Historiography - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Allegory on writing history by
Jacob de Wit (1754). An almost

naked Truth keeps an eye on the
writer of history. Wisdom gives
advice; with Ptolemy I Soter, a
master in objectivity in his book
on Alexander the Great, below in
profile.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Historiography refers to both the study of the methodology of historians
and the development of "history" as a discipline, and also to a body of
historical work on a particular subject. Scholars discuss historiography
topically such as the "historiography of the British Empire," the
"historiography of early Islam", or the "historiography of China" as well
as different approaches and genres, such as political history or social
history. Beginning in the nineteenth century, with the ascent of academic
history, a body of historiographic literature developed. The extent to which
historians are influenced by their own groups and loyaltiessuch as to their
nation stateis a much debated question.
[1]
The research interests of historians change over time, and in recent decades
there has been a shift away from traditional diplomatic, economic and
political history toward newer approaches, especially social and cultural
studies. From 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in
American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to
41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%.
[2]
In
the history departments of British universities in 2007, of the 5,723 faculty
members, 1,644 (29%) identified themselves with social history while
political history came next with 1,425 (25%).
[3]
1 Terminology
2 Premodern history
2.1 Hellenic world
2.2 Roman world
2.3 Ancient China
2.4 Christendom
2.5 Islamic world
3 Enlightenment
3.1 Voltaire
3.2 David Hume
3.3 William Robertson
3.4 Edward Gibbon
4 19th century
4.1 Thomas Carlyle
4.2 Thomas Macaulay
Historiography - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography
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4.3 French historians: Michelet and Taine
4.4 Cultural and constitutional history
4.5 Von Ranke and Professionalization in Germany
5 20th century
5.1 Macaulay and Whig history
5.2 France: Annales School
5.3 Marxist historiography
5.4 E. H. Carr and British debates
5.5 American approaches
5.5.1 Progressive historians
5.5.2 Consensus history
5.5.3 New Left history
5.5.4 New social and political history
5.6 Cultural turn and memory
5.7 World history
6 Scholarly journals
6.1 Some major historical journals
7 Narrative
8 Topics studied
9 Approaches
9.1 Related fields
10 See also
11 References
12 Bibliography
12.1 Theory
12.2 Guides to scholarship
12.3 Histories of historical writing
12.4 Feminist historiography
12.5 National and regional studies
12.5.1 United States
12.5.2 Britain
12.5.3 British Empire
12.5.4 Asia and Africa
12.5.5 France
12.5.6 Germany
12.6 Themes, organizations, and teaching
12.7 Journals
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Reproduction of part of a
tenth-century copy of
Thucydides's History of the
Peloponnesian War.
13 External links
In the early modern period, the term historiography tended to be used in a more basic sense, to mean simply
"the writing of history". Historiographer therefore meant "historian", and it is in this sense that certain official
historians were given the title "Historiographer Royal", in Sweden (from 1618), England (from 1660), and
Scotland (from 1681). The Scottish post is still in existence.
Furay and Salevouris (1988) define historiography as "the study of the way history has been and is written the
history of historical writing... When you study 'historiography' you do not study the events of the past directly,
but the changing interpretations of those events in the works of individual historians."
[4]
Understanding the past appears to be a universal human need, and the telling of history has emerged
independently in civilisations around the world. What constitutes history is a philosophical question (see
philosophy of history). The earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, though no
historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name. For the purposes of this article, history is
taken to mean written history recorded in a narrative format for the purpose of informing future generations
about events. Some experts have advised against the tendency to extrapolate trends for historical patterns that
do not align with expectations about the future.
[5]
Hellenic world
The earliest known systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, a
development which would be an important influence on the writing of history
elsewhere around the Mediterranean region. Greek historians greatly contributed
to the development of historical methodology. The earliest known critical
historical works were The Histories, composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus
(484 c.425 BCE) who later became known as the "father of history" (Cicero).
Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts, and
personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving written accounts
of various Mediterranean cultures. Although Herodotus' overall emphasis lay on
the actions and characters of men, he also attributed an important role to divinity
in the determination of historical events.
The generation following Herodotus witnessed a spate of local histories of the
individual city-states (poleis), written by the first of the local historians who
employed the written archives of city and sanctuary. Dionysius of Halicarnassus
characterized these historians as the forerunners of Thucydides,
[6]
and these
local histories continued to be written into Late Antiquity, as long as the city-states survived. Two early figures
stand out: Hippias of Elis, who produced the lists of winners in the Olympic Games that provided the basic
chronological framework as long as the pagan classical tradition lasted, and Hellanicus of Lesbos, who
compiled more than two dozen histories from civic records, all of them now lost.
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Thucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta,
establishing a rationalistic element which set a precedent for subsequent Western historical writings. He was
also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon
(c.431 355 BCE) introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis.
The proverbial Philippic attacks of the Athenian orator Demosthenes (384322 BCE) on Philip II of Macedon
marked the height of ancient political agitation. The now lost history of Alexander's campaigns by the diadoch
Ptolemy I (367283 BCE) may represent the first historical work composed by a ruler. Polybius (c.203
120 BCE) wrote on the rise of Rome to world prominence, and attempted to harmonize the Greek and Roman
points of view.
The Chaldean priest Berossus (fl.3rd century BCE) composed a Greek-language History of Babylonia for the
Seleucid king Antiochus I, combining Hellenistic methods of historiography and Mesopotamian accounts to
form a unique composite. Reports exist of other near-eastern histories, such as that of the Phoenician historian
Sanchuniathon; but he is considered semi-legendary and writings attributed to him are fragmentary, known only
through the later historians Philo of Byblos and Eusebius, who asserted that he wrote before even the Trojan
war.
Roman world
The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, writing at first in Greek, but eventually chronicling their history in a
freshly non-Greek language.
[7]
While early Roman works were still written in Greek, the Origines, composed
by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder (234149 BCE), was written in Latin, in a conscious effort to counteract
Greek cultural influence. It marked the beginning of Latin historical writings. Hailed for its lucid style, Julius
Caesar's (10044 BCE) Bellum Gallicum exemplifies autobiographical war coverage. The politician and orator
Cicero (10643 BCE) introduced rhetorical elements in his political writings.
Strabo (63 BCE c.24 CE) was an important exponent of the Greco-Roman tradition of combining geography
with history, presenting a descriptive history of peoples and places known to his era. Livy (59 BCE 17 CE)
records the rise of Rome from city-state to empire. His speculation about what would have happened if
Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history.
[8]
Biography, although popular throughout antiquity, was introduced as a branch of history by the works of
Plutarch (c.46 127 CE) and Suetonius (c.69 after 130 CE) who described the deeds and characters of ancient
personalities, stressing their human side. Tacitus (c.56 c.117 CE) denounces Roman immorality by praising
German virtues, elaborating on the topos of the Noble savage.
Ancient China
In China, the Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest
narratives of China. The Spring and Autumn Annals, the official chronicle of the State of Lu covering the period
from 722 to 481 BCE, is among the earliest surviving Chinese historical texts to be arranged on annalistic
principles. It is traditionally attributed to Confucius. The Zuo Zhuan, attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th
century BCE, is the earliest Chinese work of narrative history and covers the period from 722 to 468 BCE. Zhan
Guo Ce was a renowned ancient Chinese historical compilation of sporadic materials on the Warring States
period compiled between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE.
Sima Qian (around 100 BCE) was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing. His
written work was the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), a monumental lifelong achievement in literature.
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First page of the Shiji.
A page of Bede's
Ecclesiastical History of the
English People
Its scope extends as far back as the 16th century BCE, and it includes many
treatises on specific subjects and individual biographies of prominent people,
and also explores the lives and deeds of commoners, both contemporary and
those of previous eras. His work influenced every subsequent author of history
in China, including the prestigious Ban family of the Eastern Han Dynasty era.
Traditional Chinese historiography describes history in terms of dynastic cycles.
In this view, each new dynasty is founded by a morally righteous founder. Over
time, the dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute. Eventually, the
dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty.
[9]
Christendom
Christian historiography began early, perhaps as early as Luke-Acts, which is
the primary source for the Apostolic Age, though its historical reliability is
disputed. In the first Christian centuries, the New Testament canon was
developed. The growth of Christianity and its enhanced status in the Roman
Empire after Constantine I (see State church of the Roman Empire) led to the
development of a distinct Christian historiography, influenced by both Christian
theology and the nature of the Christian Bible, encompassing new areas of study
and views of history. The central role of the Bible in Christianity is reflected in
the preference of Christian historians for written sources, compared to the
classical historians' preference for oral sources and is also reflected in the
inclusion of politically unimportant people. Christian historians also focused on
development of religion and society. This can be seen in the extensive inclusion
of written sources in the Ecclesiastical History written by Eusebius of Caesarea
around 324 and in the subjects it covers.
[10]
Christian theology considered time
as linear, progressing according to divine plan. As God's plan encompassed
everyone, Christian histories in this period had a universal approach. For
example, Christian writers often included summaries of important historical
events prior to the period covered by the work.
[11]
Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle
Ages. They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that
of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took
the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year, but this style tended to hamper the analysis of
events and causes.
[12]
An example of this type of writing is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, which were the work
of several different writers: it was started during the reign of Alfred the Great in the late 9th century, but one
copy was still being updated in 1154. Some writers in the period did construct a more narrative form of history.
These included Gregory of Tours, and more successfully Bede who wrote both secular and ecclesiastical history
and is known for writing the Ecclesiastical History of the English People.
[10]
During the Renaissance, history was written about states or nations. The study of history changed during the
Enlightenment and Romanticism. Voltaire described the history of certain ages that he considered important,
rather than describing events in chronological order. History became an independent discipline. It was not called
philosophia historiae anymore, but merely history (historia).
Islamic world
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Tunisian statue of Ibn Khaldun,
pioneer of historiography, cultural
history, and the philosophy of history.
Muslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet
Muhammad's life in the centuries following his death. With numerous conflicting narratives regarding
Muhammad and his companions from various sources, it was necessary to verify which sources were more
reliable. In order to evaluate these sources, various methodologies were developed, such as the "science of
biography", "science of hadith" and "Isnad" (chain of transmission). These methodologies were later applied to
other historical figures in the Islamic civilization. Famous historians in this tradition include Urwah (d. 712),
Wahb ibn Munabbih (d. 728), Ibn Ishaq (d. 761), al-Waqidi (745822), Ibn Hisham (d. 834), Muhammad
al-Bukhari (810870) and Ibn Hajar (13721449).
Historians of the medieval Islamic world also developed an interest in world history. The historian Muhammad
ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838923) is known for writing a detailed and comprehensive chronicle of Mediterranean and
Middle Eastern history in his History of the Prophets and Kings in 915. Until the 10th century, history most
often meant political and military history, but this was not so with Persian historian Biruni (9731048). In his
Kitab fi Tahqiq ma l'il-Hind (Researches on India) he did not record political and military history in any detail,
but wrote more on India's cultural, scientific, social and religious history. He expanded on his idea of history in
another work, The Chronology of the Ancient Nations.
[13]
Biruni is considered the father of Indology for his
detailed studies on Indian history.
[14]
Archaeology in the Middle East began with the study of the ancient Near
East by Muslim historians in the medieval Islamic world who developed
an interest in learning about pre-Islamic cultures. In particular, they most
often concentrated on the archaeology and history of pre-Islamic Arabia,
Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt. In Egyptology, the first known
attempts at deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs were made in Islamic
Egypt by Dhul-Nun al-Misri and Ibn Wahshiyya in the 9th century, who
were able to at least partly understand what was written in the ancient
Egyptian hieroglyphs, by relating them to the contemporary Coptic
language used by Coptic priests in their time. Muslim historians such as
Abu al-Hassan al-Hamadani of Yemen (d. 945), Abdul Latif al-Baghdadi
(11621231) and Al-Idrisi of Egypt (d. 1251) developed elaborate
archaeological methods which they employed in their excavations and
research of ancient archaeological sites.
[15]
Islamic historical writing eventually culminated in the works of the Arab
Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun (13321406), who published his
historiographical studies in the Muqaddimah (translated as
Prolegomena) and Kitab al-I'bar (Book of Advice).
[16]
Among many
other things, his Muqaddimah laid the groundwork for the observation of
the roles of the state, in history,
[17]
and he discussed the rise and fall of
civilizations. He also developed a method for the study of history, and is
thus considered to be the founder of Arab historiography,
[18][19][20]
or the "father of the philosophy of
history".
[21]
In the preface to the Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun warned of seven mistakes that he thought
historians often committed. In this criticism, he approached the past as strange and in need of interpretation. The
originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural differences of another age must govern the evaluation
of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be possible to attempt
the evaluation, and lastly, to consider the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to
assess a culture of the past. Ibn Khaldun often criticized "idle superstition and uncritical acceptance of historical
data." As a result, he introduced a method to the study of history, which was considered something "new to his
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Voltaire's works of history are an
excellent example of Enlightenment
era history writing. Painting by Pierre
Charles Baquoy.
age", and he often referred to it as his "new science", now associated with historiography.
[22]
The Muqaddimah
is also the earliest known work to critically examine military history, criticizing certain accounts of historical
battles that appear to be exaggerated, and takes military logistics into account when questioning the exaggerated
sizes of historical armies reported in earlier sources.
[23]
During the Age of Enlightenment, the modern development of historiography through the application of
scrupulous methods began.
Voltaire
French philosophe Voltaire (16941778) had an enormous influence on
the art of history writing. His best-known histories are The Age of Louis
XIV (1751), and Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations
(1756).
"My chief object," he wrote in 1739, "is not political or military history,
it is the history of the arts, of commerce, of civilization in a word, of
the human mind."
[24]
He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic
and military events, and emphasized customs, social history and
achievements in the arts and sciences. The "Essay on Customs" traced
the progress of world civilization in a universal context, thereby
rejecting both nationalism and the traditional Christian frame of
reference. Influenced by Bossuet's Discourse on the Universal History
(1682), he was the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the
history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks, and
emphasizing economics, culture and political history. He treated Europe
as a whole, rather than a collection of nations. He was the first to emphasize the debt of medieval culture to
Arab civilization, but otherwise was weak on the Middle Ages. Although he repeatedly warned against political
bias on the part of the historian, he lost few opportunities to expose the intolerance and frauds of the church
over the ages. Voltaire advised scholars that anything contradicting the normal course of nature was not to be
believed. Although he found evil in the historical record, he fervently believed reason and educating the
illiterate masses would lead to progress.
Voltaire explains his view of historiography in his article on "History" in Diderot's Encyclopdie:
"One demands of modern historians more details, better ascertained facts, precise dates, more attention to
customs, laws, mores, commerce, finance, agriculture, population."
Voltaire's histories imposed the values of the Enlightenment on the past, but he helped free historiography from
antiquarianism, Eurocentrism, religious intolerance and a concentration on great men, diplomacy, and
warfare.
[25]
Yale professor Peter Gay says Voltaire wrote "very good history," citing his "scrupulous concern for truths,"
"careful sifting of evidence," "intelligent selection of what is important," "keen sense of drama," and "grasp of
the fact that a whole civilization is a unit of study."
[26][27]
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Edward Gibbon's Decline of
the Roman Empire (1776)
was a masterpiece of late
18th-century history writing.
David Hume
At the same time, philosopher David Hume was having a similar impact on history in Great Britain. In 1754 he
published the History of England, a 6-volume work which extended "From the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the
Revolution in 1688". Hume adopted a similar scope to Voltaire in his history; as well as the history of Kings,
Parliaments, and armies, he examined the history of culture, including literature and science, as well. His short
biographies of leading scientists explored the process of scientific change and he developed new ways of seeing
scientists in the context of their times by looking at how they interacted with society and each other - He paid
special attention to Francis Bacon, Robert Boyle, Isaac Newton and William Harvey.
[28]
He also argued that the quest for liberty was the highest standard for judging the past, and concluded that after
considerable fluctuation, England at the time of his writing had achieved "the most entire system of liberty, that
was ever known amongst mankind."
[29]
William Robertson
William Robertson, a Scottish historian, and the Historiographer Royal
[30]
published the History of Scotland
1542 - 1603, in 1759 and his most famous work, The history of the reign of Charles V in 1769.
[31]
His
scholarship was painstaking for the time and he was able to access a large number of documentary sources that
had previously been unstudied. He was also one of the first historians who understood the importance of general
and universally applicable ideas in the shaping of historical events.
[32]
Edward Gibbon
The apex of Enlightenment history was reached with Edward Gibbon's,
monumental six-volume work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire, published on 17 February 1776. Because of its relative
objectivity and heavy use of primary sources, at the time its methodology
became a model for later historians. This has led to Gibbon being called the first
"modern historian".
[33]
The book sold impressively, earning its' author a total of
about 9000. Biographer Leslie Stephen wrote that thereafter, "His fame was as
rapid as it has been lasting."
Gibbon's work has been praised for its style, his piquant epigrams and its
effective irony. Winston Churchill memorably noted, "I set out upon...Gibbon's
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire [and] was immediately dominated both
by the story and the style. ...I devoured Gibbon. I rode triumphantly through it
from end to end and enjoyed it all."
[34]
Gibbon was pivotal in the secularizing
and 'desanctifying' of history, with his fiercely polemical attacks on
Christianity.
[35]
Unusually for the 18th century, Gibbon was never content with
secondhand accounts when the primary sources were accessible (though most of
these were drawn from well-known printed editions). "I have always endeavoured," he says, "to draw from the
fountain-head; that my curiosity, as well as a sense of duty, has always urged me to study the originals; and that,
if they have sometimes eluded my search, I have carefully marked the secondary evidence, on whose faith a
passage or a fact were reduced to depend."
[36]
In this insistence upon the importance of primary sources,
Gibbon is considered by many to have broken new ground in the methodical study of history:
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Japanese print depicting Thomas
Carlyle's horror at the burning of his
manuscript The French Revolution: A
History.
In accuracy, thoroughness, lucidity, and comprehensive grasp of a vast subject, the 'History' is
unsurpassable. It is the one English history which may be regarded as definitive. ...Whatever its
shortcomings the book is artistically imposing as well as historically unimpeachable as a vast
panorama of a great period.
[37]
The tumultuous events surrounding the French Revolution inspired much of the historiography and analysis of
the early 19th century. Interest in the 1688 Glorious Revolution was also rekindled by the Great Reform Act of
1832 in England.
Thomas Carlyle
Thomas Carlyle published his magnus opus, the three-volume The
French Revolution: A History in 1837. (The first volume was
accidentally burned by John Stuart Mill's maid - Carlyle rewrote it from
scratch).
[38][39]
The resulting work had a passion new to historical
writing. The work charts the course of the French Revolution from 1789
to the height of the Reign of Terror (179394) and culminates in 1795. A
massive undertaking which draws together a wide variety of sources,
Carlyle's historydespite the unusual style in which it is writtenis
considered to be an authoritative account of the early course of the
Revolution.
In a politically charged Europe, filled with fears and hopes of revolution,
Carlyle's account of the motivations and urges that inspired the events in
France seemed powerfully relevant. Carlyle's style of historical writing
stressed the immediacy of action often using the present tense.
Carlyle emphasised the role of forces of the spirit in history and thought
that chaotic events demanded what he called 'heroes' to take control over
the competing forces erupting within society. He considered the dynamic
forces of history as being the hopes and aspirations of people that took
the form of ideas, and were often ossified into ideologies.
As a historical account, The French Revolution was written in a highly
unorthodox style, far removed from the neutral and detached tone of the tradition of Edward Gibbon. Carlyle
presented the history as dramatic events unfolding in the present as though he and the reader were participants
on the streets of Paris at the fall of the Bastille or the public execution of Louis XVI.
Carlyle's invented style - epic poetry combined with philosophical treatise - resulted in a work of history that is
perhaps entirely unique, and one that is still in print nearly 200 years after it was first published.
Thomas Macaulay
Thomas Macaulay produced his most famous work of history, The History of England from the Accession of
James the Second, in 1848.
[40]
His writings are famous for their ringing prose and for their confident,
sometimes dogmatic, emphasis on a progressive model of British history, according to which the country threw
off superstition, autocracy and confusion to create a balanced constitution and a forward-looking culture
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Jules Michelet, later in his career.
combined with freedom of belief and expression. This model of human progress has been called the Whig
interpretation of history. Despite the obvious drawbacks to, what by modern standards, is a triumphalist and
anachronistic narrative, his obvious love of the subject matter and of the progress of civilisation, helps to place
the reader within the age being described in a personal way that no cold neutrality could, and Macaulay's
History is generally recognised as one of the masterpieces of historical writing, and a magisterial literary
triumph only comparable as such to Gibbon and Michelet.
His legacy continues to be controversial; Gertrude Himmelfarb wrote that "most professional historians have
long since given up reading Macaulay, as they have given up writing the kind of history he wrote and thinking
about history as he did."
[41]
However, J. R. Western wrote that: "Despite its age and blemishes, Macaulay's
History of England has still to be superseded by a full-scale modern history of the period".
[42]
French historians: Michelet and Taine
In his main work Histoire de France, French historian Jules Michelet
coined the term Renaissance (meaning "Re-birth" in French language),
as a period in Europe's cultural history that represented a break from the
Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place
in the world.
[43]
The nineteen volume work covered French history from
Charlemagne to the outbreak of the Revolution.
Michelet was one of the first historians to shift the emphasis of history to
the common people, rather than the leaders and institutions of the
country. He devoted himself to writing a picturesque history of the
Middle Ages, and his account is still one of the most vivid that exists.
His inquiry into manuscript and printed authorities was most laborious,
but his lively imagination, and his strong religious and political
prejudices, made him regard all things from a singularly personal point
of view.
Hippolyte Taine was the chief theoretical influence of French naturalism,
a major proponent of sociological positivism and one of the first
practitioners of historicist criticism. He was unable to secure an
academic position. He pioneered The idea of "milieu" as an active
historical force which amalgamated geographical, psychological and
social factors. Historical writing for him was a search for general laws. His brilliant style kept his writing in
circulation long after his theoretical approaches were passe.
[44]
Cultural and constitutional history
One of the major progenitors of the history of culture and art, was the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt
[45]
Siegfried Giedion described Burckhardt's achievement in the following terms: "The great discoverer of the age
of the Renaissance, he first showed how a period should be treated in its entirety, with regard not only for its
painting, sculpture and architecture, but for the social institutions of its daily life as well."
[46]
Burckhardt's best
known work is The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860).
His most famous work was The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, published in 1860; it was the most
influential interpretation of the Italian Renaissance in the nineteenth century and is still widely read. According
10 of 36 7/15/2014 2:50 AM
to John Lukacs, he was the first master of cultural history, which seeks to describe the spirit and the forms of
expression of a particular age, a particular people, or a particular place. His innovative approach to historical
research stressed the importance of art and its inestimable value as a primary source for the study of history. He
was one of the first historians to rise above the narrow nineteenth-century notion that "history is past politics
and politics current history.
[47]
By the mid-19th century, scholars were beginning to analyse the history of institutional change, particularly the
development of constitutional government. William Stubbs's Constitutional History of England (3 vols.,
187478) was an important influence on this developing field. The work traced the development of the English
constitution from the Teutonic invasions of Britain until 1485, and marked a distinct step in the advance of
English historical learning.
[48]
He argued that the theory of the unity and continuity of history should not
remove distinctions between ancient and modern history. He believed that, though work on ancient history is a
useful preparation for the study of modern history, either may advantageously be studied apart. He was a good
palaeographer, and excelled in textual criticism, in examination of authorship, and other such matters, while his
vast erudition and retentive memory made him second to none in interpretation and exposition.
[49]
Von Ranke and Professionalization in Germany
The modern academic study of history and methods of historiography were pioneered in 19th-century German
universities, especially the University of Gttingen. Leopold von Ranke was a pivotal influence in this regard,
and is considered as the founder of modern source-based history.
[50][51]
According to Caroline Hoefferle,
Ranke was probably the most important historian to shape historical profession as it emerged in Europe and
the United States in the late 19th century.
[52]
Specifically, he implemented the seminar teaching method in his classroom, and focused on archival research
and analysis of historical documents. Beginning with his first book in 1824, the History of the Latin and
Teutonic Peoples from 1494 to 1514, Ranke used an unusually wide variety of sources for a historian of the age,
including "memoirs, diaries, personal and formal missives, government documents, diplomatic dispatches and
first-hand accounts of eye-witnesses". Over a career that spanned much of the century, Ranke set the standards
for much of later historical writing, introducing such ideas as reliance on primary sources, an emphasis on
narrative history and especially international politics (aussenpolitik).
[53]
Sources had to be solid, not
speculations and rationalizations. His credo was to write history the way it was. He insisted on primary sources
with proven authenticity.
Ranke also rejected the 'teleological approach' to history, which traditionally viewed each period as inferior to
the period which follows. In Ranke's view, the historian had to understand a period on its own terms, and seek
to find only the general ideas which animated every period of history. In 1831 and at the behest of the Prussian
government, Ranke founded and edited the first historical journal in the world, called Historisch-Politische
Zeitschrift.
Another important German thinker was Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, whose theory of historical progress ran
counter to Ranke's approach. In Hegel's own words, his philosophical theory of "World history... represents the
development of the spirit's consciousness of its own freedom and of the consequent realization of this
freedom.".
[54]
This realization is seen by studying the various cultures that have developed over the millennia,
and trying to understand the way that freedom has worked itself out through them:
World history is the record of the spirit's efforts to attain knowledge of what it is in itself. The
Orientals do not know that the spirit or man as such are free in themselves. And because they do
not know that, they are not themselves free. They only know that One is free.... The consciousness
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Ranke established history as a
professional academic discipline in
Germany.
of freedom first awoke among the Greeks, and they were
accordingly free; but, like the Romans, they only knew that Some,
and not all men as such, are free.... The Germanic nations, with
the rise of Christianity, were the first to realize that All men are by
nature free, and that freedom of spirit is his very essence.
[55]
Karl Marx introduced the concept of historical materialism into the
study of world historical development. In his conception, the economic
conditions and dominant modes of production determined the structure
of society at that point. In his view five successive stages in the
development of material conditions would occur in Western Europe. The
first stage was primitive communism where property was shared and
there was no concept of "leadership". This progressed to a slave society
where the idea of class emerged and the State developed. Feudalism was
characterized by an aristocracy working in partnership with a theocracy
and the emergence of the Nation-state. Capitalism appeared after the
bourgeois revolution when the capitalists (or their merchant
predecessors) overthrew the feudal system and established a market
economy, with private property and Parliamentary democracy. Marx
then predicted the eventual proletarian revolution that would result in the
attainment of socialism, followed by Communism, where property
would be communally owned.
Previous historians had focused on cyclical events of the rise and decline of rulers and nations. Process of
nationalization of history, as part of national revivals in 19th century, resulted with separation of "one's own"
history from common universal history by such way of perceiving, understanding and treating the past that
constructed history as history of a nation.
[56]
A new discipline, sociology, emerged in the late 19th century and
analyzed and compared these perspectives on a larger scale.
Macaulay and Whig history
The term Whig history was coined by Herbert Butterfield in his short book The Whig Interpretation of History
in 1931, means the approach to historiography which presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever
greater liberty and enlightenment, culminating in modern forms of liberal democracy and constitutional
monarchy. In general, Whig historians emphasized the rise of constitutional government, personal freedoms and
scientific progress. The term has been also applied widely in historical disciplines outside of British history (the
history of science, for example) to criticize any teleological (or goal-directed), hero-based, and transhistorical
narrative.
[57]
Paul Rapin de Thoyras's history of England, published in 1723, became "the classic Whig history" for the first
half of the 18th century,.
[58]
It was later supplanted by the immensely popular The History of England by David
Hume Whig historians emphasized the achievements of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. This included James
Mackintosh's History of the Revolution in England in 1688, William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of
England and Henry Hallam's Constitutional History of England.
[59]
The most famous exponent of 'Whiggery' was Thomas Babington Macaulay who published the first volumes of
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Macaulay was the most influential
exponent of the Whig history
his The History of England from the Accession of James II in 1848 - it
proved an immediate success and replaced Hume's history to become the
new orthodoxy.
[60]
His 'Whiggish convictions' are spelled out in his first
chapter:
I shall relate how the new settlement was...successfully defended
against foreign and domestic enemies; how...the authority of law
and the security of property were found to be compatible with a
liberty of discussion and of individual action never before known;
how, from the auspicious union of order and freedom, sprang a
prosperity of which the annals of human affairs had furnished no
example; how our country, from a state of ignominious vassalage,
rapidly rose to the place of umpire among European powers; how
her opulence and her martial glory grew together;...how a gigantic
commerce gave birth to a maritime power, compared with which
every other maritime power, ancient or modern, sinks into
insignificance...the history of our country during the last hundred
and sixty years is eminently the history of physical, of moral, and of intellectual improvement.
This consensus was steadily undermined during the post-World War I re-evaluation of European history, and
Butterfield's critique exemplified this trend. Intellectuals no longer believed the world was automatically getting
better and better. Subsequent generations of academic historians have similarly rejected Whig history because
of its presentist and teleological assumption that history is driving toward some sort of goal.
[61]
Other criticized
'Whig' assumptions included viewing the British system as the apex of human political development, assuming
that political figures in the past held current political beliefs (anachronism), considering British history as a
march of progress with inevitable outcomes and presenting political figures of the past as heroes, who advanced
the cause of this political progress, or villains, who sought to hinder its inevitable triumph.J. Hart says "a Whig
interpretation requires human heroes and villains in the story.
[62]
France: Annales School
The French Annales School radically changed the focus of historical research in France during the 20th century
by stressing long-term social history, rather than political or diplomatic themes. The school emphasized the use
of quantification and the paying of special attention to geography.
[63][64]
The Annales d'histoire conomique et sociale journal was founded in 1929 in Strasbourg by Marc Bloch and
Lucien Febvre. These authors, the former a medieval historian and the latter an early modernist, quickly became
associated with the distinctive Annales approach, which combined geography, history, and the sociological
approaches of the Anne Sociologique (many members of which were their colleagues at Strasbourg) to
produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics, diplomacy and war of many 19th
and early 20th-century historians as spearheaded by historians whom Febvre called Les Sorbonnistes. Instead,
they pioneered an approach to a study of long-term historical structures (la longue dure) over events and
political transformations.
[65]
Geography, material culture, and what later Annalistes called mentalits, or the
psychology of the epoch, are also characteristic areas of study. The goal of the Annales was to undo the work of
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The 20th century saw the creation of
a huge variety of historiographical
approaches. Marc Bloch's focus on
social history rather than traditional
political history was of tremendous
influence.
the Sorbonnistes, to turn French historians away from the narrowly
political and diplomatic toward the new vistas in social and economic
history.
[66]
An eminent member of this school, Georges Duby, described his
approach to history as one that
relegated the sensational to the sidelines and was reluctant to give
a simple accounting of events, but strived on the contrary to pose
and solve problems and, neglecting surface disturbances, to
observe the long and medium-term evolution of economy, society
and civilisation.
The Annalistes, especially Lucien Febvre, advocated a histoire totale, or
histoire tout court, a complete study of a historic problem.
The second era of the school was led by Fernand Braudel and was very
influential throughout the 1960s and 1970s, especially for his work on
the Mediterranean region in the era of Philip II of Spain. Braudel
developed the idea, often associated with Annalistes, of different modes
of historical time: l'histoire quasi immobile (motionless history) of
historical geography, the history of social, political and economic
structures (la longue dure), and the history of men and events, in the
context of their structures. His 'longue dure' approach stressed slow,
and often imperceptible effects of space, climate and technology on the actions of human beings in the past. The
Annales historians, after living through two world wars and incredible political upheavals in France, were
deeply uncomfortable with the notion that multiple ruptures and discontinuities created history. They preferred
to stress inertia and the longue dure. Special attention was paid to geography, climate, and demography as
long-term factors. They believed the continuities of the deepest structures were central to history, beside which
upheavals in institutions or the superstructure of social life were of little significance, for history lies beyond the
reach of conscious actors, especially the will of revolutionaries.
[67]
Noting the political upheavals in Europe and especially in France in 1968, Eric Hobsbawm argued that "in
France the virtual hegemony of Braudelian history and the Annales came to an end after 1968, and the
international influence of the journal dropped steeply."
[68]
Multiple responses were attempted by the school.
Scholars moved in multiple directions, covering in disconnected fashion the social, economic, and cultural
history of different eras and different parts of the globe. By the time of crisis the school was building a vast
publishing and research network reaching across France, Europe, and the rest of the world. Influence indeed
spread out from Paris, but few new ideas came in. Much emphasis was given to quantitative data, seen as the
key to unlocking all of social history.
[69]
However, the Annales ignored the developments in quantitative studies
underway in the U.S. and Britain, which reshaped economic, political and demographic research.
[70]
Marxist historiography
Marxist historiography developed as a school of historiography influenced by the chief tenets of Marxism,
including the centrality of social class and economic constraints in determining historical outcomes. Friedrich
Engels wrote The Peasant War in Germany, which analysed social warfare in early Protestant Germany in terms
of emerging capitalist classes. Although it lacked a rigorous engagement with archival sources, it indicated an
early interest in history from below and class analysis, and it attempts a dialectical analysis. Another treatise of
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Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, was salient in creating the socialist impetus in
British politics from then on, e.g. the Fabian Society.
R. H. Tawney was an early historian working in this tradition. The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century
(1912)
[71]
and Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926), reflected his ethical concerns and preoccupations in
economic history. He was profoundly interested in the issue of the enclosure of land in the English countryside
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and in Max Weber's thesis on the connection between the appearance
of Protestantism and the rise of capitalism. His belief in the rise of the gentry in the century before the outbreak
of the Civil War in England provoked the 'Storm over the Gentry' in which his methods were subjected to severe
criticisms by Hugh Trevor-Roper and John Cooper.
A circle of historians inside the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) formed in 1946 and became a highly
influential cluster of British Marxist historians, who contributed to history from below and class structure in
early capitalist society. While some members of the group (most notably Christopher Hill and E. P. Thompson)
left the CPGB after the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the common points of British Marxist historiography
continued in their works. They placed a great emphasis on the subjective determination of history.
Christopher Hill's studies on 17th-century English history were widely acknowledged and recognised as
representative of this school.
[72]
His books include Puritanism and Revolution (1958), Intellectual Origins of
the English Revolution (1965 and revised in 1996), The Century of Revolution (1961), AntiChrist in
17th-century England (1971), The World Turned Upside Down (1972) and many others.
E. P. Thompson pioneered the study of history from below in his work, The Making of the English Working
Class, published in 1963. It focused on the forgotten history of the first working-class political left in the world
in the late-18th and early-19th centuries. In his preface to this book, Thompson set out his approach to writing
history from below:
I am seeking to rescue the poor stockinger, the Luddite cropper, the "obsolete" hand-loom weaver,
the "Utopian" artisan, and even the deluded follower of Joanna Southcott, from the enormous
condescension of posterity. Their crafts and traditions may have been dying. Their hostility to the
new industrialism may have been backward-looking. Their communitarian ideals may have been
fantasies. Their insurrectionary conspiracies may have been foolhardy. But they lived through these
times of acute social disturbance, and we did not. Their aspirations were valid in terms of their own
experience; and, if they were casualties of history, they remain, condemned in their own lives, as
casualties.
Thompson's work was also significant because of the way he defined "class." He argued that class was not a
structure, but a relationship that changed over time. He opened the gates for a generation of labor historians,
such as David Montgomery and Herbert Gutman, who made similar studies of the American working classes.
Other important Marxist historians included Eric Hobsbawm, C. L. R. James, Raphael Samuel, A. L. Morton
and Brian Pearce.
Although Marxist historiography made important contributions to the history of the working class, oppressed
nationalities, and the methodology of history from below, its chief problematic aspect was its argument on the
nature of history as determined or dialectical; this can also be stated as the relative importance of subjective and
objective factors in creating outcomes. It increasingly fell out of favour in the 1960s and '70s. Geoffrey Elton
was important in undermining the case for a Marxist historiography, about which he argued was presenting
seriously flawed interpretations of the past. In particular, Elton was opposed to the idea that the English Civil
War was caused by socioeconomic changes in the 16th and 17th centuries, arguing instead that it was due
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largely to the incompetence of the Stuart kings.
[73]
In dealing with the era of the Second World War, Addison notes that in Britain by the 1990s, labour history was,
"in sharp decline," because:
there was no longer much interest in history of the white, male working-class. Instead the 'cultural turn'
encouraged historians to explore wartime constructions of gender, race, citizenship and national
identity.
[74]
E. H. Carr and British debates
Marxist historian E. H. Carr developed a controversial theory of history in his 1961 book What Is History?,
which proved to be one of the most influential books ever written on the subject.
[75]
He presented a middle-
of-the-road position between the empirical or (Rankean) view of history and R. G. Collingwood's idealism, and
rejected the empirical view of the historian's work being an accretion of "facts" that he or she has at their
disposal as nonsense. He maintained that there is such a vast quantity of information that the historian always
chooses the "facts" he or she decides to make use of. In Carr's famous example, he claimed that millions had
crossed the Rubicon, but only Julius Caesar's crossing in 49 BC is declared noteworthy by historians.
[76][77]
For
this reason, Carr argued that Leopold von Ranke's famous dictum wie es eigentlich gewesen (show what
actually happened) was wrong because it presumed that the "facts" influenced what the historian wrote, rather
than the historian choosing what "facts of the past" he or she intended to turn into "historical facts".
[78]
At the
same time, Carr argued that the study of the facts may lead the historian to change his or her views. In this way,
Carr argued that history was "an unending dialogue between the past and present".
[76][79]
Carr is held by some critics to have had a deterministic outlook in history.
[80]
Others have modified or rejected
this use of the label 'determinist'.
[81]
He took a hostile view of those historians who stress the workings of
chance and contingency in the workings of history. In Carr's view, no individual is truly free of the social
environment in which they live, but contended that within those limitations, there was room, albeit very narrow
room for people to make decisions that have an impact on history. Carr emphatically contended that history was
a social science, not an art,
[82]
because historians like scientists seek generalizations that helped to broaden the
understanding of one's subject.
[82][83]
One of Carr's most forthright critics was Hugh Trevor-Roper, who argued that Carr's dismissal of the "might-
have-beens of history" reflected a fundamental lack of interest in examining historical causation.
[84]
Trevor-Roper asserted that examining possible alternative outcomes of history was far from being a
"parlour-game" was rather an essential part of the historians' work,
[85]
as only by considering all possible
outcomes of a given situation could a historian properly understand the period.
The controversy inspired Sir Geoffrey Elton to write his 1967 book The Practice of History. Elton criticized
Carr for his "whimsical" distinction between the "historical facts" and the "facts of the past", arguing that it
reflected "...an extraordinarily arrogant attitude both to the past and to the place of the historian studying it".
[86]
Elton, instead, strongly defended the traditional methods of history and was also appalled by the inroads made
by postmodernism.
[87]
Elton saw the duty of historians as empirically gathering evidence and objectively
analyzing what the evidence has to say. As a traditionalist, he placed great emphasis on the role of individuals in
history instead of abstract, impersonal forces. Elton saw political history as the highest kind of history. Elton
had no use for those who seek history to make myths, to create laws to explain the past, or to produce theories
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such as Marxism.
American approaches
In the historiography of the United States, there were a series of major approaches in the 20th century.
Progressive historians
From 1910 to the 1940s, "Progressive" historiography was dominant, especially in political studies. It stressed
the central importance of class conflict in American history. Important leaders included Vernon L. Parrington,
Carl L. Becker, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Sr., John Hicks, and C. Vann Woodward.
[88]
The movement established
a strong base at the History Department at the University of Wisconsin with Curtis Nettels, William Hesseltine,
Merle Curti, Howard K. Beale, Merrill Jensen, Fred Harvey Harrington (who became the university president),
William Appleman Williams, and a host of graduate students.
[89]
Charles A. Beard was the most prominent
representative with his "Beardian" approach that reached both scholars and the general public.
[90]
In covering the Civil War, Charles and Mary Beard did not find it useful to examine nationalism, unionism,
states' rights, slavery, abolition or the motivations of soldiers in battle. Instead, they proclaimed it was a:
social cataclysm in which the capitalists, laborers, and farmers of the North and West drove from power
in the national government the planting aristocracy of the South. Viewed under the light of universal
history, the fighting was a fleeting incident; the social revolution was the essential portentous outcome....
The Second American Revolution, while destroying the economic foundation of the slave-owning
aristocracy, assured the triumph of business enterprise."
[91]
Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. wrote the Age of Jackson (1945), one of the last major books from this viewpoint.
Schlesinger made Jackson a hero for his successful attacks on the Second Bank of the United States. His own
views were clear enough: "Moved typically by personal and class, rarely by public, considerations, the business
community has invariably brought national affairs to a state of crisis and exasperated the rest of society into
dissatisfaction bordering on revolt."
[92]
Consensus history
"Consensus history emphasizes the basic unity of American values and downplays conflict as superficial. It was
especially attractive in the 1950s and 1960s. Prominent leaders included Richard Hofstadter, Louis Hartz,
Daniel Boorstin, Allan Nevins, Clinton Rossiter, Edmund Morgan, and David M. Potter.
[93][94]
In 1948
Hofstadter made a compelling statement of the consensus model of the American political tradition:
The fierceness of the political struggles has often been misleading: for the range of vision embraced by
the primary contestants in the major parties has always been bounded by the horizons of property and
enterprise. However much at odds on specific issues, the major political traditions have shared a belief in
the rights of property, the philosophy of economic individualism, the value of competition; they have
accepted the economic virtues capitalist culture as necessary qualities of man.
[95]
New Left history
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Consensus history was rejected by New Left viewpoints that attracted younger more radical historians in the
1960s. These viewpoints stress conflict and emphasize the central roles of class, race and gender. The history of
dissent, racial minorities and disadvantaged was central.
[96][97][98]
New social and political history
Social history, often called the new social history, is a broad branch that studies the experiences of ordinary
people in the past.
[99]
In its "golden age" it was a major growth field in the 1960s and 1970s, and still is well
represented in history departments. However after 1980 the "cultural turn" directed the next generation to new
topics. In the two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities
identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40%
to 30%.
[100]
It growth was inspired by the social sciences, computers, statistics, new data sources such as
individual census information, and summer training programs at the Newberry Library and the University of
Michigan. The New Political History saw the application of social history methods to politics, as the focus
shifted from politicians and legislation to voters and elections.
[101][102]
Cultural turn and memory
The "cultural turn" of the 1890s and 1990s affected scholars in most areas of history.
[103]
Inspired largely by
anthropology it turned away from leaders, ordinary people and famous events to look at the use of language and
cultural symbols to represent the changing values of society.
[104]
Many historians examine the how the memory
of the past has been constructed, memorialized or distorted. Historians examine how legends are invented.
[105][106]
For example there are numerous studies of the memory of atrocities from World War II, notably the
Holocaust in Europe and Japanese behavior in Asia.
[107][108]
The British historian Peter Burke finds that
cultural studies has numerous spinoffs, or topical themes it has strongly influenced. The nost important include
gender studies and postcolonial studies, as well as memory studies, and film studies.
[109]
Diplomatic historian Melvyn P. Leffler finds that the problem with the cultural turn is that culture explains too
much because it:
seems infinitely malleable and capable of giving shape to totally divergent policies; for example, to
internationalism or isolationism in the United States, and to cooperative internationalism or race hatred in
Japan. The malleability of culture suggest to me that in order to understand its impact on policy, one
needs also to study the dynamics of political economy, the evolution of the international system, and the
roles of technology and communication, among many other variables.
[110]
World history
World history, as a distinct field of historical study, emerged as an independent academic field in the 1980s. It
focused on the examination of history from a global perspective and looked for common patterns that emerged
across all cultures. The basic thematic approach of this field was to analyse two major focal points: integration -
(how processes of world history have drawn people of the world together), and difference - (how patterns of
world history reveal the diversity of the human experience).
Arnold J. Toynbee's ten-volume A Study of History, written between 1933 and 1954, was an important influence
on this developing field. He took a comparative topical approach to 26 independent civilizations and
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demonstrated that they displayed striking parallels in their origin, growth, and decay.
[111]
He proposed a
universal model to each of these civilizations, detailing the stages through which they all pass: genesis, growth,
time of troubles, universal state, and disintegration. With his endless output of papers, articles, speeches and
presentations, and numerous books translated into many languages, Toynbee was perhaps the worlds most read
and discussed scholar in the 1940s and 1950s. Yet Toynbee's work lost favor among both the general public and
scholars by the 1960s, due to the religious and spiritual outlook that permeates the largest part of his work. His
work seldom been read or cited in recent decades.
[112]
Chicago historian William H. McNeill wrote The Rise of the West (1965) to improve upon Toynbee by showing
how the separate civilizations of Eurasia interacted from the very beginning of their history, borrowing critical
skills from one another, and thus precipitating still further change as adjustment between traditional old and
borrowed new knowledge and practice became necessary. He then discusses the dramatic effect of Western
civilization on others in the past 500 years of history. McNeill took a broad approach organized around the
interactions of peoples across the globe. Such interactions have become both more numerous and more
continual and substantial in recent times. Before about 1500, the network of communication between cultures
was that of Eurasia. The term for these areas of interaction differ from one world historian to another and
include world-system and ecumene. His emphasis on cultural fusions had a major impact on historical
theory.
[113]
The historical journal, a forum where academic historians could exchange ideas and publish newly discovered
information, came into being in the 19th century. The early journals were similar to those for the physical
sciences, and were seen as a means for history to become more professional. Journals also helped historians to
establish various historiographical approaches, the most notable example of which was Annales. conomies.
Socits. Civilisations., a publication of the Annales School in France. Journals now typically have one or more
editors and associate editors, an editorial board, and a pool of scholars to whom articles that are submitted are
sent for confidential evaluation. The editors will send out new books to recognized scholars for reviews that
usually run 500 to 1000 words. The vetting and publication process often takes months or longer. Publication in
a prestigious journal (which accept 10% or fewer of the articles submitted) is an asset in the academic hiring
and promotion process. Publication demonstrates that the author is conversant with the scholarly field. Page
charges and fees for publication are uncommon in history. Journals are subsidized by universities or historical
societies, scholarly associations, and subscription fees from libraries and scholars. Increasingly they are
available through library pools that allow many academic institutions to pool subscriptions to online versions.
Most libraries have a system for obtaining specific articles through inter-library loan.
[114]
Some major historical journals
1840 Historisk tidsskrift (Denmark)
1859 Historische Zeitschrift (Germany)
[115]
1866 Archivum historicum, later Historiallinen arkisto (Finland, published in Finnish)
1867 Szzadok (Hungary)
1869 asopis Matice moravsk (Czech republic - then part of Austria-Hungary)
1871 Historisk tidsskrift (Norway)
1876 Revue Historique (France)
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1880 Historisk tidskrift (Sweden)
1886 English Historical Review (England)
1892 William and Mary Quarterly (USA)
1894 Ons Hmecht (Luxembourg)
1895 American Historical Review (USA)
[116]
1895 esk asopis historick (Czech republic - then part of Austria-Hungary)
1914 Mississippi Valley Historical Review (renamed in 1964 the Journal of American History) (USA)
[117]
1916 The Journal of Negro History (USA)
1916 Historisk Tidskrift fr Finland (Finland, published in Swedish)
1918 Hispanic American historical review (USA)
1922 Slavonic and East European Review (SEER), (England)
[118]
1928 Scandia (Sweden)
1929 Annales d'histoire conomique et sociale (France)
1935 Journal of Southern History (USA)
[119]
1941 The Journal of Economic History (USA)
1952 Past & present: a journal of historical studies (England)
1953 Vierteljahrshefte fr Zeitgeschichte (Germany)
1956 Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria (Nigeria)
1957 Victorian Studies (USA)
[120]
1960 Journal of African History (England)
1960 Technology and culture: the international quarterly of the Society for the History of Technology
(USA)
1967 Indian Church History Review (India) (earlier published as the Bulletin of Church History
Association of India)
[121]
1967 The Journal of Social History (USA)
1969 Journal of Interdisciplinary History (USA)
1975 Geschichte und Gesellschaft. Zeitschrift fr historische Sozialwissenschaft (Germany)
1976 Journal of Family History (USA)
1978 The Public Historian (USA)
1982 Storia della Storiografia History of Historiography Histoire de l'Historiographie
Geschichte der Geschichtsschreibung
[122]
1982 Subaltern Studies (Oxford University Press)
1986 Zeitschrift fr Sozialgeschichte des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts, new title since 2003:
Sozial.Geschichte. Zeitschrift fr historische Analyse des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts (http://www.stiftung-
sozialgeschichte.de/) (Germany)
1990 Gender and history (USA)
1990 Journal of World History (USA)
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1990 L'Homme. Zeitschrift fr feministische Geschichtswissenschaft
[123]
(Austria)
1990 sterreichische Zeitschrift fr Geschichtswissenschaften (ZG)
[124]
1992 Women's History Review
According to Lawrence Stone, narrative has traditionally been the main rhetorical device used by historians. In
1979, at a time when the new Social History was demanding a social-science model of analysis, Stone detected
a move back toward the narrative. Stone defined narrative as follows: it is organized chronologically; it is
focused on a single coherent story; it is descriptive rather than analytical; it is concerned with people not
abstract circumstances; and it deals with the particular and specific rather than the collective and statistical. He
reported that, "More and more of the 'new historians' are now trying to discover what was going on inside
people's heads in the past, and what it was like to live in the past, questions which inevitably lead back to the
use of narrative."
[125]
Historians committed to a social science approach, however, have criticized the narrowness of narrative and its
preference for anecdote over analysis, and its use of clever examples rather than statistically verified empirical
regularities.
[126]
Some of the common topics in historiography are:
Reliability of the sources used, in terms of authorship, credibility of the author, and the authenticity or
corruption of the text. (See also source criticism).
1.
Historiographical tradition or framework. Every historian uses one (or more) historiographical traditions,
for example Marxist, Annales School, "total history", or political history.
2.
Moral issues, guilt assignment, and praise assignment 3.
Revisionism versus orthodox interpretations 4.
Historical metanarratives 5.
How a historian approaches historical events is one of the most important decisions within historiography. It is
commonly recognised by historians that, in themselves, individual historical facts dealing with names, dates and
places are not particularly meaningful. Such facts will only become useful when assembled with other historical
evidence, and the process of assembling this evidence is understood as a particular historiographical approach.
The most influential historiographical approaches are:
Comparative history
Cultural history
Diplomatic history
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Economic history
Environmental history, a relatively new field
Ethnohistory
Family history
Feminist history
History of Religion and Church History; the history of theology is usually handled under Theology
Intellectual History and History of ideas
Labor history
Latin American History
Local History and Microhistory
Marxist historiography and Historical materialism
Military history, including naval and air
Oral history
Political history
Public history, especially museums and historic preservation
Quantitative history, Cliometrics (in economic history); Prosopography using statistics to study
biographies
Shared historical authority
Social history and History from below; along with the French version the Annales School and the German
Bielefeld School
Women's history and Gender history
World history and Universal history
Scholars typically specialize in a particular theme and region. see:
Dark Ages (historiography)
Historical revisionism
Historiography of the British Empire
Historiography of the causes of World War I
Historiography of China
Chinese historiography
Historiography of the Cold War
Historiography of the Crusades
Historiography of early Christianity
Historiography of feudalism
Historiography of the French Revolution
German historiography's "special path" (Sonderweg)
Historiography of early Islam
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Korean nationalist historiography
Historiography of the fall of the Mughal Empire
Historiography and nationalism
Historiography of science
Historiography of Switzerland
Historiography of the United States
Historiography of the causes of World War I
Historiography of World War II
Roman historiography
Historiography in the Soviet Union
Whig history, emphasizing inevitable progress
Related fields
Important related fields include:
Antiquarianism
Genealogy
Numismatics
Paleography
Philosophy of history
Pseudohistory, that is, false history
Archival research
Auxiliary sciences of history
Annales School, in France
Atlantic history
Bielefeld School, in Germany
Historical method
Primary source documents, correspondence, diaries
Secondary source interpretations, written history
Tertiary source textbooks and encyclopedias
Historiography at Wikiversity, where it is part of the School of History
List of historians
List of historians by area of study
Philosophy of history
Popular history
23 of 36 7/15/2014 2:50 AM
^ Marc Ferro, The Use and Abuse of History: Or How the Past Is Taught to Children (2003) 1.
^ Diplomatic dropped from 5% to 3%, economic history from 7% to 5%, and cultural history grew from 14% to 16%.
Based on full-time professors in U.S. history departments. Stephen H. Haber, David M. Kennedy, and Stephen D.
Krasner, "Brothers under the Skin: Diplomatic History and International Relations," International Security, Vol. 22,
No. 1 (Summer, 1997), pp. 3443 at p. 42 online at JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2539326)
2.
^ See "Teachers of History in the Universities of the UK 2007 listed by research interest" (http://www.history.ac.uk
/ihr/Resources/Teachers/a27.html)
3.
^ (The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide, 1988, p. 223, ISBN 0-88295-982-4) 4.
^ J. Scott Armstrong and Fred Collopy (1993). "Causal Forces: Structuring Knowledge for Time-series
Extrapolation" (http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/ideas/pdf/armstrong2/causal.pdf). Journal of Forecasting 12:
103115. doi:10.1002/for.3980120205 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Ffor.3980120205).
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tory+in+a+freshly+non-Greek+language&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OtnmUp_dMNHYoATxhYHwCw&
ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Romans%20adopted%20the%20Greek%20tradition
%2C%20writing%20at%20first%20in%20Greek
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Greek%20language&f=false). p. 20.
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^ H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1. 17.
^ Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1-85065-356-9. 18.
^ Enan, Muhammed Abdullah (2007). Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Works. The Other Press. p. v. ISBN 983-9541-53-6. 19.
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^ Warren E. Gates (JulySeptember 1967). "The Spread of Ibn Khaldun's Ideas on Climate and Culture". Journal of
the History of Ideas (University of Pennsylvania Press) 28 (3): 415422 [415]. doi:10.2307/2708627
(http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F2708627). JSTOR 2708627 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2708627).
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^ Ibn Khaldun, Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood (1967), The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, p. x, Princeton
University Press, ISBN 0-691-01754-9.
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^ Ibn Khaldun, Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood (1967), The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, pp. 112,
Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01754-9.
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^ E. Sreedharan (2004). A Textbook of Historiography: 500 BC to AD 2000 (http://books.google.com
/books?id=jJVoi3PIejwC&pg=PA115). Orient Blackswan. p. 115.
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^ Paul Sakmann, "The Problems of Historical Method and of Philosophy of History in Voltaire", History and Theory,
Dec 1971, Vol. 11#4 pp 2459
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^ Peter Gay, "Carl Becker's Heavenly City," Political Science Quarterly (1957) 72:182-99 26.
^ Peter Gay, Voltaire's Politics (2nd ed. 1988) 27.
^ S. K. Wertz, "Hume and the Historiography of Science," Journal of the History of Ideas (1993) 54#3 pp. 411436
in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2710021)
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^ Hume vol 6. p 531 cited in John Philipps Kenyon (1984). The history men: the historical profession in England
since the Renaissance (http://books.google.com/books?id=1LkbAAAAIAAJ). U. of Pittsburgh Press. p. 42.
ISBN 9780822959007.
29.
^ The Poker Club (http://www.jamesboswell.info/Misc/The_Poker_Club.php) 30.
^ Sher, R. B., Church and Society in the Scottish Enlightenment: The Moderate Literati of Edinburgh, Princeton,
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^ "William Robertson: An 18th Century Anthropologist-Historian" (http://www.aaanet.org/committees/commissions
/centennial/history/021hoebel.pdf). Retrieved 2012-12-17.
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^ Deborah Parsons (2007). Theorists of the Modernist Novel: James Joyce, Dorothy Richardson and Virginia Woolf
(http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yH9rdaF1CckC). Routledge. p. 94.
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^ Winston Churchill, My Early Life: A Roving Commission (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1958), p. 111. 34.
^ "Edward Gibbon: And He Rose Again" (http://www.historytoday.com/tom-holland/edward-gibbon-and-he-
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^ Lundin, Leigh (2009-09-20). "Thomas Carlyle" (http://www.criminalbrief.com/?p=8890). Professional Works.
Criminal Brief. Retrieved 2009-09-20.
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^ Macaulay, Thomas Babington, History of England. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1878. Vol.
V, title page and prefatory "Memoir of Lord Macaulay".
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Essays (London: Faber and Faber, 1986), p. 163.
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^ J. R. Western, Monarchy and Revolution. The English State in the 1680s (London: Blandford Press, 1972), p. 403. 42.
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^ Brotton, Jerry (2002). The Renaissance Bazaar. Oxford University Press. pp. 2122. 43.
^ Alfred Cobban, "Hippolyte Taine, Historian of the French Revolution," History(1968) 53# 179, pp 331-341. 44.
^ Jakob Burckhardt Renaissance Cultural History (http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/history/historian
/Jacob_Burckhardt.html)
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^ Siegfried Giedion, in Space, Time and Architecture (6th ed.), p 3. 46.
^ John Lukacs, Remembered Past: John Lukacs on History, Historians, and Historical Knowledge, ed. Mark G
Malvasi and Jeffrey O. Nelson, Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2004, 215.
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^ s:A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature/Stubbs, William 48.
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^ Frederick C. Beiser (2011) The German Historicist Tradition, p.254 (http://books.google.com
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50.
^ Green and Troup (eds.), The Houses of History, p. 2: "Leopold von Ranke was instrumental in establishing
professional standards for historical training at the University of Berlin between 1824 and 1871."
51.
^ Caroline Hoefferle, Essential Historiography Reader (Boston: Pearson, 2011).68. 52.
^ E. Sreedharan, A textbook of historiography, 500 BC to AD 2000 (2004) p 185 53.
^ Lectures, p. 138 (http://books.google.it/books?id=pjfaimuprzoC&pg=PA138&hl=en&
dq=%22represents+the+development+of+the+spirit's+consciousness+of+its+own+freedom+and+of+the+consequent
+realisation+of+this+freedom.%22).
54.
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dq=%22World+history+is+the+record+of+the+spirit's+efforts+to+attain+knowledge+of+what+it+is+in+itself.+The+
Orientals+do+not+know+that+the+spirit+or+man+as+such+are+free+in+themselves.+And+because+they+do+not+k
now+that,+they+are+not+themselves+free.+They+only+know+that+One+is+free.
%22%22The+consciousness+of+freedom+first+awoke+among+the+Greeks,+and+they+were+accordingly+free;+but
,+like+the+Romans,+they+only+knew+that+Some,+and+not+all+men+as+such,+are+free
%22%22The+Germanic+nations,+with+the+rise+of+Christianity,+were+the+first+to+realize+that+All+men+are+by
+nature+free,+and+that+freedom+of+spirit+is+his+very+essence.%22).
55.
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Ukrainian historiography (http://books.google.com/?id=f52rawP96lYC&pg=PA39&lpg=PA39&
dq=%22nationalisation+of+history%22#v=onepage&q=%22nationalisation%20of%20history%22&f=false). p. 7.
ISBN 978-1-84545-621-4. Retrieved October 18, 2010. "This essay deals with, what I call, "nationalized history",
meaning a way of perceiving, understanding and treating the past that requires separation of "one's own" history from
"common" history and its construction as history of a nation."
56.
^ Ernst Mayr, "When Is Historiography Whiggish?" Journal of the History of Ideas, April 1990, Vol. 51 Issue 2, pp
301309 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/pss/2709517)
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^ The Nature of History (second edition 1980), p. 47. 59.
^ Trevor-Roper, pp. 256. 60.
^ Victor Feske, From Belloc to Churchill: Private Scholars, Public Culture, and the Crisis of British Liberalism,
1900-1939 (1996), p. 2.
61.
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pp:3961.
62.
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^ See Lucien Febvre, La Terre et l'volution humaine (1922), translated as A Geographical Introduction to History
(London, 1932).
63.
^ See for recent issues (http://www.editions.ehess.fr/revues/annales-histoire-sciences-sociales/numeros-parus/) 64.
^ Colin Jones, "Olwen Hufton's 'Poor', Richard Cobb's 'People', and the Notions of the longue dure in French
Revolutionary Historiography," Past & Present, 2006 Supplement (Volume 1), pp. 178203 in Project Muse
(http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/past_and_present/v2006/2006.1Sjones.html)
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^ Olivia Harris, "Braudel: Historical Time and the Horror of Discontinuity." History Workshop Journal (2004) (57):
161174. Issn: 1363-3554 Fulltext: OUP. Only Aris was a true conservativeindeed a royalist.
67.
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68.
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Challenge," 5961.
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Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. January 2007. Retrieved 29 June 2012.
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Studies in Tudor and Stuart Politics and Government: Volume II (Cambridge University Press, 1974).
73.
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/Real%20Stuff%20of%20History.htm). Sydney Line.
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b
Huges-Warrington, p. 26 76.
^ Carr, What Is History?, p. 10; 77.
^ Carr, What Is History?, pp. 813 78.
^ Carr, What Is History?, p. 30 79.
^ Huges-Warrington, p. 27. One of his first and most influential critics was the British philosopher, Michael
Oakeshott, 'What is History?' (1961), in idem, What is History and Other Essays (Exeter, 2004), 325.
80.
^ See M. Hewitson, History and Causality (Basingstoke, 2014), pp. 86-93. 81.
^
a

b
Huges-Warrington, p. 28 82.
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^ Elton, Geoffrey The Practice of History, London: Methuen, 1967 pp. 5657 86.
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(ed.), Interpreting Irish History (Dublin, 2006), p. 325.
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^ Schlesinger, Age of Jackson (1945) p 521. 92.
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Part 2: Supplement pp. 299-318 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2710801)
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460-466. online (http://tucnak.fsv.cuni.cz/~calda/Higham_Paradigms_ConsensusHistory.pdf)
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^ Novick, That noble dream: The 'objectivity question' and the American historical profession (1988) pp 415-68 97.
^ Irwin Unger, "The 'New Left' and American History: Some Recent Trends in United States Historiography."
American Historical Review (1967): 1237-1263. in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1847792)
98.
^ the "old" social history dealt with institutions like schools and churches, while the "new" dealt with students,
teachers and churchgoers.
99.
^ Diplomatic dropped from 5% to 3%, economic history from 7% to 5%, and cultural history grew from 14% to 16%.
Based on full-time professors in U.S. history departments. Stephen H. Haber, David M. Kennedy, and Stephen D.
Krasner, "Brothers under the Skin: Diplomatic History and International Relations," International Security, Vol. 22,
No. 1 (Summer, 1997), pp. 34-43 at p. 4 2; online at JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2539326)
100.
^ Allan G. Bogue, "The new political history in the 1970s." in Michael G. Kammen, ed., The Past Before Us:
Contemporary Historical Writing in the United States (1980) pp: 231-251.
101.
^ Paula Baker, "The Midlife Crisis of the New Political History," Journal of American History (1999) 86#1 pp.
158-166 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2567411)
102.
^ It missed some areas. Kevin W. Martin, "Middle East Historiography: Did We Miss the Cultural Turn?" History
Compass (2014) 12#2 pp 178-186
103.
^ Ronald Grigor Suny, "Back and Beyond: Reversing the Cultural Turn?" American Historical Review (2002) 107#5
pp: 1476-1499 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/532855).
104.
^ Richard Jensen, "'No Irish Need Apply': A Myth of Victimization," Journal of Social History (2002) 36#2 pp
405-429 online (http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/no-irish.htm)
105.
^ Howard Schuman, Barry Schwartz, and Hannah dArcy. "Elite Revisionists and Popular Beliefs Christopher
Columbus, Hero or Villain?." Public Opinion Quarterly (2005) 69#1 pp: 2-29 online
(http://www.barryschwartzonline.com/16406461.PDF)
106.
^ Alon Confino, "Collective memory and cultural history: problems of method." American Historical Review (1997):
1386-1403. in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2171069); another copy online (http://www.timeandspace.lviv.ua
/files/session/confino_108.pdf)
107.
^ Case studies are examined in Jeffrey K. Olick, et al. eds. The Collective Memory Reader (2011) excerpt and text
search (http://books.google.com/books?id=Fq8R3G-0t9gC)
108.
^ Peter Burke, What is Cultural History? (2nd ed. 2008), p 140 109.
^ Melvyn P. Leffler," New Approaches, Old Interpretations, and Prospective Reconfigurations," Diplomatic History
(1995) 19#1 pp 173-196, quotation at p 185
110.
^ William H. McNeill, Arnold J. Toynbee a Life (1989) 111.
^ Perry, Marvin (1996.XII). Arnold Toynbee and the Western Tradition. American University Studies
5Philosophy 169. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0820426716.
112.
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^ William H. McNeill, "The Changing Shape of World History." History and Theory 1995 34(2): 826. 113.
^ Margaret F. Stieg, The Origin and Development of Scholarly Historical Periodicals (1986) 114.
^ Stieg, The Origin and Development of Scholarly Historical Periodicals (1986) pp 20-39 115.
^ Stieg, The Origin and Development of Scholarly Historical Periodicals (1986) 116.
^ Stieg, The Origin and Development of Scholarly Historical Periodicals (1986) ch 4 117.
^ Stieg, The Origin and Development of Scholarly Historical Periodicals (1986) ch 4 119.
^ http://churchhistory.in/resources/journals/. Retrieved 2013-08-20. Missing or empty | t i t l e=(help) 121.
^ "Unito.it" (http://www.cisi.unito.it/stor/home.htm). Cisi.unito.it. Retrieved 2010-08-28. 122.
^ "Univie.ac.at" (http://www.univie.ac.at/Geschichte/LHOMME/). Univie.ac.at. Retrieved 2010-08-28. 123.
^ "Univie.ac.at" (http://www.univie.ac.at/Wirtschaftsgeschichte/OeZG/). Univie.ac.at. Retrieved 2010-08-28. 124.
^ Lawrence Stone, "The Revival of Narrative: Reflections on a New Old History," Past and Present 85 (Nov 1979)
pp 3-24, quote on p. 13
125.
^ J. Morgan Kousser, The Revivalism of Narrative: A Response to Recent Criticisms of Quantitative History,
Social Science History vol 8, no. 2 (Spring 1984): 13349; Eric H. Monkkonen, The Dangers of Synthesis,
American Historical Review 91, no. 5 (December 1986): 114657.
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Theory
Appleby, Joyce, Lynn Hunt & Margaret Jacob, Telling the Truth About History. New York: W. W. Norton
& Company, 1994.
Bentley, Michael. Modern Historiography: An Introduction, 1999 ISBN 0-415-20267-1
Marc Bloch, The Historian's Craft [1940]
Burke, Peter. History and Social Theory, Polity Press, Oxford, 1992
David Cannadine (editor), What is History Now, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002
E. H. Carr, What is History? 1961, ISBN 0-394-70391-X
R.G. Collingwood, The Idea of History, 1936, ISBN 0-19-285306-6
Doran, Robert. ed. Philosophy of History After Hayden White. London: Bloomsbury, 2013.
Geoffrey Elton, The Practice of History, 1969, ISBN 0-631-22980-9
Richard J. Evans In Defence of History, 1997, ISBN 1-86207-104-7
Fischer, David Hackett. Historians' Fallacies: Towards a Logic of Historical Thought, Harper & Row,
1970
Gardiner, Juliet (ed) What is History Today...? London: MacMillan Education Ltd., 1988.
Harlaftis, Gelina, ed. The New Ways of History: Developments in Historiography (I.B. Tauris, 2010) 260
pages; trends in historiography since 1990
Hewitson, Mark, History and Causality, Palgrave Macmillan, 2014
29 of 36 7/15/2014 2:50 AM
Jenkins, Keith ed. The Postmodern History Reader (2006)
Jenkins, Keith. Rethinking History, 1991, ISBN 0-415-30443-1
Arthur Marwick, The New Nature of History: knowledge, evidence, language, Basingstoke: Palgrave,
2001, ISBN 0-333-96447-0
Munslow, Alan. The Routledge Companion to Historical Studies (2000), an encyclopedia of concepts,
methods and historians
Spalding, Roger & Christopher Parker, Historiography: An Introduction, 2008, ISBN 0-7190-7285-9
Tosh, John. The Pursuit of History, 2002, ISBN 0-582-77254-0
Tucker, Aviezer, ed. A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography Malden: Blackwell,
2009
White, Hayden. The Fiction of Narrative: Essays on History, Literature, and Theory, 19572007, Johns
Hopkins, 2010. Ed. Robert Doran
Guides to scholarship
Allison, William Henry. A guide to historical literature (1931) comprehensive bibliography for
scholarship to 1930. online edition (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;
idno=heb06297.0001.001)
Gray, Wood. Historian's Handbook, 2nd ed. (Houghton-Miffin Co., cop. 1964), vii, 88 p.
Loades, David, ed. Reader's Guide to British History (Routledge; 2 vol 2003) 1760pp; highly detailed
guide to British historiography excerpt and text search (http://books.google.com
/books?id=AYEYAQAAIAAJ)
Norton, Mary Beth, ed. The American Historical Association's guide to historical literature (Oxford
University Press, 1995) vol 1 online (http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.06298), vol 2 online
(http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.06298)
Parish, Peter, ed. Reader's Guide to American History (Routledge, 1997), 880 pp; detailed guide to
historiography of American topics excerpt and text search (http://books.google.com
/books?id=DnQTAXf4NuIC)
Woolf, Daniel, et al. The Oxford History of Historical Writing (5 vol 2011-12), covers all major historians
since AD 600; see listings (http://www.amazon.com/gp/search/ref=sr_adv_b/?search-alias=stripbooks&
unfiltered=1&field-keywords=&field-author=&field-
title=%22The+Oxford+History+of+Historical+Writing%3A+&field-isbn=&field-publisher=&node=&
field-p_n_condition-type=&field-feature_browse-bin=&field-subject=&field-language=&field-
dateop=During&field-datemod=&field-dateyear=&sort=relevanceexprank&Adv-Srch-Books-
Submit.x=0&Adv-Srch-Books-Submit.y=0)
Histories of historical writing
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Barnes, Harry Elmer. A history of historical writing (1962)
Barraclough, Geoffrey. History: Main Trends of Research in the Social and Human Sciences, (1978)
Bentley, Michael. ed., Companion to Historiography, Routledge, 1997, ISBN 0415285577: 39 chapters
by experts
Breisach, Ernst. Historiography: Ancient, Medieval and Modern, 3rd edition, 2007, ISBN 0-226-07278-9
Budd, Adam, ed. The Modern Historiography Reader: Western Sources. London: Routledge, 2009.
Cohen, H. Floris The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry, Chicago, 1994, ISBN
0-226-11280-2
Conrad, Sebastian. The Quest for the Lost Nation: Writing History in Germany and Japan in the
American Century (2010)
Gilderhus, Mark T. History an Historiographical Introduction, 2002, ISBN 0-13-044824-9
Iggers, Georg G. Historiography in the 20th Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern
Challenge (2005)
Kramer, Lloyd, and Sarah Maza, eds. A Companion to Western Historical Thought Blackwell 2006.
520pp; ISBN 978-1-4051-4961-7.
Momigliano, Arnaldo. The Classical Foundation of Modern Historiography, 1990, ISBN
978-0-226-07283-8
The Oxford History of Historical Writing (5 vol 2011), Volume 1: Beginnings to AD 600; Volume 2:
600-1400; Volume 3: 1400-1800; Volume 4: 1800-1945; Volume 5: Historical Writing since 1945 catalog
(http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/category/academic/series/history/ohhw.do)
Rahman, M. M. ed. Encyclopaedia of Historiography (2006) Excerpt and text search
(http://books.google.com/books?id=1BhtHVHgnwAC)
Soffer, Reba. History, Historians, and Conservatism in Britain and America: From the Great War to
Thatcher and Reagan (2009) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/History-Historians-
Conservatism-Britain-America/dp/0199208115/)
Thompson, James Westfall. A History of Historical Writing. vol 1: From the earliest Times to the End of
the 17th Century (1942) online edition (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=9276002); A History of
Historical Writing. vol 2: The 18th and 19th Centuries (1942) online edition (http://www.questia.com
/PM.qst?a=o&d=58613485)
Woolf, Daniel, ed. A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing (2 vol. 1998)
Woolf, Daniel. "Historiography", in New Dictionary of the History of Ideas, ed. M.C. Horowitz, (2005),
vol. I.
Woolf, Daniel. A Global History of History (Cambridge University Press, 2011)
Woolf, Daniel, ed. The Oxford History of Historical Writing. 5 vols. (Oxford University Press, 201112).
Feminist historiography
Bonnie G. Smith, The Gender of History: Men, Women, and Historical Practice, Harvard University
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Press 2000
Gerda Lerner, The Majority Finds its Past: Placing Women in History, New York: Oxford University
Press 1979
Judith M. Bennett, History Matters: Patriarchy and the Challenge of Feminism, University of
Pennsylvania Press, 2006
Julie Des Jardins, Women and the Historical Enterprise in America, University of North Carolina Press,
2002
Mary Ritter Beard, Woman as force in history: A study in traditions and realities
Mary Spongberg, Writing women's history since the Renaissance, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002
Clare Hemmings, "Why Stories Matter: The Political Grammar of Feminist Theory", Duke University
Press 2011
National and regional studies
Berger, Stefan et al., eds. Writing National Histories: Western Europe Since 1800 (1999) excerpt and text
search (http://www.amazon.com/Writing-National-Histories-Western-Europe/dp/0415164265/); how
history has been used in Germany, France & Italy to legitimize the nation-state against socialist,
communist and Catholic internationalism
Iggers, Georg G. A new Directions and European Historiography (1975)
LaCapra, Dominic, and Stephen L. Kaplan, eds. Modern European Intellectual History: Reappraisals and
New Perspective (1982)
United States
Hofstadter, Richard. The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (1968)
Novick, Peter. That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession
(1988), ISBN 0-521-34328-3
Palmer, William W. "All Coherence Gone? A Cultural History of Leading History Departments in the
United States, 19702010," Journal of The Historical Society (2012), 12: 111153. doi:
10.1111/j.1540-5923.2012.00360.x
Palmer, William. Engagement with the Past: The Lives and Works of the World War II Generation of
Historians (2001)
Parish, Peter J., ed. Reader's Guide to American History (1997), historiographical overview of 600 topics
Wish, Harvey. The American Historian (1960), covers pre-1920
Britain
Bann, Stephen. Romanticism and the Rise of History (Twayne Publishers, 1995)
Bentley, Michael. Modernizing England's Past: English Historiography in the Age of Modernism,
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1870-1970 (2006) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/Modernizing-Englands-
Past-Historiography-Modernism/dp/0521602661/)
Cannadine, David. In Churchills Shadow: Confronting the Passed in Modern Britain (2003)
Furber, Elizabeth, ed. Changing Views on British History; Essays on Historical Writing Since 1939
(1966); 418pp; essays by scholars
Goldstein, Doris S. "The origins and early years of the English Historical Review." English Historical
Review (1986) 101#398 pp: 6-19.
Goldstein, Doris S. "The Organizational Development of the British Historical Profession, 18841921."
Historical Research (1982) 55#132 pp: 180-193.
Hale, John Rigby, ed. The evolution of British historiography: from Bacon to Namier (1967).
Howsam, Leslie. "Academic Discipline or Literary Genre?: The Establishment of Boundaries in
Historical Writing." Victorian Literature and Culture (2004) 32#2 pp: 525-545. online
(http://scholar.uwindsor.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=historypub)
Hexter, J. H. On Historians: Reappraisals of some of the makers of modern history (1979); covers Carl
Becker, Wallace Ferguson, Fernan Braudel, Lawrence Stone, Christopher Hill, and J.G.A. Pocock
Howsam, Leslie. "Academic Discipline or Literary Genre?: The Establishment of Boundaries in
Historical Writing." Victorian Literature and Culture 32.02 (2004): 525-545. online
(http://scholar.uwindsor.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=historypub)
Jann, Rosemary. The Art and Science of Victorian History (1985)
Jann, Rosemary. "From Amateur to Professional: The Case of the Oxbridge Historians." Journal of
British Studies (1983) 22#2 pp: 12247.
Kenyon, John. The History Men: The Historical Profession in England since the Renaissance (1983)
Loades, David. Reader's Guide to British History (2 vol. 2003) 1700pp; 1600-word-long
historiographical essays on about 1000 topics
Mitchell, Rosemary. Picturing the Past: English History in Text and Image 18301870 (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 2000)
Philips, Mark Salber. Society and Sentiment: Genres of Historical Writing in Britain, 17401820
(Princeton University Press, 2000).
Richardson, Roger Charles, ed. The debate on the English Revolution (2nd ed. Manchester University
Press, 1998)
Schlatter, Richard, ed. Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing Since 1966 (1984)
525 pp; 13 topics essays by scholars
British Empire
Berger, Carl. Writing Canadian History: Aspects of English Canadian Historical Writing since 1900, (2nd
ed. 1986)
Bhattacharjee, J. B. Historians and Historiography of North East India (2012)
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Davison, Graeme. The Use and Abuse of Australian History, (2000) online edition
(http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-use-and-abuse-of-australian-history-by-graeme-davison.jsp)
Farrell, Frank. Themes in Australian History: Questions, Issues and Interpretation in an Evolving
Historiography (1990)
Gare, Deborah. "Britishness in Recent Australian Historiography," The Historical Journal, Vol. 43, No. 4
(Dec., 2000), pp. 11451155 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/3020885)
Guha, Ranajiit. Dominance Without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India (Harvard UP, 1998)
Granatstein, J. L. Who Killed Canadian History? (2000)
Mittal, S. C India distorted: A study of British historians on India (1995), on 19th century writers
Saunders, Christopher. The making of the South African past: major historians on race and class, (1988)
Winks, Robin, ed. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume V: Historiography (2001)
Asia and Africa
Cohen, Paul. Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past.
New York, London:: Columbia University Press, Studies of the East Asian Institute, 1984. 237p.
Reprinted: 2010, with a New Introduction by the Author. ISBN 023152546X. [1]
(http://www.worldcat.org/title/discovering-history-in-china-american-historical-writing-on-the-recent-
chinese-past/oclc/456728837/viewport)
Marcinkowski, M. Ismail. Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works
Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey (Singapore: Pustaka
Nasional, 2003)
Martin, Thomas R. Herodotus and Sima Qian: The First Great Historians of Greece and China: A Brief
History with Documents (2009)
Yerxa, Donald A. Recent Themes in the History of Africa and the Atlantic World: Historians in
Conversation (2008) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/Recent-Themes-History-Africa-
Atlantic/dp/1570037574/)
France
Revel, Jacques, and Lynn Hunt, eds. Histories: French Constructions of the Past, (1995). 654pp; 65
essays by French historians
Stoianovich, Traian. French Historical Method: The Annales Paradigm (1976)
Germany
Iggers, Georg G. The German Conception of History: The National Tradition of Historical Thought from
Herder to the Present (2nd ed. 1983)
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Themes, organizations, and teaching
Carlebach, Elishiva, et al. eds. Jewish History and Jewish Memory: Essays in Honor of Yosef Hayim
Yerushalmi (1998) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/Jewish-History-Memory-
Yerushalmi-Institute/dp/0874518717/)
Charlton, Thomas L. History of Oral History: Foundations and Methodology (2007)
Darcy, R. and Richard C. Rohrs, A Guide to Quantitative History (1995)
Dawidowicz, Lucy S. The Holocaust and Historians. (1981).
Ernest, John. Liberation Historiography: African American Writers and the Challenge of History,
17941861. (2004)
Evans, Ronald W. The Hope for American School Reform: The Cold War Pursuit of Inquiry Learning in
Social Studies(Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 265 pages
Ferro, Marc, Cinema and History (1988)
Hudson, Pat. History by Numbers: An Introduction to Quantitative Approaches (2002)
Keita, Maghan. Race and the Writing of History. Oxford UP (2000)
Leavy, Patricia. Oral History: Understanding Qualitative Research (2011) excerpt and text search
(http://www.amazon.com/Oral-History-Understanding-Qualitative-Research/dp/0195395093/)
Loewen, James W. Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong,
(1996)
Manning, Patrick, ed. World History: Global And Local Interactions (2006)
Morris-Suzuki, Tessa. The Past Within Us: Media, Memory, History (2005), ISBN 1-85984-513-4
Ritchie, Donald A. The Oxford Handbook of Oral History (2010) excerpt and text search
(http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-Oral-History-Handbooks/dp/019533955X/)
Journals
Cromohs cyber review of modern historiography (http://www.cromohs.unifi.it/index.html)
History and Theory
History of Historiography (http://www.cisi.unito.it/stor/home.htm)
BBC Historiography Guide (http://www-open2-net-vip2.open.ac.uk/history/natureofhistory/index.html)
International Commission for the History and Theory of Historiography
(http://www.historiographyinternational.org/)
Philosophy of History (http://www.galilean-library.org/int18.html) introduced at The Galilean Library
'Postcolonial Historiographies' group at Cambridge University (http://www.crassh.cam.ac.uk/page/189
/postcolonial-empires.htm), Includes online reading & video archive
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Scientific Historiography (http://www.galilean-library.org/tucker.html), explained in an interview with
Aviezer Tucker at the Galilean Library
Series of accessible, interactive online lectures (http://www.activehistory.co.uk/historiography/index.htm)
Summary of key historiographical schools (http://www.cusd.chico.k12.ca.us/~bsilva/ib/histo.html)
Web Portal on Historiography and Historical Culture (http://www.culturahistorica.es/welcome.html)
University lecture on the historiography of the First World War (https://www.academia.edu/3590055
/British_historians_and_the_First_World_War)
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