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I. KINDS OF NOUNS
1. Concrete Nouns are names of something or someone that we experience
through our senses, sight, hearing, smell, touch or taste.
Cats, dogs, tables, chairs, buses, and teachers are all concrete nouns.
A. Common and Proper Nouns
Common noun is a word that names people, places, things, or ideas. They are not
the names of a single person, place or thing.
common noun begins with a lowercase letter unless it is at the beginning of a
sentence.
People:-
man, girl, boy, mother, father, child, person, teacher, student
Animals:-
cat, dog, !sh, ant, sna"e
Thins:-
boo", table, chair, phone
Places:-
school, city, building, shop
Ideas:-
lo#e, hate, idea, pride
Proper nouns $ also called proper names% are the words which name speci!c
people, organisations or places. They always start with a capital letter.
!ach part o" a person#s name is a proper noun:-
&ynne 'and ( )li*abeth 'elen +uth ,ones ...
The names o" companies$ oranisations or trade mar%s:-
-icrosoft ( +olls +oyce ( the +ound Table ( ...
&i'en or pet names o" animals:-
&assie Trigger Sam
The names o" cities and countries and (ords deri'ed "rom those proper
nouns:-
/aris ( &ondon ( New 0or" ( )ngland ( )nglish
&eoraphical and Celestial Names:-
the +ed Sea ( lpha Centauri ( -ars
)onuments$ *uildins$ meetin rooms:-
The Ta1 -ahal ( The )i2el Tower ( +oom 333
+istorical e'ents$ documents$ la(s$ and periods:-
the Ci#il .ar ( the 4ndustrial +e#olution ( .orld .ar 4
,. Collecti'e Nouns
collecti#e noun is a noun that can be singular in form whilst referring to a group of
people or things. Collecti#e nouns are sometimes confused with mass nouns.
&roups o" people ( army, audience, band, choir, class, committee, crew, family,
gang, 1ury, orchestra, police, sta2, team, trio
&roups o" animals ( colony, 5oc", herd, pac", pod, school, swarm
&roups o" thins ( bunch, bundle, clump, pair, set, stac"
The use of "of"
.e often say a group of things, such as a bunch of 5owers, or a host of golden
da2odils.
Some collecti#e nouns can stand alone, such as 67ritain has an army6, but if the
collecti#e noun 6army6 is used to mean something other than an organi*ed military
force, you can say things li"e 6an army of women6 or 6an army of ants6, and e#en
6an army of one6.
Plural or singular?
.hen a group is considered as a single unit, the collecti#e noun is used with a
singular #erb and singular pronoun.
8or example ( The committee has reached its decision.
.hen the focus is on the indi#idual parts of the group, 7ritish )nglish sometimes
uses a plural #erb and plural pronouns.
8or example ( "The committee have been arguing all morning.6 This is the same as
saying 6The people in the committe have been ....6
'owe#er, if you are tal"ing about more than one committee, then you use the plural
form.
8or example ( 6Many committees have been formed over the years.6
determiner in front of a singular collecti#e noun is always singular9 this committee
, ne#er these committee $but of course when the collecti#e noun is plurali*ed, it
ta"es a plural determiner9 these committees %.
C. Compound Nouns
Compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or more words. -ost compound
nouns in )nglish are formed by nouns modi!ed by other nouns or ad1ecti#es.
8or example9
The words tooth and paste are each nouns in their own right, but if you 1oin them
together they form a new word ( toothpaste.
The word black is an ad1ecti#e and board is a noun, but if you 1oin them together
they form a new word ( blackboard.
4n both these example the !rst word modi!es or describes the second word, telling
us what "ind of ob1ect or person it is, or what its purpose is. nd the second part
identi!es the ob1ect or person in :uestion.
Compound nouns can also be formed using the following combinations of words9(
Noun - Noun toothpaste
d1ecti#e - Noun monthly tic"et
;erb - Noun swimming pool
/repositio
n
- Noun underground
Noun - ;erb haircut
Noun -
/repositio
n
hanger on
d1ecti#e - ;erb dry(cleaning
/repositio
n
- ;erb output
The two parts may be written in a number of ways9(
1. Sometimes the two words are 1oined together.
)xample9 tooth + paste = toothpaste | bed + room = bedroom
3. Sometimes they are 1oined using a hyphen.
)xample9 check-in
<. Sometimes they appear as two separate words.
)xample9 full moon
D. Count and )ass Nouns
Count nouns can be 6counted6, they ha#e a singular and plural form.
8or example9
boo", two boo"s, three boo"s .....
n apple, two apples, three apples ....
Uncounta*le Nouns or )ass nouns cannot be counted, they are not separate
ob1ects. This means you cannot ma"e them plural by adding (s, because they only
ha#e a singular form. 4t also means that they do not ta"e a=an or a number in front
of them.
8or example9
.ater
.or"
4nformation
Co2ee
Sand
Count Nouns
.use a/an or a num*er in
"ront o" counta*le nouns0
)ass Nouns
.there is no a/an or num*er (ith uncounta*le
nouns0
n pple = 1 pple +ice
I eat an apple every day. I eat rice every day. $not 4 eat a rice e#ery day.%
Add .s0 to ma%e a counta*le
noun plural
There is no plural "orm "or an uncounta*le
noun
apples rice
I eat an apple every day.
Apples are good for you.
I eat rice every day. Rice is good for you.
computer> Computers are
fun.
To ma"e uncountable nouns countable add a
counting word, such as a unit of measurement, or
the general word piece. .e use the form 6a .......
of .......6
n elephant>Elephants are
large.
+ice>a grain of rice
.ater>a glass of water
+ain>a drop of rain
-usic>a piece of music
1ou can use some and an2
(ith counta*le nouns.
Some dogs can be dangerous.
I don't use any computers at
wor.
1ou can use some and an2 (ith uncounta*le
nouns.
I usually drin some wine with my meal.
I don't usually drin any water with my wine.
1ou onl2 use man2 and "e(
(ith plural counta*le nouns.
So many elephants have been
hunted that they are an
endangered species.
There are few elephants in
1ou onl2 use much and little (ith uncounta*le
nouns.
I don't usually drin much co!ee.
"ittle wine is undrinable though.
England.
1ou can use a lot o" and no
(ith plural counta*le nouns.
#o computers were bought last
wee.
$ lot of computers were
reported broen the wee
before.
1ou can use a lot o" and no (ith uncounta*le
nouns.
$ lot of wine is drun in %rance.
#o wine is drun in Iran.
Some mass nouns refer to groups of speci!c things.
8or example9(
Tables, chairs, cupboards etc. are grouped under the mass noun furniture.
/lates, saucers, cups and bowls are grouped under the mass noun crockery.
?ni#es, for"s, spoons etc. are grouped under the collecti#e noun cutlery.
.hen you are tra#elling suitcases, bags etc. are grouped under the mass noun
luggage & baggage.
aking uncountable nouns countable
0ou can ma"e most uncountable noun countable by putting a countable expression
in front of the noun.
8or example9(
piece of information.
3 lasses of water.
1@ litres of co2ee.
Three rains of sand.
pane of glass.
Sources of confusion with countable and uncountable nouns
The notion of countable and uncountable can be confusing.
Some nouns can be countable or uncountable depending on their meaning. Usually
a noun is uncountable when used in a general, abstract meaning $when you donAt
thin" of it as a separate ob1ect% and countable when used in a particular meaning
$when you can thin" of it as a separate ob1ect%.
8or example9(
glass ( Two glasses of water. $Countable% B window made of glass. $Uncountable% B
glasses ( 4 wear glasses. $lways plural%
Some supposedly uncountable nouns can beha#e li"e countable nouns if we thin" of
them as being in containers, or one of se#eral types.
This is because AcontainersA and AtypesA can be counted.
7elie#e it or not each of these sentences is correct9(
'octors recommend limiting consumption to two co!ees a day.
$'ere co2ees refers to the number of cups of co2ee%
0ou could writeC 6'octors recommend limiting consumption to two cups of co!ee a
day.6
The co!ees I prefer are $rabica and (ra)ilian.
$'ere co2ees refers to di2erent types of co2ee%
0ou could writeC 6The types of co!ee I prefer are $rabica and (ra)ilian.6
3. A*stract Nouns
abstract noun is a noun that you cannot sense, it is the name we gi#e to an
emotion, ideal or idea. They ha#e no physical existence, you canAt see, hear, touch,
smell or taste them. The opposite of an abstract noun is a concrete noun.
%or e*ample+,
,usticeC an idea, bra#ery and happiness are all abstract nouns.
'ere is an a(* list of some common abstract nouns9(
adoration artistry
belief bra#ery
calm charity childhood comfort
compassio
n
dexterity
ego
failure faith feelings friendship
happiness hate honesty hope
idea impression infatuation
1oy
law liberty lo#e loyalty
maturity memory
omen
peace pride principle power
redemptio
n
romance
sadness sensiti#ity s"ill sleep success sympathy
talent thrill truth
wit
II. NU),!4 OF NOUNS
noun is either singular or plural, that is, generally, a word which denotes
one thing is singular and a word which denotes more than one is plural.
5. )ost nouns "orm their plurals *2 addin an 6s to the sinular.
7oy D boys boo" D boo"s fence ( fences
Set D sets papaya D papayas statue D statues
3. Nouns endin in s$ ch$ sh$ 7 or 8 "orm their plurals *2 addin an 6es.
Church D churches sash D sashes box D boxes
9. Proper nouns or "ormal names o" people$ places or thins "orm their
plural in the same manner as common nouns do. Add an- s or 6es to the
sinular "orm.
,oya( ,oyas +eyes D +eyeses ,ulie D,ulies
:. Usuall2$ sinular nouns endin in " or "e are plurali8ed *2 chanin the "
or "e into ' and addin es.
.ife Dwi#es loaf(loa#es elf D el#es thief(thie#es
The following are some exceptions9
7elief D beliefs relief D reliefs chief D chiefs proof D
proofs
;. Nouns endin in 2 and preceded *2 a consonant "orm their plurals *2
chanin the 2 into I and addin 6es.
7aby D babies city( cities lady D ladies mystery D mysteries
4f the y is preceded by a #owel, add an Ds to the word.
ttorney D attorneys "ey D"eys alley(alleys
<. Some nouns endin in o and preceded *2 a consonant ta%e the endin 6
es.
'ero D heroes tomato D tomatoes potato D potatoes
Some exceptions are9
/iano D pianos solo D solos
=. A "e( sinular nouns do not "orm their plural *2 addin an 6s or 6es.
Some add 6en to "orm the plural> some chane the mid-'o(el or 'o(els>
some remain unchaned in the plural.
Child D children ox D oxen woman(women deer(deer
sheep(sheep
.ood(wood mouse(mice goose(geese
?. Nouns o" "orein oriin retain their "orein plural
lumnus D alumni phenomenon(phenomena agendum(agenda
lumna D alumnae datum(data basis D bases
@. Some "orein nouns$ ho(e'er$ also use the reular 6s or 6es endin.
-emorandum D memorandums Dmemoranda index(indexes ( indices
8ormula D formulas D formulae stimulus D stimuluses D stimuli
5A. Compound nouns "orm their plurals in "our diBerent (a2s
a. $dd s to the endings of unhyphenated words
headwaiter D headwaiters handful(handfuls teahouse(teahouses
b. $dd s or es to hyphenated words without a noun word in it.
7rea"(up D brea"(ups smash(up ( smash(ups
c. $dd s or es to the principal noun word in two or three word compound
nouns.
+unner(up D runner(ups chief(of(police D chiefs Dof(polices editor(in(chief D
editors(in(chief
d. $dd s or es to the noun being modi-ed in compound nouns spelled as two
words.
'igh school D high schools notary public( notaries public
55. Num*ers and letters "orm their plurals *2 addin apostrophe .C0 and s
1Es 1@Es Es aEs
53. Follo(in are some nouns (hich are al(a2s plural in "orm and
meanin.
Scissors clothes shorts riches goods
than"s eyeglasses
59. Follo(in are some nouns (hich are al(a2s sinular in "orm and
meanin.
7aggage news Chinese !sh politics mathematics
ethics
/+ONOUNS
word that replaces a noun in a sentence
4. ?4NFS O8 /+ONOUNS
1. /ersonal /ronouns D They refer to persons spea"ing $!rst person%, the
persons spo"en to $second person%, and the persons spo"en about $third person%.
&i"e nouns, they ha#e singular and plural forms, cases and gender.
/)+SON S4NGU&+ /&U+&
84+ST /)+SON
Nominati#e 4 .e
Ob1ecti#e -e Us
/ossessi#e -y, mine Our, ours
S)CONF /)+SON
Nominati#e 0ou 0ou
Ob1ecti#e 0ou 0ou
/ossessi#e 0our, yours 0our, yours
T'4+F /)+SON
Nominati#e -asculine 'e
8eminine She They
neuter 4t
Ob1ecti#e -asculine 'im
8eminine 'er Them
Neuter 4t
/ossessi#e -asculine 'is
8eminine 'er. 'ers Their, Theirs
neuter 4ts
Uses o" Personal Pronouns
a. Nominati'e Case: pronouns are used as a:
H Sub1ect 9 +e is a genius.
H s a sub1ecti#e compliment 9 4t was he who planned the Christmas party.
*. O*Decti'e Case: are used as a:
H Firect Ob1ect 9 +yan lo#es her.
H s 4ndirect Ob1ect 9 The class ga#e him a tic"et.
H s Ob1ect of /reposition 9 -arie told the whole truth to him.
c. Possessi'e Case: denotes o(nership or possession.
+is new car is a Corolla.
This car is hers.
3. 4nde!nite /ronouns
Usin IndeEnite Pronouns
IndeEnite pronouns are words which replace nouns without specifying which noun
they replace.
Singular9 another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, e#erybody, e#eryone,
e#erything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody,
someone, something
/lural9 both, few, many, others, se#eral
Singular or /lural9 all, any, more, most, none, some
Singular inde!nite pronouns ta"e singular #erbs or singular personal pronouns.
Correct9 )ach of the members has one #ote.
$The sub1ect, each, is singular. Use has.%
4ncorrect9 One of the girls ga#e up their seat.
Correct9 One of the girls ga#e up her seat.
$+er refers to one, which is singular.%
/lural inde!nite pronouns ta"e plural #erbs or plural personal pronouns.
Correct9 few of the 1ustices were #oicing their opposition.
$Fe( is plural, so are (ere and their.%
8or inde!nite pronouns that can be singular or plural, it depends on what the
inde!nite pronoun refers to.
Correct9 ll of the people clapped their hands.
$All refers to people, which is plural.%
Correct9 ll of the newspaper was soa"ed.
$'ere all refers to ne(spaper, which is singular.%
A &ender-Sensiti'e Case
The pronouns ending with -*od2 or -one such as an2*od2$ some*od2$ no one$
or an2one are singular. So are pronouns li"e each and e'er2. .ords li"e all or
some may be singular. That means that a possessi#e pronoun referring to these
singular words must also be singular. 4n standard written )nglish the possessi#e
pronoun his is used to refer to a singular inde!nite pronoun unless the group
referred to is "nown to be all female.
4ncorrect9 4s e#eryone happy with their giftI
Correct9 4s e#eryone happy with his giftI
$Is and e'er2one are singular. The possessi#e pronoun must be singular, too%
-ost languages, including )nglish, obser#e the standard of using the masculine
pronoun in situations li"e this. 'owe#er, in some circles today the idea of choosing
the masculine pronoun sounds discriminatory against women. 4f this usage bothers
you, or if you thin" it may bother your audience, there are two possible ways to
wor" around this and still use standard )nglish.
1. Use the phrase his or her. 4t is a little aw"ward, but O?.
Correct9 4s e#eryone happy with his or her giftI
3. +ewrite the sentence using a plural pronoun or antecedent. /lural personal
pronouns in )nglish no longer distinguish between masculine and feminine.
Correct9 re all the people happy with their giftsI
9. 4elati'e Pronouns
relati#e pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a relati#e clause. 4t is called a
6relati#e6 pronoun because it 6relates6 to the word that its relati#e clause modi!es.
'ere is an example9
The person (ho phoned me last night is my teacher.
4n the abo#e example, 6who69
relates to 6The person6, which 6who phoned me last night6 modi!es
introduces the relati#e clause 6who phoned me last night6
There are !#e relati#e pronouns9 (ho, (hom, (hose, (hich, thatH
Fho $sub1ect% and (hom $ob1ect% are generally only for people. Fhose is for
possession. Fhich is for things. That can be used for things and people only in
de-ning relati#e clauses $clauses that are essential to the sentence and do not
simply add extra information%HH.
+elati#e pronouns can refer to singular or plural, and there is no di2erence between
male and female.
&oo" at these examples showing de!ning and non(de!ning relati#e clauses9
example sentences
S>sub1ect, O>ob1ect, />possessi#e
notes
deEnin
relati'e
clauses
S
( The person (ho phoned me
last night is my teacher.
( The person that phoned me
last night is my teacher.
That is preferable
( The car (hich hit me was
yellow.
( The car that hit me was
yellow.
That is preferable
O ( The person (hom 4 phoned
last night is my teacher.
( The people (ho 4 phoned last
night are my teachers.
( The person that 4 phoned last
night is my teacher.
( The person 4 phoned last
night is my teacher.
Fhom is correct but formal.
The relati#e pronoun is
optional.
( The car (hich 4 dri#e is old. That is preferable to (hich.
( The car that 4 dri#e is old.
( The car 4 dri#e is old.
The relati#e pronoun is
optional.
/
( The student (hose phone
1ust rang should stand up.
( Students (hose parents are
wealthy pay extra.
( The police are loo"ing for the
car (hose dri#er was mas"ed.
( The police are loo"ing for the
car o" (hich the dri#er was
mas"ed.
Fhose can be used with
things. O" (hich is also
possible.
non-
deEnin
relati'e
clauses
S
( -rs /ratt, (ho is #ery "ind, is
my teacher.
( The car, (hich was a taxi,
exploded.
( The cars, (hich were taxis,
exploded.
O
( -rs /ratt, (hom 4 li"e #ery
much, is my teacher.
( -rs /ratt, (ho 4 li"e #ery
much, is my teacher.
Fhom is correct but formal.
Fho is common in spo"en
)nglish and informal written
)nglish.
( The car, (hich 4 was dri#ing
at the time, suddenly caught
!re.
/
( -y brother, (hose phone
you 1ust heard, is a doctor.
( The car, (hose dri#er
1umped out 1ust before the
accident, was completely
destroyed.
( The car, the dri#er o" (hich
1umped out 1ust before the
accident, was completely
destroyed.
Fhose can be used with
things. O" (hich is also
possible.
HNot all grammar sources count 6that6 as a relati#e pronoun.
HHSome people claim that we cannot use 6that6 for people but must use
6who=whom6. There is no good reason for such a claimC there is a long history of
6that6 for people in de!ning relati#e clauses from Chaucer, Sha"espeare and the
uthori*ed ;ersion of The (ible to %owler's and Churchill.
:. Interroati'e Pronouns
.e use interrogati#e pronouns to as" :uestions. The interrogati#e pronoun
represents the thing that we donAt "now $what we are as"ing the :uestion about%.
There are four main interrogati#e pronouns9 (ho, (hom, (hat, (hich
Notice that the possessi#e pronoun (hose can also be an interrogati#e pronoun $an
interrogati#e possessi#e pronoun%.
sub1e
ct
ob1ec
t
person (ho
(ho
m
thing Fhat
person=thi
ng
(hich
person (hose
$possessi
#e%
Notice that (hom is the correct form when the pronoun is the ob1ect of the #erb, as
in 6Fhom did you seeI6 $64 saw Gohn.6% 'owe#er, in normal, spo"en )nglish we
rarely use (hom. -ost nati#e spea"ers would say $or e#en write%9 6Fho did you
seeI6
&oo" at these example :uestions. 4n the sample answers, the noun phrase that the
interrogati#e pronoun represents is shown in *old.
:uestion answer
Fho told youI Gohn told me.
sub1e
ct
Fhom did you tellI 4 told )ar2. ob1ect
FhatAs happenedI An accidentAs happened.
sub1e
ct
Fhat do you wantI 4 want coBee. ob1ect
Fhich came !rstI The Porsche @55 came !rst.
sub1e
ct
Fhich will the doctor see !rstI
The doctor will see the patient
in *lue !rst.
ob1ect
ThereAs one car missing. Fhose hasnAt
arri#edI
Gohn#s .car0 hasnAt arri#ed.
sub1e
ct
.eA#e found e#eryoneAs "eys. Fhose
did you !ndI
4 found Gohn#s .%e2s0. ob1ect
Note that we sometimes use the suJx 6(e#er6 to ma"e compounds from some of
these pronouns $mainly (hoe'er, (hate'er, (hiche'er%. .hen we add 6(e#er6,
we use it for emphasis, often to show confusion or surprise. &oo" at these examples9
Fhoe'er would want to do such a nasty thingI
Fhate'er did he say to ma"e her cry li"e thatI
TheyAre all fantasticK Fhiche'er will you chooseI
;. Demonstrati'e Pronouns
demonstrati#e pronoun represents a thing or things9
near in distance or time $this, these%
far in distance or time $that, those%
near far
singul
ar
this that
plural
the
se
thos
e
'ere are some examples with demonstrati#e pronouns, followed by an illustration9
This tastes good.
'a#e you seen thisI
These are bad times.
Fo you li"e theseI
That is beautiful.
&oo" at thatK
Those were the daysK
Can you see thoseI
This is hea#ier than that.
These are bigger than those.
Fo not confuse demonstrati#e pronouns with demonstrati#e ad1ecti#es. They are
identical, but a demonstrati#e pronoun stands alone, while a demonstrati#e
ad1ecti#e :uali!es a noun.
That smells. $demonstrati#e pronoun%
That *oo% is good. $demonstrati#e ad1ecti#e L noun%
Normally we use demonstrati#e pronouns for things only. 7ut we can use them for
people when the person is identi!ed. &oo" at these examples9
This is ,osef spea"ing. 4s that -aryI
That sounds li"e ,ohn.
<. Intensi'e and 4eHe7i'e Pronouns
+e5exi#e and intensi#e pronouns are the words myself. yourself. himself. herself.
itself. ourselves. yourselves. themselves. These words are classi!ed or grouped
as re5exi#e depending on how they are used in sentences. 4n the examples
below the re5exi#e and intensi#e pronouns are in italics.
+e5exi#e pronouns refer bac" to the sub1ect of a sentence9
4 ga#e myself plenty of time to get to wor".
0ou should let yourself into the house.
,im bought himself a shirt.
,ill read to herself.
The dog scratched itself.
.e treated ourselves to pi**a.
0ou can ma"e yourselves at home.
The children are able to dress themselves.
4ntensi#e pronouns are the same words used to smphasi*e the sub1ect of the
sentence. 4ntensi#e pronouns usually appear right near the sub1ect of the
sentence.