Sociology Exam

Chapter 1
Sociology: systematic study of individuals, groups, and social structures.
Sociological imagination: links our personal lives and experiences with our social world,
created by C. Wright Mills.
Social problem: a social condition or pattern of behavior that has negative consequences for
individuals, our social world, or our physical world. Ex: unemployment, drug abuse, AIDS
Objective reality: acknowledging that a particular social condition does exist, can be confirmed
by collection of data.
Subjective reality: addresses how a problem becomes defined as a problem.
Four Theories
1. Interactionist: A micro-level perspective that highlights what we take for granted: the
expectations, rules, and norms that we learn and practice without even noticing; through
interaction, social problems are created and defined. Focuses on how we use language,
words, and symbols to create and maintain our social reality.
2. Functionist: Theoretical perspective that examines the functions or consequences of the
structure of society; use a macro perspective, focusing on how society creates and
maintains order. The function of society was to civilize or control individual actions.
3. Conflict: Considers how society is held together by power and coercion for the benefit of
those in power (based on social class, gender, race, and ethnicity) Social problems
emerge from the continuing conflict between groups in society - dominant groups usually
win.
4. Feminist: defines gender (sometimes race or social class) as a source of social inequality,
group conflict, and social problems.
Basic Research: exploration of the causes and consequences of a social problem
Applied Research: pursuit of knowledge for program application or policy evaluation
Basic or pure research is conducted solely for the purpose of gathering information and building
on existing knowledge, as opposed to applied research, which is geared towards the resolution of
a particular question.

Chapter 2
Social stratification: the ranking of individuals into social strata or groups
Life chances: access provided by social position to goods and services
Prejudice: a negative attitude based on the attributes of an individual
Discrimination: acts based on prejudiced beliefs against a specific individual group
Social inequality: unequal distribution of resources, services, and positions
Wealth: the value of ones personal assets
Power: ability to achieve ones goals despite resistance from others
Prestige: social respect or standing
Absolute poverty: lack of basic necessities
Relative poverty: failure to achieve societys average income or lifestyle
Poverty threshold: the original federal poverty measure, based on the economy food plan
Poverty guidelines: used to determine family or individual eligibility for relevant federal
programs
Food insecure: lacking in access to sufficient food for all family members

Chapter 3
Race: Group or population sharing a set of genetic characteristics or physical features
Ethnicity: Group of people who are set off to some degree from other groups by displaying a
unique set of cultural traits, such as language, religion, or diet
Individual discrimination: prejudice actions against minority members by individuals, may
include avoiding contact or physical/verbal attacks
Institutional discrimination: discrimination practiced by political or social institutions, ex:
segregation, exclusion, or expulsion
Segregation: physical and social separation of ethnic or racial groups
Assimilation: a process in which minority group members become part of the dominant group,
losing their original group identity
Pluralism: ethnic or racial group maintains its own culture or a separate set of social structures
and institutions (multiculturalism)
Ethnocentrism: the belief that ones own group values and behaviors are right and better than
all others
Cultural relativism: view that all beliefs, customs, and ethics are relative to the individual
within his own social context. In other words, right and wrong are culture-specific; what is
considered moral in one society may be considered immoral in another, and, since no universal
standard of morality exists, no one has the right to judge another societys customs.

*The impact of race and social class has been documented in studies regarding income
attainment and mobility, educational attainment, and health and medical care. In all three areas,
racial and ethnic minorities are disadvantaged.

Chapter 4

Sex: psychological distinctions between man and female
Gender: social construction of masculine and feminine attitudes and behaviors
Sexism: prejudice or discrimination based solely on someones sex
Gendered division of labor: assignment of different tasks to men and women
Occupational sex segregation: the degree to which men and women are concentrated in
occupations that predominantly employ workers of one sex
Horizontal segregation: separation of men and women into different industries and occupations
Vertical segregation: the separation of men and women in workplace hierarchies; lower-ranking
positions are dominated by women, while management ranks are dominated by men
Human capital: job-related skills acquired through education and work experience
Human capital theory: theory that attributes gender income differences to differences in the
kind and amount of human capital men and women acquire
Devaluation of womens work: when the higher societal value placed on men that on women is
reproduced within the workplace
Gender mainstreaming: integration of the gender perspective into every stage of the policy
process (design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation)

Chapter 5

Sexual orientation: the classification of individuals according to their preference for emotional-
sexual relationships and lifestyle
Heterosexuality: sexual orientation toward the opposite sex
Homosexuality: sexual orientation toward the same sex
Bisexuality: sexual orientation toward either sex
Transgendered: individuals whose gender identity is different from that assigned to them
LGBT: lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender
Heterosexism: the privileging of heterosexuality over homosexuality
Three biases (p. 121)
1. Through policies that explicitly target LGBT individuals as abnormal or deviant
2. Through federal definitions that assume all families are heterosexual
3. Through policies that overlook LGBT poverty and social needs because of stereotypes
about affluence among LGBT families
Master status: an identity that determines how others view individuals and how individuals
view themselves

Gays and lesbians who reveal their sexual orientation risk loss of income and lower chances at
career advancement (127).