.
?n the early stages of analysis, (oltage collapse 1as (ie1ed as a static problem
but it is no1 considered to be a non linear dynamic phenomenon. 0he dynamics in
po1er systems in(ol(e the loads, and (oltage stability is directly related to the loads.
Hence, (oltage stability is also referred to as load stability.

).. Pro5imity to instability
/oltage stability analysis can be broadly classified into t1o categories
9 %tatic (oltage stability analysis
$9 Dynamic (oltage stability analysis
7ost of the researchers ha(e considered (oltage stability as a static
phenomenon and ha(e lin2ed it to the ma5imum load ability of the system. %tatic
analysis using the con(entional po1er flo1 model is (iable due to the fact that the
(oltage collapse, in most of the incidences, has been obser(ed as a slo1 process, thus,
being primarily considered as a small signal phenomenon .Po1er engineers and
operators are al1ays interested in 2no1ing ho1 far the system is operating from
(oltage collapse or (oltage instability, so that appropriate actions could be ta2en.
0here are se(eral indices that determine the distance to instability of the current
operating point of the system. %ome of the (oltage instability indices are discussed
briefly in the follo1ing paragraphs.

%ensiti(ity analysis is one of the earliest methods used to find (oltage stability
problems. %ensiti(ities 1ere first used to find (oltage problems by using A/ cur(es.
Ho1e(er, this approach does not al1ays gi(e correct predictions especially in large
$#
po1er systems because sensiti(ity factors fail to account for large changes in system
parameters.

%ingular (alues of the Zacobian matri5 ha(e been used as a measure of the
pro5imity to (oltage instability and this method ta2es ad(antage of the orthogonal
decomposition of the matri5 L@M. 0he orthogonal decomposition is used to determine
the smallest singular (alue 1hich gi(es an indication of ho1 far the system is from
(oltage instability. %ingular (alues of the Zacobian matri5 decrease 1hen the po1er
system is stressed. 6hen any singular (alue is close to Cero, it means that system is
(ery close to (oltage instability or (oltage collapse.

4.1.2 Voltage transients
High<frequency (oltage and current transients occur 1hen s1itching a
capacitor ban2 into ser(ice. 0he ma5imum (oltage pea2 does not e5ceed 8in the
absence of harmonics9 t1ice the pea2 (alue of the rated (oltage 1hen s1itching
uncharged capacitors. ?n the case of a capacitor being already charged at the instant of
s1itch closure, ho1e(er, the (oltage transient can reach a ma5imum (alue
approaching ' times the normal rated pea2 (alue. 0his ma5imum condition occurs
only if4
0he e5isting (oltage at the capacitor is equal to the pea2 (alue of rated
(oltage
0he s1itch contacts close at the instant of pea2 supply (oltage, and
0he polarity of the po1er<supply (oltage is opposite to that of the charged
capacitor

?n such a situation, the current transient 1ill be at its ma5imum possible (alue, (iC4
01ice that of its ma5imum 1hen closing on to an initially uncharged capacitor, as
pre(iously noted. :or any other (alues of (oltage and polarity on the pre<charged
capacitor, the transient pea2s of (oltage and current 1ill be less than those mentioned
abo(e.

$@
?n the particular case of pea2 rated (oltage on the capacitor ha(ing the same polarity
as that of the supply (oltage, and closing the s1itch at the instant of supply<(oltage
pea2, there 1ould be no (oltage or current transients.
6here automatic s1itching of stepped ban2s of capacitors is considered, therefore,
care must be ta2en to ensure that a section of capacitors about to be energiCed is fully
discharged. 0he discharge delay time may be shortened, if necessary, by using
discharge resistors of a lo1er resistance (alue.
).$ /oltage 3oordination4
0he reacti(e sources must be coordinated to ensure that adequate (oltages are
maintained e(ery1here on the interconnected system during all possible system
conditions.
7aintaining acceptable system (oltages in(ol(es the coordination of sources
and sin2s 1hich include4
. Plant (oltage schedules
$. 0ransformer tap settings
'. Reacti(e de(ice settings
). =oad shedding schemes
0he consequences of uncoordinated operations 1ould include4
. ?ncreased reacti(e po1er losses
$. A reduction in reacti(e margin a(ailable for contingencies and e5treme light
load conditions
'. -5cessi(e s1itching of shunt capacitors or reactors
). ?ncreased probability of (oltage collapse conditions
).$. /oltage %chedule
-ach po1er plant is requested to maintain a particular (oltage on the system
bus to 1hich the plant is connected.
$*
0he assigned schedule 1ill permit the generating unit to typically operate4
- ?n the middle of its reacti(e capability range during normal conditions
- At the high end of its reacti(e capability range during contingencies
- P,nder e5citedQ or absorb reacti(e po1er under e5treme light load
conditions
).$.$0ransformer tap settings
- 0ransformer taps must be coordinated 1ith each other and 1ith nearby
generating station (oltage schedules.
- 0he transformer taps should be selected so that secondary (oltages remain
belo1 equipment limits during light load conditions.
).$.' Reacti(e de(ice settings
- 3apacitor on the lo1 (oltage net1or2s should be set to s1itch PonQ to
maintain (oltages during pea2 and contingency conditions.
- And PoffQ 1hen no longer required to support (oltage le(els.
).$.)=oad shedding schemes
- =oad shedding schemes must be implemented as a Plast resortQ to maintain
acceptable (oltages.
).' /oltage ; reacti(e po1er control4
- Requires the coordination 1or2 of all transmission and distribution disciplines.
. 0ransmission needs to4
- :orecast the reacti(e demand and required reser(e margin.
$"
- Plan engineer, and install the required type and location of reacti(e correction
- 7aintain reacti(e de(ices for proper compensation
- 7aintain meters to ensure accurate data
- Recommended the proper load shedding scheme if necessary
$. Distribution needs to4
< :ully compensate distribution loads before transmission reacti(e
compensation is considered.
< 7aintain meters to ensure accurate data
< ?nstall and test automatic under (oltage load shedding schemes.

$B
/3 THE SOURCES & SIN*S OF REACTIVE POWER

7ost equipment connected to the electricity system 1ill generate or absorb
reacti(e po1er, but not all can be used economically to control (oltage. Principally
synchronous generators and specialiCed compensation equipment are used to set the (oltage
at particular points in the system, 1hich else1here is determined by the reacti(e po1er
flo1s.
S)"!hr#"#' Ge"era(#r' < %ynchronous machines can be made to generate or absorb
reacti(e po1er depending upon the e5citation 8a form of generator control9 applied. 0he
output of synchronous machines is continuously (ariable o(er the operating range and
automatic (oltage regulators can be used to control the output so as to maintain a constant
system (oltage.
S)"!hr#"#' C#6>e"'a(#r' < 3ertain smaller generators, once run up to speed and
synchroniCed to the system, can be declutched from their turbine and pro(ide reacti(e
po1er 1ithout producing real po1er. 0his mode of operation is called %ynchronous
3ompensation.
Ca>a!%(%&e a"+ I"+!(%&e C#6>e"'a(#r' < 0hese are de(ices that can be connected to the
system to adjust (oltage le(els. A capaciti(e compensator produces an electric field there by
generating reacti(e po1er 1hilst an inducti(e compensator produces a magnetic field to
absorb reacti(e po1er. 3ompensation de(ices are a(ailable as either capaciti(e or inducti(e
alone or as a hybrid to pro(ide both generation and absorption of reacti(e po1er.
O&erhea+ L%"e' a"+ U"+er$r#"+ Ca-le' < +(erhead lines and underground cables,
1hen operating at the normal system (oltage, both produce strong electric fields and so
generate reacti(e po1er. 6hen current flo1s through a line or cable it produces a
magnetic field 1hich absorbs reacti(e po1er. A lightly loaded o(erhead line is a net
generator of reacti(e po1er 1hilst a hea(ily loaded line is a net absorber of reacti(e
'!
po1er. ?n the case of cables designed for use at $*# or )!!2/ the reacti(e po1er
generated by the electric field is al1ays greater than the reacti(e po1er absorbed by the
magnetic field and so cables are al1ays net generators of reacti(e po1er.
Tra"';#r6er' < 0ransformers produce magnetic fields and therefore absorb reacti(e
po1er .0he hea(ier the current loading the higher the absorption.
C#"'6er L#a+' < %ome loads such as motors produce a magnetic field and therefore
absorb reacti(e po1er but other customer loads, such as fluorescent lighting, generate
reacti(e po1er. ?n addition reacti(e po1er may be generated or absorbed by the lines and
cables of distribution systems.
:ig#.0he sources and sin2s of reacti(e po1er
'
A3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF REACTIVE POWER
0here are four different types of reacti(e po1er
Displacement reacti(e po1er
0his is caused by displacement of the angle bet1een current and (oltage
3harged monthly on an a(erage basis 8contract 1ith the po1er pro(ider9
No1adays mostly compensated by reactor protected capacitors
Distortion reacti(e po1er
0his is caused by harmonics in current and (oltage
Pro(ided for 1hen connecting high<performance current con(erters
3ompensation through filter circuits 8passi(e, acti(e9
7odulation reacti(e po1er
0his is caused by periodic load fluctuations
3aused by the connection of high<po1er 1elding machines, arcing furnaces
etc.
3ompensation through dynamic compensation 8%/39
Asymmetric reacti(e po1er
0his is caused by one and t1o<phase loads
Pro(ided for 1hen connecting high<po1er con(erters such as 1elding
machines and electric rail1ays
Balun as per %teinmetC, mostly dynamic 1ith capacitors and reactors
0he reacti(e<po1er compensation systems from PA7 use capacitors to pro(ide
the inducti(e consumers 1ith the reacti(e po1er they need thus reducing
3+
$
emissions, costs and transmission losses.
'$
B3 IMPORTANCE OF REACTIVE POWER IN POWER
GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
All inducti(e machines i.e. electromagnetic and de(ices that operate on A3
systems con(ert electrical energy from the po1er system generators into mechanical
1or2 and heat. 0his energy is measured by 26h meters, and is referred to as a!(%&e or
1att<ful energy. ?n order to perform this con(ersion, magnetic fields ha(e to be
established in the machines, and these fields are associated 1ith another form of
energy to be supplied from the po1er system, 2no1n as rea!(%&e or wa(( le'' energy.

0he reason for this is that inducti(e plant cyclically absorbs energy from the
system 8during the build<up of the magnetic fields9 and re<injects that energy into the
system 8during the collapse of the magnetic fields9 t1ice in e(ery po1er<frequency
cycle. 0he effect on generator rotors is to 8tend to9 slo1 them during one part of the
cycle and to accelerate them during another part of the cycle. 0he pulsating torque is
strictly true only for single<phase alternators. ?n three<phase alternators the effect is
mutually cancelled in the three phases, since, at any instant, the reacti(e energy
supplied on one 8or t1o9 phase8s9 is equal to the reacti(e energy being returned on the
other t1o 8or one9 phase8s9 of a balanced system. 0he net result is Cero a(erage load
on the generators, i.e. the reacti(e current is P1att lessQ.

An e5actly similar phenomenon occurs 1ith shunt capaciti(e elements in a
po1er system, such as cable capacitance or ban2s of po1er capacitors, etc. ?n this
case, energy is stored electro statically. 0he cyclic charging and discharging of
capaciti(e plant reacts on the generators of the system in the same manner as that
described abo(e for inducti(e plant, but the current flo1 to and from capaciti(e plant
is in e5act phase opposition to that of the inducti(e plant. 0his feature is the basis on
1hich po1er factor impro(ement schemes depend.

?t should be noted that 1hile this P1att lessQ current 8more accurately, the 1att less
component of a load current9 does not dra1 po1er from the system, it does cause
po1er losses in transmission and distribution systems by heating the conductors.
''

?n practical po1er systems, 1att less components of load currents are
in(ariably inducti(e, 1hile the impedances of transmission and distribution systems
are predominantly inducti(ely reacti(e. 0he combination of inducti(e current passing
through an inducti(e reactance produces the 1orst possible conditions of (oltage drop
8i.e. in direct phase opposition to the system (oltage9.
:ig*.4 An electric motor requires acti(e po1er P and reacti(e po1er A from the
po1er system
:or these reasons, (iC4
0ransmission po1er losses and
/oltage drop
0he po1er<supply authorities reduce the amount of 1att less 8inducti(e9
current as much as possible. 6att less 8capaciti(e9 currents ha(e the re(erse effect on
(oltage le(els and produce (oltage<rises in po1er systems.

0he po1er 8269 associated 1ith Pacti(eQ energy is usually represented by the
letter P. 0he reacti(e po1er 82(ar9 is represented by C. ?nducti(ely reacti(e po1er is
con(entionally positi(e 88 C9 1hile capaciti(e reacti(e po1er is sho1n as a negati(e
quantity 8. C9. S represents 2/A of PapparentQ po1er. :igure.$ sho1s that the 2/A of
apparent po1er is the (ector sum of the 26 of acti(e po1er plus the &/AR of
reacti(e po1er.
')
Alternating current systems supply t1o forms of energy4
Acti(e energy measured in 2ilo1att hours 8&6H9 1hich is con(erted in
to mechanical 1or2, heat, light, etc
Reacti(e energy 1hich again ta2es t1o forms of 4
Reacti(e energy required by inducti(e circuits 8transformers, motors,
etc.9,
*.Plant and appliances requiring reacti(e energy4
All A3 plant and appliances that include electromagnetic de(ices, or depend on
magnetically<coupled 1indings, require some degree of reacti(e current to create
magnetic flu5. 0he most common items in this class are transformers and reactors,
motors and discharge lamps 8i.e. the ballasts of9.
0he proportion of reacti(e po1er 82(ar9 1ith respect to acti(e po1er 8269 1hen an
item of plant is fully loaded (aries according to the item concerned being4
@#<*#U for asynchronous motors.
#<!U for transformers.

:ig*.$ 0he nature of Reacti(e -nergy
'#
*.$ 0ransformers produce reacti(e po1ers &/AR losses4
0he transformer by itself generates reacti(e po1er due to its inducti(e nature.
-(en 1hen at no load, transformer generates no<load loss e5pressed as acti(e po1er
81att9 and reacti(e po1er 8(ar9.
6hile no<load loss in 1att is 1ell<2no1n parameter in transformer, reacti(e
po1er 2(ar is gi(en less attention, merely because 2(ar produced by transformer
becomes less significant or can be ignored 1hen transformer is loaded 8remember the
po1er triangle, phasor relationship bet1een po1er factor cos phi, acti(e po1er 1att
and reacti(e po1er (ar9. 0he higher acti(e po1er compared to reacti(e po1er, the
better po1er factor 1ill be 8full load condition9. ?f acti(e po1er is less or Cero 8no<
load condition9, po1er factor becomes (ery lo1 since the po1er triangle is made up
from transformer[s no<load 1att and (ar losses only.
0ransformer no<load 2(ar loss depends on 2/A capacity,
e5citationEmagnetiCing current and no<load loss 81att9. :or e5ample4
! 7/A transformer at $U e5citation current and B!!! 1att no<load loss
produces $!! 2/AR reacti(e po1er loss at no<load.
)!!! &/A transformer at $U e5citation current and #!!! 1att no<load loss
produces "! 2/AR reacti(e po1er loss at no<load.
A transformer consumes reacti(e po1er 1hich can be appro5imately
determined by adding4
<a fi5ed part 1hich depends on the off<load magnetiCing current ?!4
Ao K .*'$,n ?o
< a part 1hich is appro5imately proportional to the square of the
apparent po1er that flo1s through it4
AK,sc88%O%9E%n9
,sc 4 transformer short circuit (oltage in p.u.
% 4 apparent po1er flo1ing through the transformer
%n 4 nominal apparent po1er of the transformer
'@
,n 4 nominal phase<to<phase (oltage
0he total reacti(e po1er consumed by the transformer is4
At KNA! \N D A
0he abo(e reacti(e po1er decides the po1er factor cost.
*.' =ines and cables4

0he = and 3 characteristics of lines and cables are such that these elements
consume or produce reacti(e energy depending on their load.
:or a three<phase cable or line4

3 4 cable or line capacitance
= 4 cable or line inductance
/ 4 single<phase (oltage
? 4 current carried by the cable or line
:rom a practical point of (ie14
< =ines consume reacti(e po1er
< 7/ cables produce reacti(e po1er at light load and consume reacti(e po1er at
hea(y load
< =/ cables consume reacti(e po1er.
'*
8. REACTIVE POWER LIMITATIONSAND ITS
DISADVANTAGES
". =imitations4
Reacti(e po1er does not tra(el (ery far.
,sually necessary to produce it close to the location 1here it is needed.
A supplierEsource close to the location of the need is in a much better position to
pro(ide reacti(e po1er.
Reacti(e po1er supplies are closely tied to the ability to deli(er real or acti(e
po1er.
".$ Disad(antages4
0he economic consequences or e5cessi(e reacti(e energy consumption bills.
7a5imum apparent po1er.
=osses in conductors at constant acti(e po1er.
Decrease in acti(e po1er carried at constant apparent current.
Reduction of (oltage drop 1hich leads to (oltage in stability.
=ess efficient in case of po1er control capability.
'"
D3 COMPENSATION OF REACTIVE POWER
D31 Wh) !#6>e"'a(%#" #; rea!(%&e >#wer %' reE%re+@

0he compensation reacti(e po1er is required for the reasons briefed belo1
1hich e5plained in detail abo(e. %o the reasons are as follo1s4

-nergy should be transmitted from the producer to the consumer in electric po1er
supply net1or2s. ?n net1or2s operated 1ith alternating current or three<phase
current there is also a po1er that flo1s bet1een the producer, the po1er station
and certain electric consumers such as electric machines. 0his po1er is needed to
generate the magnetic field of these machines. 0he le(el of this po1er is
determined by the reacti(e po1er. Ho1e(er, reacti(e po1er ma2es no
contribution the real po1er, i.e. the acti(e po1er, so it cannot be utiliCed. 0he
results of reacti(e po1er are the costs for the 1or2 it in(ol(es and transmission
losses. 0his in turn can lead to a net1or2 e5pansion and its resulting higher
3+
$
emissions.
0he reacti(e<po1er requirement should be 2ept to a minimum. 0he inducti(e
reacti(e<po1er requirement of an asynchronous machine can be compensated
1ith a capacitor ban2, a synchronous machine or a special current con(erter
8po1er factor correction9. 0his is defined as reacti(e po1er compensation. 0he
energy required for generating the magnetic field then no longer flo1s in the
supply net1or2 to the generator but only bet1een the asynchronous machine and
the capacitor ban2 or synchronous machine. 0his reduces the resulting current
that is dra1n for operation from the net1or2 by the dri(e.
0o compensate the abo(e mentioned disad(antages also.
'B
D34 C#6>e"'a(%#" ')'(e6'
B.$. ?ndi(idual compensation4
0his type of compensation is applied to motors, transformers, and in
general to loads 1ith a long operating time.
3apacitors are connected directly in parallel to the terminals of the loads

:ig B. ?ndi(idual compensation
AD/AN0A.-%
-limination of additional charges in the electricity bill
sa(ings from the omission of de(ices for the connection and
disconnection of the capacitors
Reduction to a minimum the current flo1ing in the lines, allo1ing the
use of smaller siCe cables and s1itchgear. ?n e5isting installations
additional po1er is released
D?%AD/AN0A.-%
-5pensi(e system, as 1hen the loads do not 1or2 full time, part of the
capacitors are 2ept out of operation
)!
An indication of the necessary compensation of motors is gi(en in
table B..
0o a(oid the danger of self<e5citation it is necessary to limit the po1er of
the capacitor to B!U of the no load reacti(e po1er of the motor.
Ac K !.B ] l^ ] ,_`'
B.

A>>r#<%6a(e &ale' #; rea!(%&e >#wer
PN 6#(#r 9000
r>6
,&ar
1/00
r>6
,&ar
1000
r>6
,&ar
B/0
r>6
,&ar
,W HP
B3/ 1030 930 930 230 /30
1130 1/30 230 /30 /30 A30
1/30 4030 A30 A30 B3/ B3/
1F3/ 4/3/ B3/ B3/ D30 1030
4430 9030 D30 1030 1030 1430

9030 2030 143/ 143/ 1/30 1/30
9B30 /030 1/30 1/30 4030 4030
2/30 A030 1B30 4030 4430 4430
//30 B/30 4030 4/30 4/30 4/30
B/30 100304/30 9030 9030 9030

D030 14/309030 9/30 2030 2030
110301/0309/30 2030 2/30 /030
194301F0302030 /030 /030 A030
1A030440302/30 //30 A030 B030
400304B030/030 A/30 B030 F030
0able B. Appro5imate (alues of reacti(e po1er
)
1here4 Ac K capacitor po1er 8(ar9
lo K No load current of the motor 8A9
,N K (oltage bet1een phases 8/9
B.$.$ 3entraliCed compensation
6hen there is a large and spread number of inducti(e load in the installation,
the indi(idual compensation can become uneconomical.
?n these cases the centraliCed compensation by means of an automatic
capacitor ban2 1ith automatic regulation offers the most simple and economical
solution.
0otal po1er is subdi(ided in a number of capacitors steps that can be
connected independently. A reacti(e po1er controller measures continuously the
needs of the installation and connects or disconnects the capacitors to reach a prefi5ed
3os T.

:igB.$ 3entraliCed compensation
)$
AD/AN0A.-%
-limination of additional charges in the electrical energy in(oice
0otal capacitor po1er smaller than the one needed in indi(idual compensation
Reduced installed costs
B.$.' 7?]-D 3+7P-N%A0?+N
,sually applied in the case of ha(ing an installation 1ith its o1n distribution
transformer and 1ith the po1er meter in the H./. side.
Reacti(e po1er consumed by the transformer 1hen connected to the mains is
compensated by permanently connecting a capacitor to the secondary of the
transformer.
0his type of compensation can also be applied 1hen the installed has a (ery
important load, as for e5ample, a motor of (ery high po1er, by using the
indi(idual compensation for the motor and the centraliCed compensation for
the rest of the installation.
D39 Rea!(%&e >#wer !#6>e"'a(%#" ;#r +%;;ere"( eE%>6e"('3
8a9 3ompensation of reacti(e energy absorbed by the transformer4
6here metering is carried out at the 7/ side of a transformer, the reacti(e<
energy losses in the transformer may need to be compensated 8depending on the
tariff9.
The "a(re #; (ra"';#r6er %"+!(%&e rea!(a"!e?
All pre(ious references ha(e been to shunt connected de(ices such as those used in
normal loads, and po1er factor<correcting capacitor ban2s etc. 0he reason for this is
that shunt connected equipment requires 8by far9 the largest quantities of reacti(e
energy in po1er systems> ho1e(er, series<connected reactance, such as the inducti(e
reactance of po1er lines and the lea2age reactance of transformer 1indings, etc., also
absorb reacti(e energy.
)'

6here metering is carried out at the 7/ side of a transformer, the reacti(e<
energy losses in the transformer may 8depending on the tariff9 need to be
compensated. As far as reacti(e<energy losses only are concerned, a transformer
may be represented by the elementary diagram of :igure B.'. All reactance (alues
are referred to the secondary side of the transformer, 1here the shunt branch
represents the magnetiCing<current path. 0he magnetiCing current remains
practically constant 8at about ."U of full<load current9 from no load to full load,
in normal circumstances, i.e. 1ith a constant primary (oltage, so that a shunt
capacitor of fi5ed (alue can be installed at the 7/ or =/ side, to compensate for
the reacti(e energy.
absorbed.
:igB.'? 0ransformer reactances per phase
0he reacti(e po1er absorbed by a transformer cannot be neglected, and can
amount to 8about9 #U of the transformer rating 1hen supplying its full load.
3ompensation can be pro(ided by a ban2 of capacitors. ?n transformers, reacti(e
po1er is absorbed by both shunt 8magnetiCing9 and series 8lea2age flu59 reactance.
3omplete compensation can be pro(ided by a ban2 of shunt<connected =/ capacitors.
Reactive-power absorption in series-connecte !lea"age #l$%& reactance '( A
simple illustration of this phenomenon is given by the
vector diagram of Figure 9.4.
0he reacti(e<current component through the load K ? sin T
so that A= K /? sin T.
0he reacti(e<current component from the source K ? sin T
so that A- K -? sin T
[
.
))
?t can be seen that - I / and sin T
[
I sin T
[
.
0he difference bet1een -? sin T
[
and /? sin T gi(es the 2(ar per phase absorbed
by ]=. ?t can be sho1n that this 2(ar (alue is equal to ?
$
]= 81hich is analogous to the
?
$
R acti(e po1er 8269 losses due to the series resistance of po1er lines, etc.9.
:rom the ?
$
]= formula it is (ery simple to deduce the 2(ar absorbed at any load
(alue for a gi(en transformer, as follo1s4

<?f per<unit (alues are used 8instead of percentage (alues9 direct multiplication of
? and ]= can be carried out.

:ig B.)? Reacti(e po1er absorption by series inductance

8b9 Reacti(e Po1er 3ompensation of 0ransmission =ines.
Basic principal of po1er compensation in transmission system4
:igure B.# 8a9 sho1s the simplified model of a po1er transmission system.
)#
01o po1er grids are connected by a transmission line 1hich is assumed lossless and
represented by the reactance G
L
. /a and /$ a$ represent the (oltage phasors of
the t1o po1er grid buses 1ith angle H7 H
1
. H
4
bet1een the t1o. 0he corresponding
phasor diagram is sho1n in :igure B.#8b9.
:igB.# Po1er transmission system4 8a9 simplified model> 8b9 phase diagram
0he magnitude of the current in the transmission line is gi(en by4

? K /= E ]= K ? 8/a b /$ a$9 ? E 8]=9
0he acti(e and reacti(e components of the current flo1 at bus are gi(en by4
?dK /$ sin a E ] =, ?q K 8/ b /$ cos a9 E ]=
0he acti(e po1er and reacti(e po1er at bus are gi(en by4
PK /$/ sin a I ]=, A K / 8/b/$ cos a9 I ]=
%imilarly, the acti(e and reacti(e components of the current flo1 at bus $ can be gi(en
by4
?d$ K/ sin a I ]=, ?q$K 8/$b /cosa9 I ]=
0he acti(e po1er and reacti(e po1er at bus $ are gi(en by4
P$K /$/ sin a I ]=, , A$K /$ 8/$b/ 3os8a9 I ]=
Abo(e equations through indicate that the acti(e and reacti(e po1erEcurrent flo1 can
be regulated by controlling the (oltages, phase angles and line impedance of the
)@
transmission system. :rom the po1er angle cur(e sho1n in :igure B.@8c9, the acti(e
po1er flo1 1ill reach the ma5imum 1hen the phase angle H is B!c. ?n practice, a
small angle is used to 2eep the system stable from the transient and dynamic
oscillations.
.enerally, the compensation of transmission systems can be di(ided into t1o main
groups4 shunt and series compensation.
%hunt compensation4

%hunt compensation, especially shunt reacti(e compensation has been 1idely
used in transmission system to regulate the (oltage magnitude, impro(e the (oltage
quality, and enhance the system stability . %hunt<connected reactors are used to reduce
the line o(er<(oltages by consuming the reacti(e po1er, 1hile shunt<connected
capacitors are used to maintain the (oltage le(els by compensating the reacti(e po1er
to transmission line. A simplified model of a transmission system 1ith shunt
compensation is sho1n in :igure B.@8a9. 0he (oltage magnitudes of the t1o buses are
assumed equal as V, and the phase angle bet1een them is H. 0he transmission line is
assumed lossless and represented by the reactance G
L
. At the midpoint of the
transmission line, a controlled capacitor 3 is shunt< connected. 0he (oltage magnitude
at the connection point is maintained as V.

)*
:igB.@? 0ransmission system 1ith shunt compensation4 8a9 simplified model> 8b9
phase diagram> 8c9 po1er<angle cur(e
As discussed pre(iously, the acti(e po1ers at bus and bus $ are equal.

PKP$K d8$8/O/99 I ]=e sin 8aI$9
0he injected reacti(e po1er by the capacitor to regulate the (oltage at the mid<point
of the transmission line is calculated as4
AcK d8)8/O/99 I ]=e db 3os 8aI$9e
:rom the po1er angle cur(e sho1n in :igure 8c9, the transmitted po1er can be
significantly increased, and the pea2 point shifts from aKB!c to aK"!c. 0he operation
margin and the system stability are increased by the shunt compensation.
0he (oltage support function of the midpoint compensation can easily be e5tended to
the (oltage support at the end of the radial transmission, 1hich 1ill be pro(en by the
system simplification analysis in a later section. 0he reacti(e po1er compensation at
the end of the radial line is especially effecti(e in enhancing (oltage stability.
)"
%eries compensation4
%eries compensation aims to directly control the o(erall series line
impedance of the transmission line. 0rac2ing bac2 to abo(e equations, the A3 po1er
transmission is primarily limited by the series reacti(e impedance of the transmission
line. A series<connected can add a (oltage in opposition to the transmission line
(oltage drop, therefore reducing the series line impedance.

A simplified model of a transmission system 1ith series compensation is
sho1n in :igure B.*8a9. 0he (oltage magnitudes of the t1o buses are assumed equal
as V, and the phase angle bet1een them is H. 0he transmission line is assumed
lossless and represented by the reactance G
L
. A controlled capacitor is series
connected in the transmission line 1ith (oltage addition V
%"J
. 0he phase diagram is
sho1n in figure B.*8b9

)B


:igure B.* 0ransmission system 1ith series compensation4 8a9 simplified model> 8b9
phase diagram> 8c9 po1er<angle cur(e
Defining the capacitance of C as a portion of the line reactance,
]3 K 2 ]=
0he o(erall series inductance of the transmission line is,
]K ]=b ]3 K 8b29 ]=
0he acti(e po1er transmitted is,
PK d8/O/9I :8b29 ]==e %in 8a9
0he reacti(e po1er supplied by the capacitor is calculated as4

A 3 Kd2 I L8b 29O 8b 29Me d8$8/O/99 I ]=e 8b 3os a9
?n :igure B.*8c9 sho1s the po1er angle cur(e from 1hich it can be seen that the
transmitted acti(e po1er increases 1ith ,.
/0
D32 De$ree #; rea!(%&e >#wer !#6>e"'a(%#"?
0he degree of compensation being decided by an economic point of (ie1 bet1een
the capitaliCed cost of compensator and the capitaliCed cost of reacti(e po1er from
supply system o(er a period of time. ?n practice a compensator such as a ban2 of
capacitors 8or inductors9 can be di(ided into parallel sections, each s1itched
separately, so that discrete charges in the compensating reacti(e po1er may be made,
according to the requirements of the load.
Reasons for the application of shunt applications of shunt capacitor units are
because of
. ?ncrease (oltage le(el at the load.
$. ?mpro(es (oltage regulation if the capacitor units are properly s1itched.
'. Reduces 8?O?9 R po1er loss in the system because of reduction in current.
). Reduces 8?O?9 ] &/AR loss in the system because of reduction in current.
#. ?ncreases po1er factor of the source generator.
@. Decreases &/A loading on the source generators and circuits to relie(e an
o(erloaded condition or release capacity for additional load gro1th.
*. By reducing &/A loading on the source generators additional 2ilo1att
loading may be placed on the generation if turbine capacity is a(ailable.
". 0o reduce demand po1er is purchased. 3orrection to !! percent po1er
factor may be economical in some cases.
B. Reduces in(estment in system facilities per 2ilo1att of load supplied.
%iCe of capacitor to impro(e po1er factor from p.f to p.f$
A c KA<A$
KP 8tan 8/, ?9 < tan 8/, ?99

#

:ig B." Phasor diagram of impro(ing po1er factor
D3/ EE%>6e"( ;#r !#6>e"'a(%"$ rea!(%&e e"er$)
3ompensation can be carried out by t1o families of products4

< :i5ed<(alued capacitor ban2s
< Automatically<controlled stepped capacitor ban2s 1hich allo1
compensation to be adjusted to (ariations in installation consumption.

8a9 :i5ed capacitor ban2s4

3apacitor ban2s ha(e a constant po1er. 0hey are preferably used4

< at the terminals of loads
< on the bus bars ha(ing a 1ea2 load (ariation.
8b9 Automatically<controlled stepped capacitor ban2s4
0his type of equipment allo1s the reacti(e po1er supplied to be adjusted to
(ariations in consumption and thus 3os 8V, I9 to be maintained at the required (alue.
#$
?t is used in cases 1here the reacti(e po1er consumed is high in relation to the
transformer po1er and (aries in considerable proportions, i.e. mainly4

< at the terminals of the main =/ s1itchboards
< on high po1er outgoing feeders.
Principle and ad(antage of automatic compensation

A ban2 of capacitors is di(ided into sections. 0he (alue of cos 8V, I9 is detected
by a (ar meter relay 1hich automatically controls closing and opening of the sections
in relation to the load and required cos 8V, I9.0he current transformer must be placed
upstream of the loads and capacitor ban2
F%$ B.B principle of automatic compensation of an installation
#'
+(ercompensation is prejudicial as it abnormally increases the duty (oltage.
Automatic compensation thus allo1s steady<state o(er (oltages resulting from o(er
compensation 1hen the net1or2 has a small load to be a(oided. 0hus a regular duty
(oltage is maintained 1hile paying the utility for reacti(e energy during periods of
high consumption is a(oided.
usual rule in lo1 (oltage4
?f the po1er of the capacitors 82(ar9 is lo1er than # U of the po1er of the
transformer, a fi5ed capacitor ban2 is chosen. ?f the po1er of the capacitors 82(ar9 is
higher than # U of the po1er of the transformer, an automatically controlled stepped
capacitor ban2 is chosen.
D3/31 Where (# %"'(all !a>a!%(#r'@
3ompensation may be global, by sector or indi(idual. ?n theory, ideal
compensation is that 1hich allo1s reacti(e energy to be produced at the place 1here
it is consumed and in quantities adapted to the demand.

0his compensation mode is (ery costly and, in practice, a technical<economic
solution is aimed at.
8i9.lobal compensation
N Principle
0he ban2 is connected at the origin of the installation 8see fig.9 and ensures
compensation for the entire installation. ?t remains in continuous ser(ice during the
reacti(e energy billing period for normal plant operation.
#)

8a9
N Ad(antages
Due to the coincidence factor lo1er than the ban2 has a smaller rating. ?t is
continuously in ser(ice and there is therefore a much quic2er return on in(estment.
Depending on the case, this type of compensation can4
< a(oid costs for e5cessi(e consumption of reacti(e energy
< reduce apparent po1er by adjusting it to the installation[s acti(e po1er requirement
< increase the a(ailable acti(e po1er of the supply transformer.
##
NRemar2s
< Reacti(e current circulates in the installation from le(el to the loads
< Zoule losses 826h9 and (oltage drops in the feeder cables located do1nstream of the
ban2
are not reduced.

8b9
:ig B.! .lobal compensation
N ,se
6hen the load is regular, global compensation is suitable.
8ii93ompensation by sector
N principle

0he ban2 is connected to the s1itchboard and supplies the reacti(e energy
required by a sector of the installation.
#@
A significant part of the installation benefits from this arrangement, notably
the feeder cables supplying each sector.

3ompensation by sector is recommended 1hen the installation is e5tensi(e,
and 1here the loadEtime patterns differ from one part of the installation to another
NNN
8a 9
N ad(antages
0his type of compensation4
< a(oids costs for e5cessi(e consumption of reacti(e energy
< optimiCes one part of the net1or2, since reacti(e current is not carried bet1een
le(els and $
#*
< increases the a(ailable acti(e po1er of the transformer and the acti(e po1er that can
be carried in the feeder cables located upstream of the compensated sector.
NNNNNNNNNN
8b9
NNNNNNNNNNNNNNN :ig B. 3ompensation by sector
Reduces the tariff penalties for e5cessi(e consumption of 2(ars
Reduces the apparent po1er 2/A demand, on 1hich standing charges are
usually based
Relie(es the supply transformer, 1hich is then able to accept more load if
necessary
0he siCe of the cables supplying the local distribution boards may be reduced,
or 1ill ha(e additional capacity for possible load increases
=osses in the same cables 1ill be reduced
3omments
Reacti(e current still flo1s in all cables do1nstream of the local distribution
boards
:or the abo(e reason, the siCing of these cables, and the po1er losses in them,
are not impro(ed by compensation by sector
#"
6here large changes in loads occur, there is al1ays a ris2 of
o(ercompensation and consequent o(er(oltage problems
N remar2s
< Reacti(e current circulates in the installation from le(el $ to the loads
< Zoule losses 826h9 and (oltage drops in the feeder cables connecting le(el $ to le(el
are reduced
< 0here is ris2 of o(ercompensation in the e(ent of significant (ariations in load 8this
ris2 can be eliminated by installing stepped ban2s9.
N ,se
3ompensation by sector is ad(isable 1hen the installation is e5tensi(e and has
sectors of high reacti(e energy consumption.
8iii9 ?ndi(idual compensation
N principle
0he ban2 is directly connected to the terminals of the load. ?ndi(idual
compensation should be used 1hen the load po1er is considerable in relation to the
transformer po1er. 6hen it is possible, this compensation produces reacti(e energy at
the place 1here it is consumed and in quantities adapted to the requirements.
Additional compensation at the origin of the installation may also be necessary.
N ad(antages
0his type of compensation4
< a(oids costs for e5cessi(e consumption of reacti(e energy
< increases the a(ailable acti(e po1er of the transformer and the acti(e po1er that can
be carried in the feeder cables located upstream of the load
#B
< reduces Zoule losses 826h9 and (oltage drops in feeder cables bet1een le(el ' and
le(el .
Reduces the apparent po1er 2/A demand
Reduces the siCe of all cables as 1ell as the cable losses


:ig B.$ ?ndi(idual compensation
N remar2s
Reacti(e current is no longer carried in the installation feeder cables.
N ,se
@!
?ndi(idual compensation is preferable 1hen the po1er of certain loads is
considerable in relation to the transformer po1er. 0his type of compensation offers
the most ad(antages but it is the most costly.
D3/34 Ca>a!%(#r -a",' %" +%'(r%-(%#" ')'(e6'
8a9 6hat is the use of %hunt 3apacitor compensation in Distribution systemsG
:ig.' 8a9 represents an a.c. generator supplying a load through a line of series
impedance 8RDj]9 ohms. :igB.' 8b9 sho1s the phasor diagram 1hen the line is 1hen
the line is deli(ering a comple5 po1er of 8PDj+9 /A i.e. 1ith the load fully
compensated. A thorough e5amination of these phasor diagrams 1ill re(eal the
follo1ing facts.
3urrent in the line, generator and inter(ening transformers, if any, is higher by a
factor of 8Ecosf9 in the case of uncompensated load compared to compensated load.
0hese results in a po1er loss, 1hich is higher by a factor of 8Ecosf9 g compared to
the minimum po1er loss attainable in the system.
. 0he loading on generator, transformers, line etc is decided by the current flo1.
0he higher current flo1 in the case of uncompensated load necessitated by the
reacti(e demand results in a tie up of capacity in this equipment by a factor
of 8Ecosf9 i.e. compensating the load to ,P: 1ill release a capacity of 8load
/A rating ] cos f 9 in all these equipment.
$. 0he sending<end (oltage to be maintained for a specified recei(ing<end
(oltage is higher in the case of uncompensated load. 0he line has bad
regulation 1ith uncompensated load.
'. 0he sending<end po1er factor is less in the case of an uncompensated one.
0his due to the higher reacti(e absorption ta2ing place in the line reactance.
@
). 0he e5citation requirements on the generator is se(ere in the case of
uncompensated load. ,nder this condition, the generator is required to
maintain a higher terminal (oltage 1ith a greater current flo1ing in the
armature at a lo1er lagging po1er factor compared to the situation 1ith the
same load fully compensated. ?t is entirely possible that the required e5citation
is much beyond the ma5imum e5citation current capacity of the machine and
in that case further (oltage drop at recei(ing<end 1ill ta2e place due to the
inability of the generator to maintain the required sending<end (oltage. ?t is
also clear that the increased e5citation requirement results in considerable
increase in losses in the e5citation system.
:igB.' 8a9 A.3. generator supplying a load
@$
8b9 0he phasor diagram 1hen the line is deli(ering a comple5 po1er of
8P Dj A9 /A
8c9 0he phasor diagram 1hen the line is deli(ering a comple5 po1er of
8P Dj +9 /A i.e. 1ith the load fully compensated
?t is abundantly clear from the abo(e that compensating a lagging load by using shunt
capacitors 1ill result in
i. =esser po1er loss e(ery1here upto the location of capacitor and hence a more
efficient system
ii. Releasing of tied<up capacity in all the system equipments thereby enabling a
postponement of the capital intensi(e capacity enhancement programmes to a
later date.
iii. ?ncreased life of equipments due to optimum loading on them
i(. =esser (oltage drops in the system and better regulation
(. =ess strain on the e5citation system of generators and lesser e5citation losses.
(i. ?ncrease in the ability of the generators to meet the system pea2 demand
than2s to the released capacity and lesser po1er losses.
%hunt capaciti(e compensation deli(ers ma5imum benefit 1hen employed right
across the load. And employing compensation in H0 ; =0 distribution net1or2 is the
closest one can get to the load in a po1er net1or2. Ho1e(er, (arious considerations
li2e ease of operation and control, economy achie(able by lumping shunt
compensation at -H/ stations etc 1ill tend to shift a portion of shunt compensation to
-H/ ; H/ substations. Po1er utilities in most countries employ about @!U
capacitors on feeders, '!U capacitors on the substation buses and the remaining !U
on the transmission system. Application of capacitors on the =0 side is not usually
resorted to by the utilities.
Zust as a lagging system po1er factor is detrimental to the system on (arious counts, a
leading system pf is also undesirable. ?t tends to result in o(er<(oltages, higher losses,
lesser capacity utiliCation, and reduced stability margin in the generators. 0he reduced
@'
stability margin ma2es a leading po1er factor operation of the system much more
undesirable than the lagging p.f operation. 0his fact has to be gi(en due to
consideration in designing shunt compensation in (ie1 of changing reacti(e load
le(els in a po1er net1or2.
%hunt compensation is successful in reducing (oltage drop and po1er loss problems
in the net1or2 under steady load conditions. But the (oltage dips produced by D+=
starting of large motors, motors dri(ing sharply fluctuating or periodically (arying
loads, arc furnaces, 1elding units etc cannot be impro(ed by shunt capacitors since it
1ould require a rapidly (arying compensation le(el. 0he (oltage dips, especially in
the case of a lo1 short circuit capacity system can result in annoying lamp<flic2er,
dropping out of motor contactors due to ,E/ pic2 up, stalling of loaded motors etc
and fi5ed or s1itched shunt capacitors are po1erless against these (oltage dips. But
0hyristor controlled %tatic /ar compensators 1ith a fast response 1ill be able to
alle(iate the (oltage dip problem effecti(ely.
$. 6hat is the use of %eries 3apacitor 3ompensation in Distribution %ystemsG
%hunt compensation essentially reduces the current flo1 e(ery1here upto the
point 1here capacitors are located and all other ad(antages follo1 from this fact. But
series compensation acts directly on the series reactance of the line. ?t reduces the
transfer reactance bet1een supply point and the load and thereby reduces the (oltage
drop. %eries capacitor can be thought of as a (oltage regulator, 1hich adds a (oltage
proportional to the load current and there by impro(es the load (oltage.
%eries compensation is employed in -H/ lines to 9 impro(e the po1er transfer
capability $9 impro(e (oltage regulation '9 impro(e the load sharing bet1een parallel
lines. -conomic factors along 1ith the possible occurrence of sub<synchronous
resonance in the system 1ill decide the e5tent of compensation employed.
%eries capacitors, 1ith their inherent ability to add a (oltage proportional to load
current, 1ill be the ideal solution for handling the (oltage dip problem brought about
by motor starting, arc furnaces, 1elders etc. And, usually the application of series
compensation in distribution system is limited to this due to the comple5 protection
@)
required for the capacitors and the consequent high cost. Also, some problems li2e
elf<e5citation of motors during starting, ferro<resonance, steady hunting of
synchronous motors etc discourages 1ide spread use of series compensation in
distribution systems.
8c9 %hunt 3apacitor ?nstallation types4 <
0he capacitor installation types and types of control for s1itched capacitor are
best understood by considering a long feeder supplying a concentrated load at feeder
end. 0his is usually a (alid appro5imation for some of the city feeders, 1hich emanate
from substations, located ) to " &ms a1ay from the heart of the city. Ref :igs B.)8a9
; B.)8b9.

:ig B.)8a9 long distribution feeder supplying a concentrated load
:ig B.)8b9 Along feeder 1hich supplies heart for city from a sEs located a1ay from
the city. 0his feeder can be appro5imated by feeder ' for compensation studies
Absolute minimum po1er loss in this case 1ill result 1hen the concentrated load is
compensated to ,P: by locating capacitors across the load or nearby on the feeder.
@#
But the optimum (alue of compensation can be arri(ed at only by considering a cost
benefit analysis.
0he reacti(e demand of the load (aries o(er a day and a typical reacti(e demand
cur(e for a day is gi(en in :ig #.
?t is e(ident from :ig # that it 1ill require a continuously (ariable capacitor to 2eep
the compensation at economically optimum le(el throughout the day. Ho1e(er, this
can only be appro5imated by s1itched capacitor ban2s. ,sually one fi5ed capacitor
and t1o or three s1itched units 1ill be employed to match the compensation to the
reacti(e demand of the load o(er a day. 0he (alue of fi5ed capacitor is decided by
minimum reacti(e demand as sho1n in :ig B.#.
Automatic control of s1itching is required for capacitors located at the load end or on
the feeder. Automatic s1itching is done usually by a time s1itch or (oltage controlled
s1itch as sho1n in :ig B.#. 0he time s1itch is used to s1itch on the capacitor ban2
required to meet the day time reacti(e load and another capacitor ban2 s1itched on by
a lo1 (oltage signal during e(ening pea2 along 1ith the other t1o ban2s 1ill maintain
the required compensation during night pea2 hours.
D3/39 Pre!a(%#"' !#"'%+ere+ +r%"$ %"'(alla(%#"' #; !a>a!%(#r -a",'
3onsideration to be gi(en to4
h :ire haCard
h -5plosi(e haCard
h Ambient temperature
h/entilation of heat
h=ightning arresters and grounding to be ta2en care.
@@
:ig B.# reacti(edemand daily cur(e as a typical feeder sho1ing the capacitor
compensation requirements 89fi5ed capacitor 8$9time s1itched capacitor 8'9 (oltage
s1itched capacitor.
D3/32 Pr#(e!(%#" ;#r !a>a!%(#r -a",'
8a9 Protection generally consists of
<:use Protection
<%ystem Protection by o(er current relays
<Ban2 Protection by relays
@*
8b9 Protection of =arge 3apacitor Ban2s4
Protection engineering for shunt capacitor ban2s requires 2no1ledge of the
capabilities and limitations of the capacitor unit and associated electrical equipment
including indi(idual capacitor unit, ban2 s1itching de(ices, fuses, location and type
of (oltage and current instrument transformers.

A capacitor unit, :igure , is the building bloc2 of any %3B. 0he capacitor unit
is made up of indi(idual capacitor elements, arranged in parallelEseries connected
groups, 1ithin a steel enclosure. 0he internal discharge de(ice is a resistor that
reduces the unit residual (oltage allo1ing s1itching the ban2s bac2 after remo(ing it
from ser(ice. 3apacitor units are a(ailable in a (arietyof (oltage ratings 8$)!/ to
$#2/9 and siCes 8$.#2/Ar to about !!!2/Ar9.0he capacitor unit protection is based
on the capacitor element f ailing in a shorted mode. A failure in the capacitor element
dielectric causes the foils to 1eld together and short circuits the other capacitor
elements connected in parallel in the same group, refer to :igure . 0he remaining
series capacitor elements in the unit remain in ser(ice 1ith a higher (oltage across
each of them and an increased capacitor can current. ?f a second element fails the
process repeats itself resulting in an e(en higher (oltage for the remaining elements.
0here are generally four types of the capacitor unit designs to consider.
89 -5ternally :used 3apacitors

An indi(idual fuse, e5ternally mounted bet1een the capacitor unit and the
capacitor ban2 fuse bus, protects each capacitor unit. 0he capacitor unit can be
designed for a relati(ely high (oltage because the e5ternal fuse is capable of
interrupting a high<(oltage fault. Ho1e(er, the 2ilo (ar rating of the indi(idual
capacitor unit is usually smaller because a minimum number of parallel units are
required to allo1 the ban2 to remain in ser(ice 1ith a capacitor can out of ser(ice. A
%3B using fused capacitors is configured using one or more series groups of parallel<
connected capacitor units per phase, as sho1n in :igB.*.
@"
8$9 ?nternally :used 3apacitors

-ach capacitor element is fused inside the capacitor unit. A PsimplifiedQ fuse
is a piece of 1ire siCed to melt under the fault current, and encapsulated in a 1rapper
able to 1ithstand the heat produced by the arc during the current interruption. ,pon
the capacitor failure, the fuse remo(es the affected element only. 0he other elements,
connected in parallel in the same group, remain in ser(ice but 1ith a slightly higher
(oltage across them. :ig B." illustrates a typical capacitor ban2 utiliCing internally
used capacitor units. ?n general, ban2s employing internally fused capacitor units are
configured 1ith fe1er capacitor units in parallel, and more series groups of units than
are used in ban2s employing e5ternally fused capacitor units. 0he capacitor units are
built larger because the entire unit is not e5pected to fail.
8'9 :use less 3apacitors
:use less 3apacitor Ban2 designs are typically the most pre(alent designs in
modern day. 0he capacitor units for fuse less capacitor ban2s are connected in series
strings bet1een phase and neutral, as sho1n in :ig B.B. 0he higher the (oltage for
the ban2, the more capacitor elements in series. 0he e5pected failure of the capacitor
:ig B.@ 3apacitor ,nit.
@B
unit element is a short circuit, 1here the remaining capacitor elements 1ill absorb the
additional (oltage. :or e5ample, if there are @ capacitor units in series and each unit
has " element groups in series there is a total of )" element groups in the string. ?f one
capacitor element fails, this element is shorted and the (oltage across the remaining
elements is )"E)* of the pre(ious (alue, or about $U higher. 0he capacitor ban2
remains in ser(ice> ho1e(er, successi(e failures of elements 1ould aggra(ate the
problem and e(entually lead to the remo(al of the ban2. 0he fuse less design is
usually applied for applications at or abo(e').#2/ 1here each string has more than
! elements in series to ensure the remaining elements do not e5ceed !U rating if
an element in the string shorts.
8)9 3onfigurations of %hunt 3apacitor Ban2s4

Protection of shunt capacitor ban2s requires an understanding of the basics of
capacitor ban2 design and capacitor unit connections. As a general rule, the minimum
number of units connected in parallel is such that isolation of one capacitor unit in a
group should not cause a (oltage unbalance sufficient to place more than !U of
rated (oltage on the remaining capacitors of the group. -qually, the minimum number
of series connected groups is that in 1hich the complete bypass of the group does not
subject the other capacitors

:igB.* -5ternally fused shunt capacitor ban2 and capacitor unit.
*!
remaining in ser(ice to a permanent o(er(oltage of more than !U. 0he (alue of
!U is the ma5imum continuous o(er(oltage capability of capacitor units as per
?--- %td "<BB$.0he ma5imum number of capacitor units that may be placed in
parallel per group is go(erned by a different consideration. 6hen a capacitor ban2
unit fails, other capacitors in the same parallel group contain some amount of charge.
0his charge 1ill drain off as a high frequency transient current that flo1s through the
failed capacitor unit. 0he capacitor can fuse holder, 1hen used, and the failed
capacitor unit must 1ithstand this discharge transient. 0he discharge transient from a
large number of paralleled capacitors can be se(ere enough to rupture the failed
capacitor unit or e5plode a fuse holder, 1hich may damage adjacent units and e(en
cause a major bus fault 1ithin the ban2. 0o minimiCe the probability of failure of the
e5plosion of the fuse holder, or rupture of the capacitor case, or both, the standards
impose a limit to the total ma5imum energy stored in a parallel<connected group
to)@#! 2/AR. ?n order not to (iolate this limit, more capacitor groups of a lo1er
(oltage rating connected in series 81ith fe1er units in parallel per group9 may be a
suitable solution. Ho1e(er, this may reduce sensiti(ity of applied unbalance detection
schemes. %plitting the ban2 into t1o sections as a double 1ye may be the preferred
solution, and may allo1 for better unbalance detection scheme. 01o pre(alent
designs of %3Bs are the e5ternally fused ban2 and the fuse less ban2. 0here are
ad(antages to each design. -5ternally fused ban2s typically ha(e a higher unbalance
current 1hen a unit fails 1hich is used to operate a fused disconnect de(ice. 0his
design typically results in a simpler ban2 configuration and pro(ides an easy method
for field identification of a failed unit. A fused design also requires less sensiti(e
unbalance protection since the fuse is the principal method used for isolating a can
failure. Ho1e(er, this style of ban2 has a higher initial cost and usually higher
maintenance costs. %ince the fused element is e5posed to the en(ironment, the fuses
become less reliable and require more maintenance to ensure correct operation. As a
result, fuse less capacitor ban2s ha(e become increasingly popular. -limination of the
fused connection results in a lo1er initial cost, reduced maintenance costs, smaller
ban2 footprint, and fe1er losses. Also, this ban2 design typically ma2es catastrophic
can rupture less li2ely since the discharge energy of a failed element 1ill be small.
*

:ig B." ?nternally fused shunt capacitor ban2 and capacitor unit.

Ho1e(er, the fuse less ban2 design has t1o main disad(antages that increase the
emphasis on requiring sensiti(e relaying protection. +ne, the elimination of the
e5ternal fuse means that (isual indication of the failed capacitor has been lost. ?n
addition, an element failure results in an o(er(oltage condition of the remaining
elements, stressing them. 6ithout a fuse as a means of isolating the failed can, the
protecti(e relay must no1 be sensiti(e enough to detect a failed element and alarm
before additional elements fail causing a higher o(er(oltage condition on the
remaining units. Because of these t1o factors, it is especially important to utiliCe a
sensiti(e protecti(e relay 1hich can correctly isolate a ban2 for a failed element. Also,
the use of faulted phase identification assists field personnel in locating a failed
capacitor can 1ithout ha(ing to test the entire ban2. 0he optimum connection for a
%3B depends on the best utiliCation of the a(ailable (oltage ratings of capacitor units,
fusing, and protecti(e relaying. /irtually all H/ and -H/ ban2s are connected in one
of the t1o 1ye configurations listed belo1 L,$M. Distribution capacitor ban2s,
ho1e(er, may be connected in 1ye or delta. %ome ban2s may use an H configuration
on each of the phases 1ith a current transformer in the connecting branch to detect the
unbalance.
*$
8#9.rounded 6ye<3onnected Ban2s
.rounded 1ye capacitor ban2s are composed of series and parallel<connected
capacitor units per phase and pro(ide a lo1 impedance path to ground. 0his offers
some protection from surge o(er (oltages and transient o(er current conditions. 6hen
a capacitor ban2 becomes too large, ma2ing the parallel energy of a series group too
high for the capacitor units or fuses8abo(e )@#!2/Ar9, the ban2 may be split into t1o
1ye sections. 0he characteristics of the grounded double 1ye are similar to a
grounded single 1ye ban2. 0he t1o neutrals should be directly connected 1ith a
single path to ground.
0he double 1ye design facilitates better protection methods. -(en 1ith
inherent unbalances the t1o ban2s 1ill respond similarly to system e(ents, and
therefore, methods based on comparing one split<phase (ersus the other are more
sensiti(e and less prone to system e(ents 8phase current balance technique, for
e5ample9.%ystem e(ents, and therefore, methods based on comparing one split<phase
(ersus the other are more sensiti(e and less prone to system e(ents 8phase current
balance technique, for e5ample9.


:ig B.B :use less shunt capacitor ban2 and series string
*'
8@9,ngrounded 6ye<3onnected Ban2s
,ngrounded 1ye ban2s do not permit Cero sequence currents, third harmonic
currents, or large capacitor discharge currents during system ground faults 8phase<to<
phase faults may still occur and 1ill result in large discharge currents9. Another
ad(antage is that o(er (oltages appearing at the 30 secondaries are not as high as in
the case of grounded ban2s. Ho1e(er, the neutral should be insulated for full line
(oltage because it is momentarily at phase potential 1hen the ban2 is s1itched or
1hen one capacitor unit fails in a ban2 configured 1ith a single group of units.
8*9 Delta<3onnected Ban2s
Delta<connected ban2s are generally used only at distribution (oltages and are
configured 1ith a single series group of capacitors rated at line<to<line (oltage. 6ith
only one series group of units n o(er (oltage occurs across the remaining capacitor
units from the isolation of a faulted capacitor unit.
8"9 H<3onfiguration
%ome larger ban2s use an H configuration in each phase 1ith a current
transformer connected bet1een the t1o legs to compare the current do1n each leg. As
long as all capacitors are balanced, no current 1ill flo1 through the current
transformer. ?f a capacitor fuse operates, some current 1ill flo1 through the current
transformer. 0his bridge connection facilitates (ery sensiti(e protection. 0he H
arrangement is used on large ban2s 1ith many capacitor units in parallel.
8B9%ensiti(e 3apacitor Ban2 Protection 7ethods
/oltage Differential
6ith reference to :igure #, this function is based on a (oltage di(ider principle
F a healthy capacitor string has a constant and 2no1n di(ision ratio bet1een its full
*)
tap 8typically the bus (oltage9 and an au5iliary tap used by the protection. 0he
principle could be used on both grounded 8:ig B.$! 8a99 and ungrounded 8:ig B.$! 8b99
ban2s. ?n the latter case the neutral point (oltage 8/]9 must be measured by the relay,
and used to deri(e the (oltage across the string.


:ig B.$! /oltage differential application to grounded 8a9 and ungrounded 8b9 ban2s.
0he function uses the follo1ing operating signal4
6here 2A is a di(ision ratio for the A<phase of the ban2. ?dentical relations apply to
phases B and 3. Note that equations 89 can be implemented using either phasors or
magnitudes. During no<fault conditions and under small ban2 unbalances caused by
internal ban2 failures, the t1o (oltage s1ill be almost in phase, suggesting the phasors
and magnitude (ersions 1ould yield similar results. Ho1e(er, the function is set (ery
sensiti(e and gi(en possible angular errors of the used /0s, there 1ill be differences
in performance bet1een the t1o possible (ersions. 0he performance depends on the
type of security measures used to deal 1ith errors of instrument transformers. 7ore
information is pro(ided in one of the follo1ing sections.
*#
0ypically, the method is used on grounded ban2s and equation 8a9is used. ?n
theory, the algorithm could be applied on ungrounded ban2s using equation 8 b9, but it
requires both the neutral (oltage and the tap (oltages to be measured. %uch
arrangements may not be practical 8the tap (oltages not measured on ungrounded
ban2s9. ?f the tap (oltages are measured, one could apply multiple o(erlapping
protection Cones to the ungrounded ban2 as long asthe applied relay8s9 support the
required number of inputs and associated protection functions. %pecifically, equation
8b9 can be used for (oltage differential> and t1o neutral (oltage unbalance protection
elements can be used F one balancing the bus (oltages 1ith the neutral (oltage, and
another balancing the tap (oltages against the neutral (oltage.

-quations 89 apply to primary (oltages, and as such they incorporate the
(oltage<di(iding ratio of the capacitor, but ignore the ratios of applied instrument
transformers. ?n secondary (oltages, the operating (oltage is4
6here the operating signal is in secondary (olts of the bus /0, and the "/0,
"VT4 and "/0] stand for ratios of the bus, tap, and neutral (oltage transformers,
respecti(ely. Normally the /0 ratios are selected so that the secondary (oltages for
the bus and tap (oltages are similar under nominal system (oltage. 0his leads to the
effecti(e matching factor for the secondary (oltages being close to unity4

,a O8"/0I "/0$9K
/oltage<based capacitor protection functions are set sensiti(e. .i(en the format of
equations 89 both the bus and tap (oltages shall be measured accurately in order to
gain sensiti(ity of protection. As a result the /0 ratios shall be selected so that the
resultant secondary (oltages fall in the region of ma5imum relay accuracy, and the
*@
t1o /0s 1or2 1ithin their ma5imum class accuracy under nominal system (oltage.
0he latter is ensured for the bus (oltage> selection of the /0 for the tap (oltage shall
be done carefully to minimiCe /0 and relay errors for the tap (oltage. Relay setting
range for the ratio<matching factor is another condition that may limit selection of this
/0 ratio. 0he follo1ing characteristics apply to the (oltage differential function L'M4
i 0he element shall support indi(idual per<phase settings to cope 1ith different
unbalances bet1een the phases 8repairs and shorted units9.
i 0he element is capable of indicating the affected phase, and potentially the number
of faulted capacitor elements, to aid trouble shooting and repairs of the ban2.
i 0he function shall apply appropriate security measures for sensiti(e but secure
operation4 appropriate restraint signal could be de(eloped to accompany the operating
signal 89.%etting range shall allo1 disabling the restraint if desired so.
i %e(eral independent pic2up thresholds shall be pro(ided for alarming and tripping.
i 0he (oltage matching coefficients 829 shall be indi(idually table per phase.
i Both auto<setting and self<tuning applications of this method are possible. Pro(ision
could be made to calculate the matching factors 2 automatically under manual
super(ision of the user, either locally or remotely 8auto<setting9, or calculate the factor
constantly in a slo1 adjusting loop 8self<tuning9.0he process of finding the constant
balancing a gi(en phase protection is based on the follo1ing simple equation4

0he (oltage differential method can be used in a number of configurations as long as
the relay allo1s 1ide range of ratio matching for the compared (oltages4 tap (oltage
can be compared 1ith the bus (oltage> t1o taps can be compared on the same ban2>
t1o taps can be compared bet1een t1o parallel ban2s, etc.
D3/3/ ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION FOR USE OF CAPACITORS?
?ncrease in benefits for &/AR of additional compensation decrease rapidly as
the system po1er factor reaches close to unity. 0his fact prompts an economic
**
analysis to arri(e at the optimum compensation le(el. Different economic criteria can
be used for this purpose. 0he annual financial benefit obtained by using capacitors can
be compared against the annual equi(alent of the total cost in(ol(ed in the capacitor
installation. 0he decision also can be based on the number of years it 1ill ta2e to
reco(er the cost in(ol(ed in the 3apacitor installation. A more sophisticated method
1ould be able to calculate the present (alue of future benefits and compare it against
the present cost of capacitor installation. 6hen reacti(e po1er is pro(ided only by
generators, each system component 8generators, transformers, transmission and
distribution lines, s1itch gear and protecti(e equipment etc9 has to be increased in
siCe accordingly. 3apacitors reduce losses and loading in all these equipments,
thereby effecting sa(ings through po1erless reduction and increase in generator, line
and substation capacity for additional load. Depending on the initial po1er factor,
capacitor installations can release at least '!Uadditionalcapacity in generators, lines
and transformers. Also they can increase the distribution feeder load capability by
about '!U in the case of feeders 1hich 1ere limited by (oltage drop considerations
earlier. ?mpro(ement in system (oltage profile 1ill usually result in increased po1er
consumption thereby enhancing the re(enue from energy sales. 0hus, the follo1ing
benefits are to be considered in an economic analysis of compensation requirements.
a9 Benefits due to released generation capacity.
b9 Benefits due to released transmission capacity.
c9 Benefits due to released distribution substation capacity.
d9 Benefits due to reduced energy loss.
e9 Benefits due to reduced (oltage drop.
f9 Benefits due to released feeder capacity.
g9 :inancial Benefits due to (oltage impro(ement.
3apacitors in distribution system 1ill indeed release generation and transmission
capacities. But 1hen indi(idual distribution feeder compensation is in question, the
(alue of released capacities in generation and transmission system is li2ely to be too
small to 1arrant inclusion in economic analysis. 7oreo(er, due to the tightly inter<
connected nature of the system, the e5act benefit due to capacity release in these areas
is quite difficult to compute. 3apacity release in generation and transmission system
*"
is probably more rele(ant in compensation studies at transmission and sub<
transmission le(els and hence left out from the economic analysis of capacitor
application in distribution systems.
a.9 B-N-:?0% D,- 0+ R-=-A%-D D?%0R?B,0?+N %,B%0A0?+N 3APA3?0Y4

0he released distribution substation capacity due to installation of capacitors 1hich
deli(er Ac 7/ARs of compensation at pea2 load conditions may be sho1n to be
equal to
6here
3 K 3ost of station ; associated apparatus per 7/A
i K annual fi5ed charge rate applicable
8b9 Benefits due to reduced energy losses4
Annual energy losses are reduced as a result of decreasing copper loss due to
installation of capacitors. ?nformation on type of capacitor installation, location of
*B
installation nature of feeder loading etc. are needed to calculate this. 0he calculation
can proceed as follo1s
=et a current ?

Dj ?
$
flo1 through a resistance R. 0he po1er loss is 8?

$
D ?
$
$
9 R.
0he po1er loss due to reacti(e component is ?
$
$
R. 3ompensating the feeder 1ill
result in a change only in ?
$
. Hence the ne1 po1er loss 1ill be 8?
$
$
D8?
$
<?
c
9
$
9 R 1here
?c is the compensating current. Hence the decrease in po1er loss due to compensating
part of reacti(e current is 8$ ?
$
?c<?c
$
9 R.
No1, if ?
$
is (arying 8it 1ill be (arying according to reacti(e demand cur(e9 the
a(erage decrease in po1er loss o(er a period of 0 hours 1ill be equal to 8$ ?
$
?c :
R
<?c
$
9
R 1here ?
$
stands for pea2 reacti(e current during 0 hours through the feeder section
of resistance R, ?c is compensation current flo1ing through the same section for the
same period and :
R
is reacti(e load factor for 0 hours in the same section. 0hus total
energy sa(ings in this section of feeder for 0 hours 1ill be '8$?
$
?c:
R
<?c
$
9 R0.
+ne day can be di(ided into many such periods depending on the number of
fi5ed and s1itched capacitors and the sequence of operation of s1itched capacitors.
Also, the feeder can be modeled by uniformly distributed load or discrete loading and
total energy sa(ings can be found out for each period o(er the entire period by
mathematical integration or discrete summation. 0he daily and hence the annual
energy sa(ings for the entire feeder can be 1or2ed by an aggregation o(er the time
periods.
=et be this (alue if total energy sa(ings per year. Annual benefits due to conser(ed
energy 1ill be ] cost of energy.
8c9 Benefits due to released feeder capacity4
?n general feeder capacity is restricted by (oltage regulation considerations rather than
thermal limits. %hunt compensation impro(es (oltage regulation and there by
enhances feeder capacity. 0his additional feeder capacity can be calculated
"!
as 1here Ac is compensation 87/AR9 employed, ] and R
are feeder reactance ; resistance respecti(ely and is the P.: before
compensation. 0he annual benefits due to this 1ill be 6here 3 is the cost
of the installed feeder per 7/A and i is the annual fi5ed charge rate applicable.
8d9 :inancial benefits due to (oltage impro(ement.
-nergy consumption increases 1ith impro(ed (oltage. -5act (alue of the increased
consumption can be 1or2ed out from a 2no1ledge of elasticity of loads of the
concerned feeders 1ith respect to (oltage. =et it be . Annual re(enue increase
due to this 1ill be cost of energy.
:1= A""al eE%&ale"( #; (#(al !#'( #; (he %"'(alle+ !a>a!%(#r -a",'3
0his 1ill be equal to 1here Ac is total capaciti(e 7/AR to be installed, 3
is cost of capacitors per 7/AR and i is the annual fi5ed charge applicable.
0he total annual benefits should be compared against the annual equi(alent of total
cost of capacitors to arri(e at optimum compensation le(els.
:4= O>(%66 Ca>a!%(#r All#!a(%#" O" D%'(r%-(%#" Fee+er'.
0he benefits obtained from the release of feeder and substation capacities 1ill depend
only on total compensating 7/AR a(ailable on the feeder during pea2 load hours.
But benefits due to energy loss reduction 1ill depend nearly on ho1 this total 7/AR
is distributed on the feeder 8i.e. the location, number and capacities of fi5ed and
s1itched capacitor ban2s on the feeder9, the daily reacti(e load cur(e at (arious
sections of the feeder, the s1itching schedule of the s1itched capacitors etc. 0he
energy sa(ings calculations ha(e been briefly touched upon in section. :or a gi(en
total capaciti(e 7/AR on the feeder during pea2 time there are many 1ays to di(ided
it in to fi5ed and s1itched units and many possible locations 1here the ban2s can be
"
placed. Hence a study on the optimum number of ban2s and optimum location of
these ban2s in order to obtain ma5imum energy sa(ings for a gi(en amount of total
compensation is in order. But ho1 can the feeder be modeled for this purposeG
8a9 0he feeder models for optimum capacitor allocation.
A practical 2/ feeder is loaded in a non<uniform manner both 1ith respect to the
rating of distribution transformers and transformer to transformer distance. Hence,
only a Sdiscretely loaded feederS model can gi(e the e5act solution to the abo(e
mentioned optimiCation problem. But, such a model can be sol(ed only numerically
1ith the help of a computer. Hence there is need for a simpler model.
Analytical e5pression for the optimum solution can be attempted if closely located but
non<uniformly distributed transformers can be aggregated into a small number of 8say
$ or ' or )9 discrete loads as sho1n in :ig B.$ 8a9 ;B.$ 8b9. 0his is possible in the
case of city feeders emanating from a substation, 1hich is some1hat distant from
to1n center.

:ig B.$8a9typical &/ distributions 8b9 the abo(e feeder 1ith leads aggregated
0he feeder can at times be modeled as a feeder 1ith a concentrated load at the
tail end. 0his is possible for a feeder emanating from a distant substation to supply
"$
po1er to distribution transformers located densely at the feeder end to supply the
heart of the city.
0he most frequently used feeder model is a feeder 1ith a uniformly distributed
load 1ith a possible concentrated load at the tail end. 0his model is appropriate for
city feeders, 1hich emanate from substations quite close to the city. 0ransformers are
li2ely to be distributed right from the beginning of the feeder on1ards, more or less at
equal distance and the transformers are li2ely to be of more or less same rating.
7oreo(er these transformers 1ill be supplying more or less similar type of loads. 0he
concentrated load at the feeder and may be an actual concentrated load or equi(alent
lumped load of the rest of the feeder 1hich for some reason or other need not be
modeled in detail.
Another useful assumption is possible usually in the case of such feeders. 0he
homogeneous nature of load on such a feeder ma2es it possible to assume that the
load on a particular transformer at any time of the day is gi(en by the follo1ing
relation
0his effecti(ely means that the normaliCed daily acti(e po1er and reacti(e po1er
demand cur(es are of same shape in all feeder sections and same as the cur(es of the
feeder load at substation. 0his assumption 1hich is (alid for most of the urban feeders
simplifies the analysis considerably and ma2es a closed form solution for the
capacitor allocation problem possible.
8b9 +ptimum Allocation using uniformly distributed load model for the feeder<
3onsider a feeder 1ith a uniformly distributed load and a concentrated load at the end
as sho1n in fig B.$$ 8a9. 0he reacti(e current distribution in the feeder 8for any time
instant9 is sho1n in fig B.$$ b9.
"'
:ig B.$$ 8a9 uniformly loaded feeder 1ith lumped sum load at the end
j 8b9 Reacti(e current distributors is the feeder in B.$8a9
0he reacti(e current profile of the same feeder 1ith a capacitor located at a distance
5 from station end is sho1n in fig B.$$ 8b9 by dotted lines. 0he total po1er loss
reduction after adding the capacitor 1ill be
6here [r[ is resistance per unit length, and [l[ is the length of the feeder. 0he per unit
loss reduction is obtained by di(iding this by the loss 1ithout compensation. 8+nly
loss contributed by reacti(e currents is considered here since loss contributed by
acti(e current 1ill not change on compensation.9 After simplifying the equation
P
=%
in Pu K
6here
")
And
And K per unit distance of capacitor location from station end.
0his method can be e5tended for n capacitor ban2s of equal rating 8it can be pro(ed
that 1hen multiple fi5ed capacitors are used they ha(e to be of equal rating to be
economical9 located at (arious locations on the feeder. ?n that case
P
=%
in Pu K
6here 5
?
Kdistance of i
th
capacitor from station end.
0he optimum locations are found by equating the partial deri(ati(es of P
=%
1ith
respect to to Cero and sol(ing for . 0his yields
%ubstituting this in the e5pression for P=%, the ma5imum (alue of loss reduction 1ith
n capacitors of equal rating located at optimum locations can be obtained.
7a5imiCing 1ith respect to 3 yields the (alue of compensation, 1hich yields
the absolute ma5imum (alue of loss reduction 1ith n optimum (alued capacitors
located at optimum points.
"#

Hence total compensation required K 5 total reacti(e load at station end before
compensation.
%pecial cases.
Distributed load, no lumped sum load , single capacitor.
"@
3onclusion from the analysis4
:or a feeder 1ith uniformly distributed load most of the po1er loss due to reacti(e
loading can be eliminated by using a fi5ed shunt capacitor of 8 O total feeder
reacti(e load9 rating at 8 Olength of feeder9 a1ay from source. 0here is not much
ad(antage to be deri(ed from increasing the number of capacitor ban2s from one or
t1o.
8ii9 a lumped load at tail end tends to shift the optimum location to1ards the tail end
and does not ha(e any influence on the optimum capacitor (alue.
8c9 +ptimum allocation based +n 7a5imum -nergy =oss Reduction.
No mention about the particular (alue of total reacti(e loading on the feeder
1as made in the abo(e analysis. 6ith a changing reacti(e le(el o(er the day,
optimality 1ith respect to po1er loss reduction can be maintained only by employing
capacitor 7/AR% 1hich also change continuously. But using fi5ed capacitors this is
not possible. %o, 1hich (alue of reacti(e loading must be used to calculate the
optimum allocationG
?t is ob(ious that more important than optimiCing the po1er loss reduction is
the optimiCing of energy loss reduction.. ?t should equally be ob(ious that optimum
compensation based on pea2 condition may result in a net increase in energy losses
due to o(er compensation during off pea2 periods.
?t 1as earlier pointed out that loss reduction in a feeder segment carrying a
reacti(e load current of ? amps and a compensation current of ?c amps 1ill be 'R8$ ?
?c < ?c
$
9 1here R is the segment resistance. 0he a(erage po1er loss reduction in 0
hours in this segment 1ill hence be 'R8$ ?a(g O ?c F?c
$
9 1here ?a( is a(erage reacti(e
load current o(er 0 hrs and ?a(K ?pea2 O : 1here : is the reacti(e load factor o(er 0
hours.
"*
0he optimal allocation for ma5imum energy loss reduction may be carried out
by ta2ing reacti(e load factor into consideration. 0he results 1ill be as sho1n in ne5t
page.
0he optimum location and optimum compensation le(el required for ma5imiCing
energy loss reduction 1ill be considerably different compared to the (alues obtained
from ma5imiCing pea2 load po1er loss reduction for lo1 (alues of reacti(e load
factor, especially 1hen the concentrated load at feeder end goes up in (alue.
%ome rules for application of capacitor ban2s on distribution feeders.
i. 0he location of fi5ed shunt capacitors should be based on a(erage reacti(e
load.
ii. 0here is only one location for each siCe of capacitor ban2 that produces
ma5imum loss reduction.
iii. +ne large capacitor ban2 can pro(ide almost as much sa(ings as t1o or more
ban2s of equal siCe.
i(. 6hen multiple locations are used for fi5ed capacitors, the ban2s must ha(e
same rating to be economical.
""
(. 0he t1o< thirds rule for compensation le(el and location in the case of a
uniformly loaded feeder is useful only 1hen reacti(e load factor is high and a
fi5ed capacitor is to be used.
+ptimum location and siCe 1hen s1itched capacitors are used along 1ith fi5ed
capacitors.
Absolute ma5imum energy loss reduction can be obtained only if the
capacitors are maintained at optimum (alues 1ith the changing reacti(e le(els o(er
the day. :i5ed capacitors, hence, 1ill gi(e only a lesser energy loss reduction. 3loser
trac2ing of reacti(e load cur(e of feeder is possible by employing s1itched capacitor
ban2s 8s1itched either by time s1itch or (oltage s1itch9. 3learly, employing s1itched
ban2s 1ill result in greater reduction in energy loss especially 1hen reacti(e load
factor is lo1.
As e5plained before one fi5ed ban2 1ith t1o s1itched ban2s should be
sufficient to trac2 the reacti(e load cur(e. But ho1 can the ratings and locations of
these ban2s be fi5edG ?t should be clear that the e5pressions based on uniform
distribution 1ill not be (alid due to the discontinuity in reacti(e profile introduced by
the fi5ed capacitor.
-5tensi(e computations reported in the literature has re(ealed that ma5imum
po1er loss reduction in a feeder 1ith uniformly or non uniformly distributed load or
1ith discrete point loads is obtained 1hen the capacitor ban2 is located at a point
1here its rating is equal to t1ice the reacti(e flo1 at that point before
compensation. Hence, the method to arri(e at ratings and locations of the three ban2s
1ill be as follo1s.
Di(ide the daily reacti(e load cur(e in to three regions<light load period,
medium load period, and hea(y load period. Also find pea2 load for all the periods
and reacti(e load factors for all the periods.
"B
0he rating of the fi5ed capacitor 1ill be 8 pea2 reacti(e load in the light load
period reacti(e load factor for this period.9. 0his capacitor is to be located at a point
1here the reacti(e flo1 during light load condition is half the rating of capacitor.
:ind the (alue of total capacitor required under medium load condition using
the same rule as in 8ii9 i.e. assuming single ban2 compensation.
:ind the rating of the first s1itched capacitor by subtracting the (alue of fi5ed
capacitor from the (alue obtained in 8iii9
=ocate this s1itched capacitor at a point 1here the reacti(e load lo1 after
accounting for the fi5ed capacitor contribution is required to half the s1itched
capacitor rating.
Repeat 8iii9 for hea(y load period and find the rating of second s1itched
capacitor by subtracting the (alues of fi5ed and first s1itched capacitors
=ocate this s1itched capacitor at a point 1here the reacti(e load flo1 is after
accounting for the contributions from fi5ed capacitor and first s1itched capacitor is
equal to half the second s1itched capacitor rating. Needless to mention that optimum
ratings can be hand calculated only if feeder load before compensation can be
considered as a uniformly distributed one.
:9= H#w (# +e!%+e (he #>(%66 le&el #; !#6>e"'a(%#"
.eneral method
%implified method
7ethod based on the a(oidance of tariff penalties
7ethod based on reduction of declared ma5imum apparent po1er 82/A9
:a= Ge"eral 6e(h#+?
8i9 =isting of reacti(e po1er demands at the design stage
0his listing can be made in the same 1ay 8and at the same time9 as that for
B!
the po1er loading described in S.eneral rules of electrical installation designS. 0he
le(els of acti(e and reacti(e po1er loading, at each le(el of the installation 8generally
at points of distribution and sub<distribution of circuits9 can then be determined.
8ii9 0echnical<economic optimiCation for an e5isting installation
0he optimum rating of compensation capacitors for an e5isting installation can
be determined from the follo1ing principal considerations4
-lectricity bills prior to the installation of capacitors
:uture electricity bills anticipated follo1ing the installation of capacitors
3osts of4
< Purchase of capacitors and control equipment 8contactors, relaying, cabinets, etc.9
< ?nstallation and maintenance costs
< 3ost of dielectric heating losses in the capacitors, (ersus reduced losses in cables,
transformer, etc., follo1ing the installation of
capacitors
%e(eral simplified methods applied to typical tariffs 8common in -urope9 are sho1n
in sub<clauses S7ethod based on the a(oidance of tariff penaltiesS and S7ethod based
on reduction of declared ma5imum apparent po1er 82/A9S.
:%%%= S%6>l%;%e+ 6e(h#+
.eneral principle
An appro5imate calculation is generally adequate for most practical cases,
and may be based on the assumption of a po1er factor of !." 8lagging9 before
compensation. ?n order to impro(e the po1er factor to a (alue sufficient to a(oid tariff
penalties 8this depends on local tariff structures, but is assumed here to be !.B'9 and to
reduce losses, (olt<drops, etc. in the installation. :rom the figure, it can be seen that,
to raise the po1er factor of the installation from !." to !.B' 1ill require !.'## 2(ar
per 26 of load. 0he rating of a ban2 of capacitors at the bus bars of the main
distribution board of the installation 1ould be

A 8&/AR9 K !.'## 5 P 8269.
B
0his simple approach allo1s a rapid determination of the compensation
capacitors required, albeit in the global, partial or independent mode.
:%&= Me(h#+ -a'e+ #" (he a&#%+a"!e #; (ar%;; >e"al(%e'
?n the case of certain 8common9 types of tariff, an e5amination of se(eral
bills co(ering the most hea(ily<loaded period of the year allo1s determination of the
2(ar le(el of compensation required to a(oid 2(arh 8reacti(e<energy9 charges. 0he
pay<bac2 period of a ban2 of po1er<factor<correction capacitors and associated
equipment is generally about " months.
0he follo1ing method allo1s calculation of the rating of a proposed capacitor ban2,
based on billing details, 1here the tariff structure corresponds 1ith 8or is similar to9
the one described in SReduction in the cost of electricityS.
0he method determines the minimum compensation required to a(oid these charges
1hich are based on 2(arh consumption.
0he procedure is as follo1s4
Refer to the bills co(ering consumption for the # months of 1inter 8in :rance
these are No(ember to 7arch inclusi(e9.
Note4 in tropical climates the summer months may constitute the period of hea(iest
loading and highest pea2s 8o1ing to e5tensi(e air conditioning loads9 so that a
consequent (ariation of high<tariff periods is necessary in this case. 0he remainder of
this e5ample 1ill assume 6inter conditions in :rance.
?dentify the line on the bills referring to Preacti(e<energy consumedQ and
P2(arh to be chargedQ. 3hoose the bill 1hich sho1s the highest charge for 2(arh
8after chec2ing that this 1as not due to some e5ceptional situation9.
:or e5ample4 #,B@@ 2(arh in Zanuary.
B$
-(aluate the total period of loaded operation of the installation for that month,
for instance4 $$! hours 8$$ days 5 ! hours9. 0he hours 1hich must be counted
are those occurring during the hea(iest load and the highest pea2 loads occurring
on the po1er system. 0hese are gi(en in the tariff documents, and are 8commonly9
during a @<hour period each day, either from !@.!! h to $$.!! h or from !*.!! h
to $'.!! h according to the region. +utside these periods, no charge is made for
2(arh consumption.
0he necessary (alue of compensation in 2(ar K 2(arh billedEnumber of hours
of operation
89
K Ac
0he rating of the installed capacitor ban2 is generally chosen to be slightly larger than
that calculated. 3ertain manufacturers can pro(ide Pslide rulesQ especially designed to
facilitate these 2inds of calculation, according to particular tariffs. 0hese de(ices and
accompanying documentation ad(ice on suitable equipment and control schemes, as
1ell as dra1ing attention to constraints imposed by harmonic (oltages on the po1er
system. %uch (oltages require either o(er dimensioned capacitors 8in terms of heat<
dissipation, (oltage and current ratings9 andEor harmonic<suppression inductors or
filters.
9 ?n the billing period, during the hours for 1hich reacti(e energy is charged for the
case considered abo(e4

factor of the load from 0.7 to 0.95 (0.691 x 85.4 = 59 kvar in the figure). he declared value of
k!" #ill then $e

i.e. an im%rovement of &0'.
9&

:igB.$'4 Reduction of declared ma5imum 2/A by po1er<factor impro(ement

D3A Rea!(%&e >#wer !#6>e"'a(%#" 6e(h#+'?

.enerally spea2ing, a undesired po1er factor (alue caused by inducti(e
load connected to the supplying net1or2 can be corrected 8compensated9 by
means of loads ha(ing capaciti(e beha(ior. Practically, there are t1o methods of
reacti(e po1er compensation in electric net1or2s, 1hich are depicted on the
diagram belo14

%ENo. Artificial Natural
-lectrical motors 1ith appropriate
po1er as 1ell as replacing not fully
loaded motors 1ith smaller ones.
3apacitor Ban2s
$ Pre(enting idle operation of electric
motors and transformers.
-lectric motors
' %1itching off transformer 1elding
machines during the bra2es in
1elding.
+(er e5citation of synchroniCed
asynchronous motors
) Replacing induction motors 1ith the
synchronous ones.
0ableB.$ Reacti(e po1er compensation methods
B)
:or not comple5 electric grids 1here there is a small amount of inducti(e
loads. Natural method of compensation might be good enough, especially 1hen
desired parameters of the grid are not e5cessi(e. ?n case of large po1er grids,
mentioned method is not sufficient, so there is a need to impro(e the net1or2
parameters by means of artificial reacti(e po1er compensation method.
D3B T)>e' #; Rea!(%&e P#wer C#6>e"'a(%#" a"+ C#"(r#l?

b %eries compensation
b %hunt compensation
b 0raditional /AR .eneratorsE3ompensators.
b %tatic /AR systems
b 3on(erter<based 3ompensator 8%0A03+79
b %tatic synchronous series compensator.
b/ariable shunt reactors
bAnd other (oltage sourced con(erter de(ices

8a9 %eries compensation4
Description
%eries compensation is defined as insertion of reacti(e po1er elements into
transmission lines and pro(ides the follo1ing benefits4
Reduces line (oltage drops
=imits load<dependent (oltage drops
?nfluences load flo1 in parallel transmission lines
?ncreases transfer capability
Reduces transmission angle
?ncreases system stability
:or these tas2s, %iemens offers (arious solutions that ha(e already been pro(en in
numerous applications. Applications are the :i5ed %eries 3apacitor 8:%39, the
B#
0hyristor F 3ontrolled %eries 3apacitor 803%39 and the 0hyristor < Protected %eries
3apacitor 80P%39.
De(a%l'
0he tas2 of series compensation is to reduce the transmission lines inducti(ity.
0his means, that the line length is S(irtuallyS shortened. As a consequence, the
transmission angle is reduced and thus the po1er transfer can be increased 1ithout
reduction of the system stability.

:ig B.$) %eries compensation in a substation

:ig B.$# 3ircuit diagrams and Phasor diagram of series compensation
B@
?n the table B.' the impact on the short<circuit le(el, the transmission phase
angle and the (oltage after load rejection are sho1n. Applications for each type of
series compensation are included.

0able B.' the impact on the short<circuit le(el, the transmission phase angle and the
(oltage after load rejection
A>>l%!a(%#"'

%eries compensation ma2es use of capacitors, reactors or po1er electronic
de(ices offering high fle5ibilty. Depending on the application three different types of
%eries 3ompensation are pro(ided. 0he most common application is the :i5ed %eries
3apacitor 8:%39. 0hyristor</al(e 3ontrolled %ystems 803%39 and 0hyristor</al(e
Protected %ystems 80P%39 may also be installed.
F%<e+ Ser%e' Ca>a!%(#r :FSC=

0he simplest and most cost<effecti(e type of series compensation is pro(ided by
:i5ed %eries 3apacitors 8:%3s9. :%3 installations are protected against o(er(oltages
using 7+/s and selfEforced triggered gaps.
Due to its benefits li2e
B*
?ncrease in transmission capacity and
Reduction in transmission angle
:i5ed series compensation is a pro(en solution to optimiCe po1er transmission.
:%3s comprise the actual capacitor ban2s and parallel arresters 8metal o5ide (aristors,
7+/s9, spar2 gaps, and a bypass s1itch. %urge arresters, spar2 gaps and bypass
s1itch ha(e a protecting function in a :i5ed %eries 3apacitor ban2 installation. 0he
bypass s1itch protects the spar2 gap 1hich defends the arrester from e5cessi(e energy
absorption. 0he surge arresters in turn protect the capacitor from o(er(oltages during
and after transmission system failures. 0hree high<(oltage s1itches ser(e to integrate
the :%3 into and isolate it from the transmission line 8e.g., for maintenance purposes9.
A damping circuit is connected in series 1ith the triggered spar2 gap and is not
al1ays stressed by the ac<line current. ?n parallel to the spar2 gap the bypass<brea2er
is located to pro(ide current commutation for times 1hen the current capability of the
%par2 gap or 7+/ is e5ceeded. During internal faults 8faults occuring on the H/<line
to 1hich the capacitor ban2 is connected to9 the spar2 gap and the bypass<brea2er are
allo1ed to operate and to protect capacitor and 7+/ from o(erload.
?n some cases a 7+/ only protection scheme is used 8i.e. no spar2 gap9 ho1e(er this
usually requries a much higher 7+/ energy 1hich is more costly than a %par2 .ap
%olution. A typical single line diagram for a :%3 is sho1n belo1.

DF
:igB.$@ :i5ed %eries 3apacitor 8:%39
Ser%e'.!#""e!(e+ !#"(r#ller'?

As shunt<connected controllers, series<connected :A30% controllers can
also be di(ided into either impedance type or con(erter type. 0he former includes
0hyristor<%1itched %eries 3apacitor 80%%39, 0hyristor<3ontrolled %eries 3apacitor
803%39, 0hyristor<%1itched %eries Reactor, and 0hyristor<3ontrolled %eries Reactor.
0he latter, based on /%?, is usually in the form of a %tatic %ynchronous %eries
3ompensator 8%%%39. 0he composition and operation of different types are similar to
the operation of the shunt<connected peers.
:igure sho1s the diagrams of (arious series<connected controllers.
0hyristor F 3ontrolled %eries 3apacitor 803%39

Reacti(e po1er compensation by means of 03%3s can be adapted not only to
brand<ne1 installations but also be implemented in a 1ide range of e5isting systems.
0he 03%3 pro(ides, in addition to the con(eniences of a con(entional :i5ed %eries
3ompensation, some further benefits. ?t also controls the current and thus the load
flo1 in parallel transmission lines, 1hich simultaneously impro(es system stability.
:urther applications for 03%3 include po1er oscillation damping and mitigation of
sub synchronous resonance 8%%R9, 1hich is a crucial issue in case of large thermal
generators.

DD

:igureB.$* %eries<connected :A30% controllers4 8a9 03%R and 0%%R> 8b9 0%%3> 8c9
%%%3

=ocal mitigation of sub synchronous resonance 8%%R9 permits higher le(els of
compensation in net1or2s 1here interactions 1ith turbine<generator torsional
(ibrations or 1ith other control or measuring systems are of concern.
!!
Damping of electromechanical 8!.#<$ HC9 po1er oscillations often arises
bet1een areas in a large interconnected po1er net1or2. 0hese oscillations are due to
the dynamics of inter area po1er transfer and often e5hibit poor damping 1hen the
aggregate po1er transfer o(er a corridor is high relati(e to the transmission strength.
A typical single line diagram of a 03%3 is sho1n in the figure belo1.


:igB.$" 0hyristor F 3ontrolled %eries 3apacitor 803%39
101
Th)r%'(#r 5 Pr#(e!(e+ Ser%e' Ca>a!%(#r :TPSC=

:ig B.$B 0hyristor F Protected %eries 3apacitor 80P%39
6hen direct<light<triggered thyristors are used, there is no need to install
con(entional spar2 gaps or surge arresters. Due to the (ery short cooling times of the
light<triggered thyristor (al(es, thyristor protected series capacitors can be quic2ly
returned to ser(ice after a failure, allo1ing the transmission lines to be utiliCed to their
ma5imum capacity. 0P%3s are the first choice 1hene(er transmission lines must be
returned to ma5imum carrying capacity as quic2ly as possible after a failure.

104
:-= Sh"( !#6>e"'a(%#"?
?n shunt compensation, po1er system is connected in shunt 1ith the :A30%.
?t 1or2s as a controllable current source. %hunt compensation is of t1o types4 %hunt
capaciti(e compensation. 0his method is used impro(e the po1er factor. 6hene(er an
inducti(e load is connected to the transmission line, po1er factor lags because of
lagging load current. 0o compensate, a shunt capacitor is connected 1hich dra1s
current leading the source (oltage. 0he net result is impro(ement in po1er
factor. %hunt inducti(e compensation 0his method is used either 1hen charging
the transmission line, or, 1hen there is (ery lo1 load at the recei(ing end. Due to (ery
lo1 or no load <<(ery lo1 current flo1s through the transmission line . %hunt
capacitance in the transmission line causes (oltage amplification 8:erranti -ffect9.
0he recei(ing end (oltage may become double the sending end (oltage 8generally in
case of (ery long transmission lines9. 0o compensate, shunt inductors are connected
across the transmission line.
:!= Tra+%(%#"al VAR Ge"era(#r' C#6>e"'a(#r'?
?n general, /AR generators are classified depending on the technology used
in their implementation and the 1ay they are connected to the po1er system 8shunt or
series9. Rotating and static generators 1ere commonly used to compensate reacti(e
po1er . in the last decade, a large number of different static (ar generators, using
po1er electronic technologies ha(e been proposed and de(eloped .there are t1o
approaches to the realiCation of po1er electronics based /RA compensators, the one
that employs thysistor s1itched capacitors and reactors 1ith tap changing
transformers, and the other group that use s self commutated static con(erters. A brief
description of the most commonly used shunt and series compensators is positioned
belo1.
!'
<:i5ed or 7echanically s1itched capacitors4

%hunt capacitors in the year B). 0he leading current dra1n by the shunt
capacitors, compensates of shunt capacitors compensates the lagging current dra1n
by the load. 0he selection of shunt capacitors depends on many factors, the most
important of 1hich is he amount of lagging reacti(e po1er ta2en by the load. ?n the
case of 1idely fluctuating loads, the reacti(e po1er also (aries o(er a 1ide range.
0hus, a fi5ed capacitor ban2 may often lead to either o(er compensation or under
compensation. /ariable /AR compensation is achie(ed using s1itched capacitors.
Depending on the total /AR requirement, capacitor ban2s are s1itched into or
s1itched out of the system. 0he capacitor ban2s are s1itched in to or s1itched out of
the system. 0he smoothness of control is solely dependent on the number of
capacitors s1itching units used. 0he s1itching is usually accomplished using relays
and circuit brea2ers. Ho1e(er, these methods based on mechanical s1itches and
relays ha(e the disad(antage of being sluggish and unreliable. Also they generate high
inrush currents, and require frequent maintenance.
%ynchronous condensers4
%ynchronous condensers ha(e played a major role in (oltage and recti(e po1er
control for more than #! years. :unctionally, synchronous condenser is simply a
synchronous machine connected to the po1er system. After the unit is synchroniCed,
the field current is adjusted to either generate or absorb reacti(e po1er as required by
the ac system. 0he machine can pro(ide continuous reacti(e po1er control 1hen used
1ith the proper automatic e5citer circuit. %ynchronous condensers are rarely used at
both distribution and transmission (oltage le(els to impro(e stability and to maintain
(oltages 1ithin desired limits under (arying load conditions and the contingency
situations. Ho1e(er, synchronous condensers are rarely used today because they
require substantial foundations and a significant amount of starting and protecti(e
equipment. 0hey also contribute to the short circuit and they cannot be controlled fast
to enough to compensate for rapid load changes. 7oreo(er, their losses are much
higher than those associated 1ith static compensators, the cost is much higher
!)
compared 1ith the static compensators. 0heir ad(antage lies in their high temporary
o(erload capability.
%tatic /ar 3ompensator4
Description
A %/3 8%tatic /ar 3ompensator9 is a high (oltage system that
controls +)"a6%!all) the net1or2 (oltage at its coupling point. ?ts main tas2 is to
2eep the net1or2 (oltage constantly at a set reference (alue.
%ome other control features are4
(oltage control
reacti(e po1er control
damping of po1er oscillations
unbalance control
0he design and layout of a %/3 system is al1ays tailored to the specific project
requirements.

:ig B.'! static compensator in a substation
!#

:ig B.' circuit diagram of static compensator
0he picture abo(e sho1s the principle topology of a %/3 coupled to the net1or2 (ia
a high (oltage transformer. +n the secondary side there is an arrangement of usually $
or more parallel branches. 0he follo1ing ' principle branch types are a(ailable4
TCR? Thyristor Controlled Reactor for linear injection of inducti(e reacti(e po1er
TSC? Thyristor S1itched Capacitor for step1ise injection of inducti(e reacti(e po1er
F%l(er? 0uned filter capacitor for fi5ed capaciti(e reacti(e po1er and harmonic
filtering
Number and type of selected branches depend on the specific application and are
project tailored. 0he most simple configuration is a 03RE:ilter combination.
0he reacti(e po1er is changed by s1itching or controlling these reacti(e po1er
elements connected to the secondary side of the transformer. 0hyristor (al(es act as
e5tremely fast s1itches. -ach capacitor ban2 is s1itched +N and +:: by thyristor
(al(es 80%39. Reactors can be either s1itched 80%R9 or controlled 803R9 by means of
thyristor (al(es.
The ')'(e6 ra(%"$' #; SVC' are?
0ypical (oltage le(els4 appro5. '' V 2/ V "!!
!@
0ypical o(erall ratings4 appro5. )! V 7/Ar V "!!
SVC PLUS :VSC Te!h"#l#$)=
De(a%l'
0he %/3 P=,% is an ad(anced %0A03+7 8%tatic %ynchronous
3ompensator9. By using the /oltage<%ourced 3on(erter 8/%39 technology based on
the %iemens 7odular 7ultile(el 3on(erter 87739 design 8refer to 3on(erter9 it
offers high economical and technical fle5ibility by its modular and containeriCed
design. 3ompact and adaptable, an ideal solution 1hen space is limited and costly.
Due to the 773 technology, the degree of harmonic generation emission is quite
small. High frequency noise is absorbed by small standardiCed high<frequency
bloc2ing filters, resulting in an %/3 design 1hich is practically independent from
indi(idual net1or2 impedances.

:ig B.'$ %/3 plus
?t pro(ides operational ad(antages li2e minimiCed maintenance and ser(ice
requirements, net1or2 stabiliCation, e5cellent under (oltage performance and high
dynamic performance by a (ery fast response time. ?t reaches a (ery high le(el of
!*
system a(ailability, than2s to the redundancy of po1er modules. :rom k $# 7/Ar to
k #! 7/Ar, all of the main equipment, including the ?.B0 con(erter, the control and
protection system and the con(erter cooling system of the %/3 P=,%, is installed in a
containeriCed solution and factory pretested, ready for grid connection at site. :or
indoor installations, con(erter modules 1ith k !! 7/Ar are a(ailable. Parallel
operation of con(erter modules is also possible, resulting in higher ratings.
0he footprint of an %/3 P=,% installation is smaller than a con(entional %/3
installation of the same rating, up to #!U.
Be"e;%('
SVC PLUS #;;er' a 6l(%(+e #; -e"e;%('?
?mpro(ed dynamic stability of transmission systems
?ncreased po1er quality> reduction in ris2 of (oltage collapse and blac2out
Highly efficient flic2er reduction in industrial applications
:ig B.''!" plus
=o1 harmonic generation and lo1 noise emissions, than2s to the use of 773
87odular 7ultile(el 3on(erter9 technology
7inimiCed engineering efforts due to standardiCed component design
:ast, efficient, modular, and cost<effecti(e solution
!"
:ig B.') Reacti(e po1er (s system (oltsge
Applications
Po1er producers and system operators all o(er the 1orld are faced 1ith
increasing demands for bul2 po1er transmission, lo1 cost po1er deli(ery, and high
system security. At the same time, congestion and bottlenec2s cause limitations in
po1er transmission.

%/3 P=,% pro(ides a solution to such problems 1hene(er they occur. %/3
P=,% can be customiCed to indi(idual reacti(e po1er demands4 0hree standardiCed
pre<engineered configurations co(ering %/3 P=,% % 8DE<$# 7/Ar9, %/3 P=,% 7
8DE<'# 7/Ar9, or %/3 P=,% = 8DE<#! 7/Ar9 are a(ailable as containeriCed
solutions, and up to four of these units can be configured as a system operating in a
fully parallel manner. 0ransformer loss solutions are a(ailable up to '@ 2/. :or higher
system (oltages, standard A3 transformers are used. 0his modular concept ma2es
%/3 P=,% uniquely adapti(e 1ithout compromising on performance, construction
time, and cost<effecti(eness.

:or indoor installations, con(erter modules 1ith appro5imately k !! 7/Ar are
a(ailable. ?n addition, hybrid solutions 1ith mechanically s1itched capacitors 87%39
or reactors 87%R9 are a(ailable, to e5pand the po1er range further. ?t can be either
used for utility applications, grid access, mobility applications and industrial
applications.
10D
:+= C#"&er(er.-a'e+ C#6>e"'a(#r :STATCOM=?
%tatic %ynchronous 3ompensator 8%0A03+79 is one of the 2ey 3on(erter<based
3ompensators 1hich are usually based on the (oltage source in(erter 8/%?9 or current
source in(erter 83%?9, as sho1n in :igure B.'# 8a9. ,nli2e %/3, %0A03+7 controls
the output current independently of the A3 system (oltage, 1hile the D3 side (oltage
is automatically maintained to ser(e as a (oltage source. 7ostly, %0A03+7 is
designed based on the /%?.
:igure B.'# %0A03+7 topologies4 8a9 %0A03+7 based on /%? and 3%? 8b9
%0A03+7 1ith storage de(ice
3ompared 1ith %/3, the topology of a %0A03+7 is more complicated. 0he
s1itching de(ice of a /%? is usually a gate turn<off de(ice paralleled by a re(erse
diode> this function endo1s the /%? ad(anced controllability. /arious combinations of
the s1itching de(ices and appropriate topology ma2e it possible for a %0A03+7 to
(ary the A3 output (oltage in both magnitude and phase. Also, the combination of
!
%0A03+7 1ith a different storage de(ice or po1er source 8as sho1n in :igure B.'#
8b99 endo1s the %0A03+7 the ability to control the real po1er output.
%0A03+7 has much better dynamic performance than con(entional reacti(e
po1er compensators li2e %/3. 0he gate turn<off ability shortens the dynamic
response time from se(eral utility period cycles to a portion of a period cycle.
%0A03+7 is also much faster in impro(ing the transient response than a %/3. 0his
ad(antage also brings higher reliability and larger operating range. :igure B.'@ sho1s
the /<? characteristics of %0A03+7 and %/3.
:igure B.'@ /<? characteristics of %/3 and %0A03+74 8a9 %/3> 8b9 %0A03+7
:e= Var%a-le 'h"( rea!(#r'4
0he flo1 of reacti(e po1er in electrical net1or2s is a consequence of (arying
reacti(e po1er consumption and generation. As the load requirement is changing, the
reacti(e current dra1n from the system also changes. 6hen reacti(e current flo1s, a
(oltage drop occurs and the system (oltage 1ill decrease 1ith respect to the no<load
(alue. :urthermore, the flo1 of reacti(e current 1ill cause additional losses in the
net1or2. +n systems, 1here the (arying reacti(e po1er requirements due to changing
consumption andEor generation cannot be tolerated, it is common practice to pro(ide
correction or compensation means in order to maintain operation of the po1er system
1ithin defined and accepted conditions. ?n net1or2s, 1here consumption and
generation are reasonably predictable and stable, fi5ed shunt capacitor ban2s or fi5ed

shunt reactors are used. Ho1e(er, reacti(e po1er compensation is then accomplished
for a specific operating condition only. 7ore fle5ibility can be achie(ed by pro(iding
for mechanically s1itching of those units. A special case of (oltage regulation occurs
1hen loads change (ery rapidly 8e.g. in electric arc furnaces9 < since such rapid
(oltage changes 8flic2er phenomena9 can cause disturbances in lighting systems and
in other po1er equipments. 0o impro(e the (oltage quality in such cases, %tatic /ar
3ompensator 8%/39 installations are pro(ided. An %/3, consisting of a thyristor
controlled reactor in parallel to a fi5ed capacitor ban2, pro(ides a fast controllable
reacti(e load 1hich responds (ery quic2ly to (oltage changes.
Application4

?f such a (ery fast and dynamic response is not mandatory, a continuously
/ariable %hunt Reactor 8/%R9 may be the optimum choice for pro(iding the required
function of reacti(e po1er compensation o(er a 1ide range of ser(ice conditions at
minimum in(estment and operating costs. :unctions 1hich may be achie(ed by /%Rs
are4
i maintain steady<state (oltage limit conditions i 2eep the reacti(e po1er flo1 1ith in
predefined limits
i maintain a desired po1er factor

As part of the o(erall reacti(e compensation scheme, a continuously /%R may
pro(ide reacti(e po1er compensation and smooth steady<state (oltage control in
response to the daily load cycle and possible changes in po1er generation.
:urthermore, the fle5ibility of /%Rs offers the ability to adapt to system topology
changes or ne1 operational requirements in the future.

0ypical net1or2 condition 1hich fa(or the application of /%Rs are4
i Net1or2s 1ith distributed generation 8e.g. solar, 1ind, combined heat and po1er
plants, etc.9 may not al1ays pro(ide full control o(er their electrical output. 0his may
create problems of increased flo1 of reacti(e po1er due to the (arying reacti(e po1er
of both, generation as 1ell as consumption.
$
i %trongly (arying loads po1ered through relati(ely long o(erhead lines or cables8e.g.
po1er supply of islands or that of remotely located industrial plants9. 0he application
of a continuously /%R in shunt connection 1ith the load 1ill relie(e the feed in line
from reacti(e current and thereby mitigating the line losses and impro(ing the (oltage
quality at the customer.
6ith more than ' decades of successful field e5perience, 0rench is the
recogniCed 1orld leader in designing and manufacturing of po1er reactors for all
utility and industrial applications. +ur unique design approach for /%Rs is the
appropriate ans1er for continuous adjustable reacti(e po1er compensation 1ithin
minutes Ehour time scale.
0he /%R obtains adjustability of its po1er output (ia (ariation of its inductance
F achie(ed by adjusting the air gaps of its magnetic circuit. 0his is realiCed by means
of mo(eable plunger cores. Depending on the position of the t1in cores, an air gap of
(ariable length inside the 1inding is pro(ided.
0he magnetic circuit consists essentially of cylindrical shaped t1in plunger cores
and se(eral 3<shaped yo2es, that enclose the plunger cores as 1ell as the 1inding. By
rotating the centrally arranged spindle 8(ia a motor dri(e unit9 the cores are
approached or separated Fhence the air gap bet1een the cores may be adjusted from
near Cero to about the full length of the 1inding.
0his results in a 1ide adjustment range of the compensation po1er of the /%R.
0he action of (arying the inductance may ta2e about one minute, a time period 1hich
is appro5imately the operation time of transformer tap changers, the traditional means
for maintaining a constant system (oltage le(el.
:;= S(a(%! ')"!hr#"#' 'er%e' !#6>e"'a(#r?
<0his de(ice 1or2 the same 1ay as the %0A03+7. ?t has a (oltage source con(erter
'
serially connected to a transmission line through a transformer. ?t is necessary an
energy source to pro(ide a continuous (oltage through a condenser and to compensate
the losses of the /%3.
< A %%%3 is able to e5change acti(e and reacti(e po1er 1ith the transmission system.
But if our only aim is to balance the reacti(e po1er , the energy source could be quite
small. 0he injected (oltage can be controlled in phase and magnitude if 1e ha(e an
energy source that is big enough for the purpose. 6ith reacti(e po1er compensation
only the (oltage is controllable, because the (oltage (ector forms B!cdegrees 1ith the
line intensity. ?n this case the serial injected (oltage can delay or ad(anced the line
current. 0his means that the %%%3 can be uniformly controlled in any (alue, in the
/%3 1or2ing slot.
<0he %tatic %ynchronous %eries 3ompensator 8%%%39 uses a /%3 interfaced in series
to a transmission line, as sho1n in the :igure.
<Again, the acti(e po1er e5changed 1ith the line has to be maintained at Cero< hence,
in steady state operation, %%%3 is a functional equi(alent of an infinitely (ariable
series connected capacitor. 0he %%%3 offers fast control and it is inherently neutral to
sub<synchronous resonance.


:igB.'* 89basic configuration of %%%3 8$9 equi(alent circuit of %%%c
)
<As mentioned, %tatic %ynchronous %eries 3ompensator 8%%%39 is placed in the group
of series connected :A30% de(ices. As sho1n in :igB.'* 89,%%%3 consists of a
(oltage source in(erter connected in series through a coupling transformer to the
transmission line. A source of energy is required for pro(iding and maintaining the
D3 (oltage across the D3 capacitor and compensation of %%%3 losses. :igB.'*
8$9sho1s the model of %%%3 1hich consists of a series connected (oltage source in
series 1ith an impedance. 0his impedance represents the impedance of coupling
transformer.
< 0he %%%3 1hen operated 1ith an appropriate D3 supply 8an energy source andEor
sin2, or a suitable energy storage9 can inject a component of (oltage in anti<phase
1ith the (oltage de(eloped across the line resistance, to counteract the effect of the
resisti(e (oltage drop on the po1er transmission.

0he capability of the %%%3 to e5change both acti(e and reacti(e po1er ma2es
it possible to compensate for the reacti(e and resisti(e (oltage drops, maintaining a
high effecti(e ]ER ratio independently of the degree of series compensation
<0hus, a %%%3 can 1or2 li2e a controllable serial condenser and a serial reactance.
0he main difference is that the (oltage infected through a %%%3 is not related to the
line intensity and can be controlled independently. 0his important feature means that
the %%%3 can be used 1ith e5cellent results 1ith lo1 loads as 1ell as 1ith high loads.
<0he transmission line 1ith the inducti(e reactance ]= deli(ering po1er form the
sending<end (oltage source to the recei(ing<end (oltage source, ha(ing no
compensation of any 2ind, is said to be in a steady<state. 0he (oltage impressed by the
effecti(e reactance is the same 1ith the (oltage drop across the uncompensated line
because the degree of series compensations is Cero.
#
:igure B.'" sho1s an e5ample of a simple po1er transmission system 1ith an %%%3
operating both in inducti(e and capaciti(e modes, and related phasor diagrams.
<0he line reactance is constant and by adding (ariable series8capaciti(eEinducti(e9
reactance, the amount of compensation can be controlled. 0he degree of series
compensation in this case is defined as4

6here ]= is the line inducti(e reactance and ]q is the emulated series reactance.
< ?n the inducti(e mode of operation, the line current decreases as the inducti(e
reactance compensation le(el increases from !U to !!U. ?n the capaciti(e mode of
operation the line current increases 1ith the capaciti(e reactance compensation le(el
from !U to ''U. ?t is 1orthy to note from the diagrams that %%%3 not only can
increase the transferable po1er but it can also decrease it, simply by re(ersing the
polarity of the injected (oltage. 0he re(ersed (oltage is added directly to the line
(oltage drop as if the line impedance 1as increased.
<0he effects of the compensating reactance on the normaliCed po1er flo1 in the
transmission line are as follo1s4 1hen the emulated reactance is inducti(e, the acti(e
@
and reacti(e po1er flo1 decrease and the effecti(e reactance increases as the
reactance compensation increases in the negati(e direction, and 1hen the emulated
reactance is capaciti(e the acti(e and reacti(e po1er flo1 increases and the effecti(e
reactance decreases as the reactance compensation increases in the positi(e direction.
<6e can also appro(e of the general use of a serial controllable condenser in the case
of %%%3 it controls the dynamic energy flo1 and impro(es the stability bet1een the
angle and the (oltage. 0he fact that a %%%3 can induce capaciti(e and inducti(e
(oltage increases the operation field of the de(ice.
During the stability slot the potential of damping electromechanical oscillations
increases.
<0he %%%3 (ersion applied in distribution systems is the Dynamic /oltage Regulator
8D/R9 that basically consists on a three<phase con(erter connected transformer and
1ith a load element 8or source9 in the D3 side of the con(erter. A (oltage to
synchroniCe it 1ith the line (oltage can be infected 8or in cuadrature 1ith the current9
of a (ariable amplitude and phase, and this allo1s the acti(e and reacti(e po1er
e5change bet1een the line and the energy storage de(ice, compensates holes in the
net1or2 (oltage and impro(es the unbalances bet1een phases.
<0he ,nified /oltage 3ontroller ,/3, is a cheap (ersion of the D/R because it
doesnHt ha(e the energy storage de(ice, it is made to operate in net1or2 points 1ith a
high le(el of short circuit.
<0hese de(ices 8%%%3, D/R, ,/39 correct the (oltage 1hen there is a fault in the
net1or2 but also ha(e a lot of ad(antages in normal use, 1hen there are no
disturbances, li2e4
<Due to the continuous (oltage injection and in combination 1ith a properly
structured controller, it is possible to control the po1er factor of connected loads>
<?n the interconnected distribution net1or2 topologies, the additional (oltage 1ith its
*
controllable magnitude and phase, (an be used to 1or2 on the po1er flo1s.
<?t can also help to co(er the capaciti(e reacti(e po1er demand if cable net1or2s,
1hich is higher than in aerial lines, mainly during lo1 load periods that cause in
admissible load ele(ations>
<?t balances loads in interconnected distribution net1or2s, pro(iding a balanced
system>
<?t reduces the harmonics caused because of the use of distributed electrical
generation pants at a distribution net1or2 le(el, by acti(e filtering by injecting
(oltage 1ith the con(erter at the load side.
8g9 7echanical %1itched 3apacitor 87%3E7%3DN9


:ig B.'B 7echanical %1itched 3apacitor 87%3E7%3DN9
"
Description
7echanically s1itched de(ices are the most economical reacti(e po1er
compensation de(ices. 0hey are a simple and lo1<cost, but lo1<speed solution for
(oltage control and net1or2 stabiliCation under hea(y load conditions. 0heir
utiliCation has almost no effect on the short<circuit po1er but it supports the (oltage at
the point of connection. An ad(anced form of mechanically s1itched capacitor is the
7%3DN 87echanically %1itched 3apacitor 1ith Damping Net1or29 for a(oidance of
system resonances.
Details
0he 7%3E7%3DN incorporates only passi(e components such as capacitors
and reactors and can be connected directly to the high (oltage bus bar system or (ia a
coupling transformer.
7%3 F 7echanically %1itched 3apacitor
Ho1e(er, the effecti(eness of (oltage stabiliCation depends on the distance
from the fault location. 0he 7%3 does not create any harmonics, but may interact
1ith system harmonics.
7%3DN F 7echanically %1itched 3apacitor 1ith Damping Net1or2
As a more highly de(eloped form of mechanically s1itched capacitor, the 7%3
1ith an additional damping circuit pro(ides (oltage support and in addition, it is
insensiti(e to harmonics interactions. 0he 7%3E7%3DN can be operated in a
controlled mode or manually. 0he control system realiCes, among other features, the
follo1ing main control4
automatic s1itching of the capacitor ban2s according to the need of the
net1or2 system
B
sufficient hysteresis is built into the control to a(oid repetiti(e s1itching
8ShuntingS9
each capacitor ban2 can also be manually s1itched on and off
remote 8Dispatch 3enter9 and local 8%ubstation9 mode of operation
The MSCIMSCDN #;;er' &ar%#' -e"e;%(' ;#r (ra"'6%''%#" ')'(e6', '!h a'
/oltage control
Reacti(e po1er control
?mpro(ement of A3 net1or2 stability
Pre(ention of (oltage instability
%imple and effecti(e compensation method for the grid
3ompact design to fit in limited space
:ilter for system harmonics

:ig)! -qui(alent circuit 7echanical %1itched 3apacitor 87%3E7%3DN9
$!
D3F Cla''%;%!a(%#" #; !#6>e"'a(%"$ +e&%!e'
NPo1er capacitor based compensators
NPo1er electronics compensators and acti(e filters
NHybrid compensation systems 8po1er capacitors and po1er electronics based9
N%ynchronous machines
D3D Wha( ,%"+ #; !#6>e"'a(%"$ +e&%!e' w%ll -e 'e+ ;#r a >ar(%!lar !a'e@

0he compensating de(ices used for a particular case must be decided based on
the follo1ing factors and conditions that has to be considered bearing in mind the
merits and demerits of the compensating de(ices.
NRating of the mains, that is (oltage, frequency, and itjs real (alue 8measurement9
NDemand on inducti(e reacti(e po1er ta2ing into account the aim of compensation
NDynamics of load
NPresence of higher order harmonics of a current and (oltage
N%hort circuit parameters at the capacitor ban2 future location
NAmbient conditions
NPlace of installation
D310 Mer%(' & De6er%(' #; '%"$ !#6>e"'a(%"$ +e&%!e' ;#r !#6>e"'a(%#" #;
rea!(%&e >#wer?
0he negati(e consequences of compensating de(ice connected to the mains are
as follo1s4
l 0ransient generation
l Higher order harmonics generation
l =ong lasting (oltage rise
l .ain of higher order harmonics
$
l /oltage drops, outages and +(er(oltage of short duration
l +ther 2ind of distortions
0he positi(e consequences of compensating de(ice connected to the mains
are as follo1s4
l =imitation of reacti(e po1er
l Adjustment of a (oltage at recei(ers 8burden9 terminals
l Higher order harmonic filtration
l Phase (oltage symmetry.
l =imitation of (oltage s1ing and flic2ering
D311 A+&a"(a$e' #; rea!(%&e e"er$) !#6>e"'a(%#"?
8a9 A(oidance of e5cessi(e reacti(e energy consumption bills4

:or large consumers, reacti(e energy is billed abo(e a threshold for certain
periods.

During the periods of limitation, reacti(e energy consumption e5ceeding tan j
N!.) is billed
monthly at the current rates.

0he quantity of reacti(e energy billed 6b is equal to4
6b K 6r mN6fr N 6a ntan 8V, I9 mN!.)o
NNNNNNNNNN6r 82(arh9 4 reacti(e energy consumed monthly during the period of limitation
6a n26hoNNNNN4 acti(e energy consumed monthly during the period of limitation
6fr K N!.) 6 a 4 amount of reacti(e energy supplied free of chargeNNN
NNNReacti(e energy compensation allo1s tan 8V, I9 N!.) to be obtained and thus reacti(e
energy costs to be a(oided.
$$
8b9 Reduction of subscribed ma5imum apparent po1er in 2/A4
:or small consumers, the utility bills Sa standing chargeS 1hich depends on
the subscribed apparent po1er. Abo(e this po1er the consumer pays tariff penalties.
Reacti(e energy compensation allo1s the standing charge to be reduced by decreasing
the subscribed apparent po1er. ?n :rance, the standing charge on apparent po1er is
paid by customers ha(ing a subscribed po1er bet1een '@ and $#! 2/A.
8c9 Reduction of losses in conductors at constant acti(e po1er4
=osses in cables are proportional to the square of the current carried 8loss K
RI $ 9 and they decrease as the cos(V, I) increases.?ndeed, let us assume that a
conductor carries an apparent po1er S , 1here4

S7 VI
P 7S cos :V, I=
C 7S sin :V, I=
?f there is compensation, at constant acti(e po1er, so that an apparent po1er S Nis
obtained, 1here4
SK 7 V I L
PK 7 P 7 SK 3os :VM, IM=
CK 7 SK sin :VM, IM=
0hen 1e ha(e4
SNSO7 PNP 8 POOCNC
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 7PMN PM 8 CNC
7SL N SM Q:!#' :VM, IM==N :!#' :VM, IM==ROPOO 8 SNS Q: '%":V, I==N : '%":V, I==RO
$'
Hence


0he losses are in(ersely proportional to

8d9 ?ncrease in acti(e po1er carried at constant apparent current4
?nstalling capacitor ban2s do1nstream of a cable 8or on a transformer
secondary9 ha(ing a load 1ith a 1ea2 cos(V, I) , allo1s a higher acti(e po1er to be
carried for the same apparent current in the conductors 8or transformer9.?ndeed, let us
assume that a cable 8or a transformer9 carries an acti(e po1er P , 1here4
P K',n ? cos 8V, I9
?f 1e compensate so that cos !V), I)& is obtained, at constant apparent current
8constant I9, 1e 1ill be able to carry an acti(e po1er of4
PHKN',n ? cos :VM, IM=
Hence

:or the same apparent current, the acti(e po1er 1hich can be carried is thus
proportional to cos (V, I).
$)
Reduction of (oltage drop4
0he relati(e (oltage drop in a three<phase cable or transformer is e5pressed as
follo1s4

R 4 conductor or transformer resistance
X 4 cable or transformer reactance
P 4 load acti(e po1er
Q 4 load reacti(e po1er
Vn 4 nominal single<phase (oltage
3ompensation at the terminals of the load reduces the (alue of Q and thus the
(oltage drop.
0he gain is considerable 1hen X KNR , i.e. for transformers nNX K'RoNand cables 1ith a
large cross<sectional area 8 N$)!mm$ copper, '#!mm$ aluminium9.
D314 Rela(%#"'h%> -e(wee" (he >#wer #; (he !a>a!%(#r' a"+ (he
%6>r#&e6e"( #; C#':V, I=?
0his is a question of determining the reacti(e po1er to be installed in order to
obtain the required cos8V, I9 .
=et us assume that at an acti(e po1er P and reacti(e po1er Q point of the
net1or2 1e 1ish to impro(e cos (V, I) in order to obtain cos !V), I)&, or change from
tan (V, I) to tan !V), I)&.
?f 1e install reacti(e po1er Qc capacitors then 1e ha(e4
$#



QKQ - QC
:rom this 1e can deduce

A3 K P L ntan 8/, ?9 < tan8/H, ?H9Mo

:igureB.) gi(es a graphic illustration of the (ariation of (V, I) as a function of Qc.
D319 De(er6%"%"$ !#6>e"'a(%#" >#wer %" rela(%#" (# (he e"er$) -%ll
0he po1er to be installed depends on the reacti(e energy consumption and the utility
tariff rating.
6e shall e5amine the case of :rance.
8a9 7ethod based on the a(oidance of reacti(e energy costs
$@
0he follo1ing method can be used to calculate the compensation po1er to be
installed based on reacti(e energy bills. ?t determines the minimum compensation
po1er 1hich a(oids reacti(e energy costs.
0he process is as follo1s4
< from amongst the electricity bills for No(ember to 7arch inclusi(e 8period 1hen
reacti(e energy is billed9, choose the ma5imum amount of reacti(e energy during one
month, e.g. # B@@ 2(arh in Zanuary.
< assess the operating time of the installation during this month, e.g. ! h 5 $$ days K
$$! h.
?mportant4

0he only periods to be ta2en into account are those 1hen reacti(e energy is
billed.
< 0he (alue of the reacti(e po1er Ac required is4

AcK 82 (arh billed=I 8operating time=
:or the e5ample in question, 1e find that4
AcK 8#B@@2(arh=I 8$$!h=K *' 2(ar

0he (alue to be ta2en is the (alue just abo(e the po1er calculated so that the
standard po1ers are ta2en into account.

8b97ethod based on the reduction of subscribed ma5imum apparent po1er 8yello1
tariff9
1(7
:or subscribed po1er bet1een '@ 2/A and $#! 2/A, the :rench electricity
authority, -D:, bills a standing charge 1hich depends on this po1er. Abo(e it, the
consumer pays tariff penalties. 3ompensating reacti(e energy thus enables the
standing charge to be reduced by decreasing the apparent po1er. 0he reacti(e energy
consumed by a customer subscribing to this tariff contract does not appear on the
electricity bill. 0o determine the (alue of the reacti(e po1er to be installed, the cost of
in(esting in capacitors must be compared 1ith the gains on the standing charge paid
to -D:. 6e can sho1 that the optimum solution is generally obtained for a cos (V, I)
close to !.B$"> i.e. 0an (V, I) close to !.).?ndeed, abo(e this (alue, the installation of
e5tra capacitors is not 1orth the in(estment 8return time too long9. 7oreo(er, care
must be ta2en not to o(ercompensate, as this causes the same effects as under<
compensating, 1ith the e5tra cost of the capacitors. 0he ma5imum po1er of the
capacitors to be installed is thus equal to the reacti(e po1er consumed during the pea2
period less !.) times the corresponding acti(e po1er. 0he pea2 is considered here to
be the ma5imum apparent po1er allo1ed o(er a period of se(eral minutes.
0he po1er of the capacitors to be installed is thus, as sho1n in pre(ious paragraph
#c = $ (tan(V, I) !.)) = sin(V, I) !,) $
S4 apparent po1er at the consumption pea2
P4 acti(e po1er at the consumption pea2
tan 8V, I94 a(erage (alue recorded
D312 Sear!h ;#r #>(%66 !#6>e"'a(%#"
"fter having calculated the glo$al reactive %o#er to $e in)talled* the
o%timum %lace) to in)tall the ca%acitor) and the t+%e of ca%acitor $ank (fixed
or automatic) mu)t $e determined in order to o$tain a) )hort a return on
inve)tment a) %o))i$le. ,ir)t of all* it i) nece))ar+ to determine the value of
the reactive %o#er and if %o))i$le the load curve for different %lace) #here the
1(8
ca%acitor) ma+ $e in)talled. -)ing the)e curve)* information a$out the
minimum* average and maximum reactive %o#er re.uired at the)e different
%lace) i) o$tained. he com%en)ation mode de%end) on the value of the
minimum reactive %o#er con)umed $+ the in)tallation com%ared #ith the
glo$al %o#er to $e in)talled.
8a9 3ase 1here the minimum reacti(e po1er consumed by the installation is
greater than the planned compensation po1er
3ompensation may be global as there is no ris2 of o(ercompensating during
normal operation, 1hich 1ould cause abnormal rises in (oltage.

Ho1e(er, 1hen the installation is stopped, the capacitors must be disconnected so
that no steady<state o(er (oltages are caused on the public distribution net1or2, due to
o(er compensation. ?ndeed, maintaining the capacitors in ser(ice, 1hen the
installation is stopped, 1ould cause an o(er(oltage on the public distribution net1or24
NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN dU/Un = Q/Ssc
Un 4 duty (oltage of the public distribution net1or2
Q 4 capacitor po1er
Ssc 4 short<circuit po1er at the connection point of the capacitors.
8b9 3ase 1here the minimum reacti(e po1er consumed by the installation is lo1er
than the planned compensation po1er
6hen the reacti(e po1er consumed is minimum, there 1ould be
o(ercompensation 1ith global compensation 1hich 1ould cause an abnormal rise in
(oltage. :or e5ample, e5perience has sho1n that o(ercompensation at the terminals of
a transformer must not e5ceed # U of its nominal po1er.
0o a(oid o(ercompensation, it is possible to4
$B
< install an automatically<controlled stepped capacitor ban2 1hich enables the load
cur(e to be respected
< install, at the origin of the installation, compensation equal to the minimum po1er
consumed and locally compensate loads or sectors consuming a large amount of
reacti(e po1er, as long as capacitor s1itching is controlled by the load or sector.
< ?n the case of an installation containing se(eral 7/E=/ transformers, transfer part of
the compensation of a transformer to another transformer.
8c9 %election criteria
3ompensation may be4
< carried out in 7/ andEor in =/> it is more economical to install medium (oltage
capacitors for po1er greater than roughly "!! 2(ar.
< .lobal, by sector, indi(idual.
< carried out by fi5ed ban2 or automatically<controlled stepped capacitor ban2> in the
case 1here the stepped ban2 is selected, it may be preferable to install sections of
different po1ers in order to obtain better adjustment. :or e5ample, 1ith sections of
"!!, )!!, $!!and !! 2(ar, it is possible to obtain all po1ers from ! to #!! 2(ar
in steps of !! 2(ar.
0o determine the optimum solution, the follo1ing criteria must be ta2en into account4
< A(oidance of reacti(e energy costs or reduction of subscribed po1er
< Reduction of Zoule losses in conductors and in transformers
< Regular (oltage at any point of the installation
< 3ost of in(estment, installation and maintenance of e(ery solution.
'!
103 CASE STUDY
89-nergy deli(ered from '$2(E''2( po1er transformer at $$!2(E'$2(E''2(
substation shapurnagar4
0he final and initial readings of 76H, 7/ARH, 7/AH, are ta2en in $)hrs for
t1o po1er transformers of capacity "!7/A, #!7/A, #!7/A.
0he readings are as follo1s4
At 'p.m on '<#<$!8initial9
Po1er
0ransformer
87/A9
76H 7/AH 7/ARH
"!

'@@** '@"B* $@)"
#!

'"@@' '")#! $"**"
0able!. ?nitial readings of 76H, 7/ARH, 7/AH of Po1er 0ransformer
8"!7/A, #!7/A9.
At 'p.m on <@<$!8final9
Po1er
0ransformer
87/A9
76H 7/AH 7/ARH
"! '@*!'@ '@B$'B $@#!)
#!

'"B#B '")*B" $""!B
0able !.$ ?nitial readings of 76H, 7/ARH, 7/AH of Po1er 0ransformer
8"!7/A, #!7/A9.
'
3alculations4
0he net po1er consumption in $) hrs K76H f F 76H i
0he net reacti(e po1er in $)hrsK7/ARH f F 7/ARH i
0he net apparent po1er in $)hrsK7/AH f F 7/AH i
3os 8/, ?9 K 876H f F 76H i= I :7/AH f F 7/AH i=
0he net po1er consumption in $)hrs for "!7/A po1er transformerK'B 76H
0he net po1er consumption in $) hrs for #!7/A po1er transformerK $B@ 76H
0he net reacti(e po1er in $)hrs for "!7/AK$' 7/ARH
0he net reacti(e po1er in $)hrs for #!7/AK' 7/ARH
0he net apparent po1er in $)hrs for "!7/AK'$$ 7/AH
0he net apparent po1er in $) hrs for #!7/AK$B* 7/AH
3os 8/, ?9 for "!7/AK !.BB!@"
3os 8/, ?9 for #!7/AK !.BB@@'
A' (ha( (he >#wer ;a!(#r ;#r F0MVA a"+ /0MVA >#wer (ra"';#r6er' are
$rea(er (ha" 03DD, (here ;#re (he !a>a!%(#r -a",' "ee+ "#( -e 'w%(!he+ #" (#
!#6>e"'a(e (he rea!(%&e >#wer3


'$
113 CONCLUSION
?n conclusion the reacti(e po1er is an important factor 1hich affects the
po1er quality throughout the po1er system. %o for impro(ing the po1er quality the
different compensating de(ices li2e po1er capacitors, synchronous condensers etc.,
plays a major role.

%o, the abo(e study e5plains the different methods reacti(e po1er
compensation techniques and their respecti(e ad(antages and disad(antages. ?t also
e5plains ho1 the transmission and distribution stations protect and allocate capacitor
ban2s on their respecti(e net1or2s.
:rom the abo(e concepts 1e can say that the po1er factor correction is an
important factor for the industrial consumers because of their inducti(e loads 1hich
results in reacti(e po1er losses and in turn effects the transmission efficiency.


''
SPECIFICATIONS OF RESPECTIVE ECUIPMENTS
8a9 %P-3?:?3A0?+N% +: 0RAN%:+R7-R%
8"! 7/A, #! 7/A9 0RAN%:+R7-R A0 %HAP,R %,B%0A0?+N4
.
0ransformer 8"! 7/A9
Double copper 1ound transformer
0ype of cooling4 < +NAN E +NA:
8+il Natural Air Natural E +il Natural Air :orce9
Rating< 8@!!!! E "!!!!9 &/A
Rated (oltage4

<H/ '$&/
<=/ ''&/
:ull load current4
<H/ ( $@$.)'E')B.B
<=/ ( !)B.*$E'BB.@)
Basic insulation le(el ?7PEP.:.4
<H/ &/ ##!E$'!
<H/N &/ B#E'"
<=/ &/ *!E*!
.0D temperature rise4

<+il O3 #!
<6D. O3 ##
7a5imum ambient temperature rise O3 #!
:requency #! HC
?mpedance /oltage4
At
0ap No. $.$U
0ap No.# .")U
0ap No.$# !.$)U
0ransformer8#! 7/A9
0ype of cooling4< +NAN E +NA:
8+il Natural Air Natural E +il Natural Air :orce9
?nsulation le(els4 P.:. E ?mpulse

H/4 $'!&/ 8R7%9 E ##! &/P
=/4 $'!&/ 8R7%9 E *! &/P
H/ 8N94 $'!&/ 8R7%9 E B#&/P
&/A < '*#!! E #!!!!
/olts at no load4

H/4 '$!!! /
=/4 '#!!! /
Amperes4
H/4 @) E $".*
=/4 @#@. E "*)."
:requencyK #! HC

Phases H/ E =/ 'E'
3.0. %pecifications4

=/ 60 304 "*)."E.)A, #/A, 3=4 %, %', %)
H/ 60 304 $B.@E.)A, #/A, 3=4 %, %, %$

8b9 D-%?.N ; 3+N%0R,30?+NA= :-A0,R-% +: 3APA3?0+R
3ooper Po1er %ystems 0ype -]p<D all<film capacitors feature the latest
3ooper Po1er %ystems design inno(ationsqe5tended foilEsolder less connections
and laser<cut foil. 0hey are designed, manufactured, and tested to meet the
requirements of all applicable AN%?E?---, N-7A, and ?-3 standards. ?n addition
they are designed to e5ceed the requirements of these standards in terms of
continuous rms and pea2 o(er(oltage 1ith stand capabilities, and in tan2 rupture
characteristics. 0hese capacitors are especially suited to the rigors of industrial po1er
systems for4

< Po1er factor impro(ement
< Harmonic filter applications
< Reduction of losses
< Reducing (oltage drop
-]<D capacitors can be installed singly or in factory<assembled s1itched or un
s1itched ban2s in4
< Pole mounted rac2s
< +pen air substation ban2s 8for outdoor or indoor application9
< 7etal enclosures.
0he 0ype -]<D capacitor pro(ides these e5clusi(e benefits4
<$#U continuous rms o(er(oltage capability
<'#U pea2 o(er(oltage capability
< .reater safety through impro(ed tan2 rupture characteristics
< #,!!! Amp fault current handling capability
< !! 2A transient current 1ithstand capability
)!
< Ambient operation through D##r 8D'r:9
< =o1 dielectric losses 8!.!*9 1attsE&/AR s @! HC9
< %uperior electrical performance and reliability
< -n(ironmentally acceptable -disolt p ]0 dielectric fluid.


-]<Dp %ingle phase all film 3apacitor
3APA3?0+R APP=?3A0l+N 4

3apacitor application requires an e(aluation of the po1er system to determine4
< 0he &/AR needs
< 0he most effecti(e location
< 0he necessary protection.
?n general, capacitors are installed4
< At the substation, to supply the system (ar needs most effecti(ely
< At or near the load center, to obtain the optimum (ar supply and (oltage correction
< At the end of the line, to achie(e ma5imum (oltage correction.
RA0?N.%4

3ooper Po1er %ystems 0ype -]<D capacitors are rated in continuous &/AR,
(oltage and frequency for operating 1ithin the <)! to D##r3ambient temperature
range. Designed to produce not less than rated &/AR at rated (oltage and frequency,
they are subjected to all applicable N-7A and AN%?E?--- standard dielectric tests.
%ingle phase #!<through )!!<2/AR capacitors are a(ailable. 3apacitor rated (oltage
is the (oltage that can be applied terminal to terminal> for e5ample, a $)!!<
(oltcapacitor can be delta<connected on a $)!!<(olt system or 1ye<connected on a
$)!!E )@!<(olt system. ?n each case, the (oltage applied to the capacitor terminals is
$)!! (olts. Because a capacitorHs &/AR output (aries as the square of the ratio of
applied (oltage to rated (oltage, application at the proper (oltage is essential for
optimum operating performance and long ser(ice life.

0he ma5imum recommended 1or2ing (oltage of an -]<D capacitor is $#U
of rated (oltage. 3ooper Po1er %ystems capacitors include a safety factor that permits
them to tolerateq1ithout damageq momentary o(er (oltages caused by s1itching or
load changes. 0he capacitor units cataloged in this section are designed for operation
at a rated frequency of @!HC. &/AR output (aries directly as the ratio of applied
frequency to rated frequency. 3apacitors designed to operate at #! HC or other
frequencies are also a(ailable upon request. 0able lists the ratings and catalog
numbers for standard 0ype -]<D single< and double<bushing capacitors. +ther unit
&/AR siCes, (oltage ratings and B?= ratings are a(ailable
3+N%0R,30?+N :-A0,R-%4
3onstruction features of 3ooper Po1er %ystems po1er capacitors include4
< %tainless<steel tan2 1ith light<gray finish for resistance to corrosi(e atmospheres
<=ight<gray, 1et<process<porcelain bushings> glaCed for high strength and durability
and hermetically sealed to the capacitor tan2
<%tainless<steel mounting brac2ets 1ith industry<standard #.@$<in. mounting centers
for unit interchangeability> underside of each brac2et is unpainted for positi(e
grounding
< Parallel<groo(e terminals that accommodate copper or aluminum conductors from
No. " solid to No. stranded
< ?nternal discharge resistors that reduce terminal (oltage to #! (olts or less 1ithin
fi(e minutes after the capacitor has been disconnected
< %tainless<steel nameplate containing required N-7A and AN%?E?--- data
< Blue non<P3B decal.
Ratings )!!<&(ar 3apacitor
/oltage
8(olts9
B?=8&/9 Double<
Bushing
%ingle
Bushing
$B)! $# 3-P'')7$ qq
3apacitor ban2 1ith internal discharge resistor
:requency K#! HC
&/AR <)!!
/oltage F $B)!/
&/<B?=K$# 0ype K -]?=
3A0 N+.4 3-PB@'BA
3+N0A?N%4 $.)' .A=% -D?%+= ]0
:6?P ha(ing no detectable P3BHs 8less than PP79 at the time of
manufacture
8c9 %eries Reactor4
%eries reactor4
7anufacturer F Auality po1er electrical equipments p(t.ltd
&/AR< )."
%ystem (oltage <'' &/
Rated current <$@A
:requency K #! HC
0emperature rise K!#O3

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Reacti(e Po1er 3ompensation of 0ransmission =ines
8By4 Yongan Deng, 7A%c student at 3oncordia ,ni(ersity9.
Fundamentals of Adaptive $rotection of %arge "apacitor
&an's
&y &ogdan (as)tenny, *oe chaefer and +d "lar' Florida
$ower , %ight "ompany
7A%0-R 0H-%?% Reacti(e Po1er 3ompensation Author4 Za2ub &ep2a
%chneider -lectric < -lectrical installation guide