T To op pi ic c 8 8 A Ac ci id ds s a an nd d B Ba as se es s A An ns sw we er rs s

8.1 Exercises
1. What is the definition for acids and bases in terms of proton transfer (Brnsted-Lowry)?
An acid is a proton donor. A base is a proton acceptor. The acid species donates its proton to the base when a
base is present to accept the proton.

2. Define, with an example,
a) a Lewis acid
A Lewis acid is an electron pair acceptor e.g., BF
3
. The central boron atom has space in its valence shell for two
more electrons.
b) A Lewis base
A Lewis base is an electron pair donor e.g., NH
3
.It is the central nitrogen atom that has the lone electron pair
available for forming a new bond.


3. Acid-base characteristics can be used to classify compounds.
a) What are conjugate acids and bases and why are these species labelled this way?
Acid-base conjugate pairs are the acids and bases that are connected by the loss or gain of a proton. When an
acid loses a proton, the conjugate species is the resulting product minus the H
+
e.g. HCl Cl

. It is called the
conjugate base because the product now has a lone electron pair with which it can accept a proton the
definition of a base.
When a base accepts a proton, the conjugate species is the resulting product that contains an extra proton e.g.
NH
3
NH
4
+
. It is called the conjugate acid because the product now has an acidic proton that it can donate
the definition of an acid.
The acid and its conjugate base or the base and its conjugate acid are known as a conjugate pair.

Conjugate acid-base pairs:
are the compounds on either side of the reaction arrow that are connected by the loss
and gain of a proton. Their reverse roles come about because both the forward and
back reactions are occurring. The conjugate base results from an acid losing its
proton: the conjugate acid results from a base gaining a proton.

b) How are conjugate acids/bases identified?
Conjugate species are identified by determining which products are the result of losing or gaining a proton from
the reactants. The conjugate base will be on the product side and will have the same formula as the reactant
acid minus a proton (i.e. less one H
+
). The conjugate acid will also be on the product side and will have the
same formula as the reactant base plus a proton (ie with one extra H
+
).
1

c) Pentanoic acid, C
5
H
10
O
2
(CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
COOH), has 10 hydrogens present in the molecule.
i. Are all of these hydrogens able to form hydrogen ions (protons), so giving pentanoic acid its
acid classification?
No, nine of the ten protons (those directly bonded to carbons) will not be lost (donated to a base) and therefore
do not add to the acidic character of pentanoic acid. These CH bonds are not polar or weak enough to be
broken easily in order to donate the proton. The hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms are not acidic.
ii. Identify which proton(s) will be lost and explain your decision.
Only the proton bonded to the oxygen in the carboxylic acid functional group (COOH) will be donated. This is
because it is the only proton involved in a highly polarised bond that is, therefore, relatively easy to break.

4. Ammonia and hydrogen chloride are polar, gaseous molecules. They react to form dense white
fumes.
a) Write a balanced equation for this reaction.
HCl(g) + NH
3
(g)

Cl

(s) + NH
4
+
(s) (the Cl

and NH
4
+
form a solid salt, NH
4
Cl)
b) Explain how this can be defined as an acid-base reaction?
This is defined as an acid-base reaction because the HCl molecule donates an H
+
ion that the ammonia
molecule accepts.
c) Indicate the Brnsted-Lowry conjugate pairs in this reaction.
On the reactant side HCl is the acid and it loses its proton, H
+
, to become the conjugate base on the product
side, Cl

. NH
3
is the base on the reactant side and it accepts a proton during the reaction to become the
conjugate acid, NH
4
+
on the product side.
d) Are these species also Lewis acids and bases? Explain.
Yes these species are also Lewis acids and bases. The acidic proton that is lost from the HCl reactant accepts
electron density from the ammonium and therefore acts as a Lewis acid. The nitrogen atom in the ammonia
molecule donates an electron pair to form a new bond as it accepts the proton. Therefore, NH
3
acts as a Lewis
base.
e) When ammonia and hydrogen chloride dissolve separately in water, they ionize. Write two
balanced equations to show this and use them to explain what ionization means.
HCl(g) + H
2
O(l)

Cl

(aq)

+ H
3
O
+
(ag)

NH
3
(g)

+ H
2
O(l) NH
4
+
(aq)

+ OH

(aq)

Ionization is the process in which atoms or molecules become charged by the loss or gain of electrons. With
respect to acid-base chemistry, ionization is the conversion of the reactant molecules into ions when in solution.
The transfer of electrons occurs when the acid or base reacts with water.

5. The formulas of a number of molecules and ions are given below. Define each as a Brnsted-Lowry
and/or Lewis acid or base. (Hint: some will fit into more than one category).
a) SO
3
2
Brnsted-Lowry Base and Lewis Base


b) HCl
Brnsted-Lowry Acid and Lewis Acid
c) H
2
O
Brnsted-Lowry Acid, Lewis Acid, Brnsted-Lowry Base and Lewis Base
2

d) NH
3

Brnsted-Lowry Base and Lewis Base
e) OH

Brnsted-Lowry Base and Lewis Base
f) NH
4
+
Brnsted-Lowry Acid and Lewis Acid
g) Zn
2+

Lewis Acid
Transition metal cations can expand their outer electron arrangement by accepting
electron pairs from Lewis bases, e.g.,
Zn
2+
+ 6H
2
O [Zn(H
2
O)
6
]
2+

Ni
2+
+ 6NH
3
[Ni(NH
3
)
6
]
2+

Therefore transition metal cations can act as Lewis acids.
h) Cl

Brnsted-Lowry Base and Lewis Base
i) HSO
3

Brnsted-Lowry Acid, Lewis Acid, Brnsted-Lowry Base and Lewis Base
j) H
3
O
+

Brnsted-Lowry Acid and Lewis Acid

6. There are several acid-base conjugate pairs in the previous list. Write the reactions showing the
proton transfer in each and indicate which of the pair is the conjugate acid and which is its
conjugate base.
HSO
3

SO
3
2
+ H
+

Acid: HSO
3


Conjugate base: SO
3
2


HCl Cl

+ H
+

Acid: HCl
Conjugate base: Cl

H
2
O OH

+ H
+

Acid: H
2
O
Conjugate base: OH


And also:
H
2
O + H
+
H
3
O
+
Base: H
2
O
Conjugate acid: H
3
O
+


NH
3
+ H
+
NH
4
+

Base: NH
3

Conjugate acid: NH
4
+

3

7. Proton donors
a) If OH

can act as a proton donor, give the name and formula for its conjugate base.
OH

O
2
+ H
+
. O
2
is the oxide ion.
b) Why do solutions of acids have so many properties in common?
All Brnsted-Lowry acids in solution produce protons (by definition). It is these H
+
ions which cause the acid
reactivity and therefore acids have many properties in common.

8. Which of the following reactions would be classified acid-base? Answer yes or no, give a reason for
your choice; and for yes indicate the acid and base species.
a) H
2
+ Cl
2
2HCl
No, there is no proton transfer or electron pair transfer occurring for this reaction. This is, in fact, a redox
reaction please see Topic 9 for more details.
b) H
3
O
+
+ OH

2H
2
O
Yes, there is a proton transfer from the hydronium ion, H
3
O
+
, to the hydroxide ion, OH

, to form two water

molecules. The hydronium ion is therefore the acid and the hydroxide ion is the base.
c) O
2
+ H
2
O 2OH

Yes, there is a proton transfer from the water molecule to the oxide ion causing the formation of two hydroxide
ions. Water is the acid and the oxide ion is the base.

9. Use Lewis Dot Structures (electron diagrams) to show that the following reactions are Lewis acid-
base in nature:
a) BF
3
+ F


B
F
F
F
+ F B
F
F
F
F
b) H
+
+ OH

H + O H
O
H H

10. The compound aminoethane, C
2
H
5
NH
2
, is a weak base. Write an equation to show its
ionization in water and comment on the extent of this ionization.
C
2
H
5
NH
2
+ H
2
O C
2
H
5
NH
3
+
+ OH

As a base, the aminoethane accepts a proton from the water. Because it is a weak base, the extent of ionisation
is not great. The strength of an acid or base refers to how readily it undergoes or causes ionization. Weak bases
do not readily cause ionisation; they prefer to exist in the neutral form. In the example above, the aminoethane
prefers to exist as C
2
H
5
NH
2
rather than C
2
H
5
NH
3
+
.
The concept of "strong and weak acids and bases" is covered more fully in section
8.3. Relating this to the previous Topic 7 Equilibrium, the equilibrium lies on the
reactant side as the concentration of the reactants at equilibrium is much larger than
the concentration of the products. What will the size of the equilibrium constant, K, be
for the reaction of a weak acid or base with water?
4

11. Protons in an aqueous solution are hydrated and this can be written as H
+
(aq) or H
3
O
+
(aq). Show the
Lewis Dot Structure of a water molecule accepting a proton and the structure of the resulting ion. What
is the name of this ion?
O
H H
+
H
O
H
H
H

The ion formed is the hydronium ion.
8.2 Exercises
1. Write balanced equations for examples of the following general reactions:
a) acid + metal
H
2
SO
4
(ag) + Mg(s) MgSO
4
(ag) + H
2
(g)

b) acid + carbonate
2HCl(ag) + CaCO
3
(s) CaCl
2
(aq) + CO
2
(g) + H
2
O(l)
c) base + acid
HCl(aq)

+ NaOH(aq)

NaCl(aq)

+ H
2
O(l)
d) acid + hydrogencarbonate
H
2
SO
4
(aq)

+ 2NaHCO
3
(s)

Na
2
SO
4
(aq)

+ 2CO
2
(g) +

2H
2
O(l)
e) alkali + acid
KOH(aq) + HClO
4
(aq) KClO
4
(aq) + H
2
O(l)

2. What property do alkaline bases have that other bases do not?
Alkaline bases dissolve in water to yield hydroxide ions. Bases that are not alkaline do not dissolve in water.

3. Complete and balance the following reactions:
a) H
2
SO
4
(aq) + KOH(s) K
2
SO
4
(aq) + H
2
O(l)
b) 2HCl(aq) + Ca(s) CaCl
2
(aq)

+ H
2
(g)


c) CH
3
COOH(aq) + NH
3
(aq) CH
3
COO

(aq) + NH
4
+
(aq)
d) 2HNO
3
(aq) + CaCO
3
(s) Ca(NO
3
)
2
(aq)

+ CO
2
(g) + H
2
O(l)
e) 3H
2
O(l) + 6Na(s) 3Na
2
O(aq)

+ 3H
2
(g)


4. What colour will solutions of the following acids and bases be in the presence of the indicators
given?
Acid
Acid
Acid
Base
Base
Base
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
Blue
Blue
Blue
Colourless
Colourless
Colourless
Pink
Pink
Pink

5

5. When vinegar and baking soda are mixed the reaction produces very vigorous effervescence. What
is the balanced equation for this procedure given that vinegar is ethanoic (acetic) acid (CH
3
COOH)
and baking soda is sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO
3
)?
CH
3
COOH(aq) + NaHCO
3
(s) NaCH
3
COO(aq) + CO
2
(g) + H
2
O(l)
The source of the effervescence (bubbling) is the CO
2
(g) that is produced. It escapes as gas when vinegar and
baking soda are combined.

In baking, the cake or bread mix rises as the result of an acid hydrogencarbonate
reaction. The recipe will include baking soda (NaHCO
3
a hydrogencarbonate
compound) and the addition of an acid, perhaps in the form of lemon juice or vinegar.
The reaction that occurs is therefore that between an acid and hydrogencarbonate to
produce CO
2
(g). It is the CO
2
(g) that gets trapped within the mixture and causes it to
rise.

6. Complete and balance the following equations and note which group they belong to.
a) H
2
SO
4
(l) + Ca(OH)
2
(s) CaSO
4
(aq) + 2H
2
O(l) acid/base
b) HCl(g) + H
2
O(l) Cl

(aq) + H
3
O
+
(aq) acid/base or ionization
c) HCN(l) + NaOH(s) NaCN(aq) + H
2
O(l) acid/base
d) 2HClO
3
(aq) + Ba(OH)
2
(s) Ba(ClO
3
)
2
(aq) + 2H
2
O(l) acid/base
e) 2H
3
PO
4
(aq) + 3CaCO
3
(s) Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2
+ 3CO
2
(g) + 3H
2
O(l) acid/carbonate
f) 2HNO
3
(aq) + CuO(s) Cu(NO)
3
(aq) + H
2
O(l) acid/base
8.3 Exercises
1. Define the descriptions weak and strong for acids and bases.
The terms weak and strong are used to indicate the reactivity of acids and bases. This is measured by their
degree of ionization upon dissolution in water, i.e. where the ionization equilibrium lies. A strong acid or base
has an equilibrium favouring the ionic product side. A weak acid or base has the equilibrium favouring the
reactant side.

2. What is meant by a dilute solution of a strong acid?
A dilute solution indicates that there are few moles of acid present for a given volume of solution. If the acid is
strong it means that most of the acid molecules will ionize when they react with water; the ionization equilibrium
lies on the product side. A dilute solution of a strong acid is, therefore, one in which there are few moles of acid
present for a given volume of solution, but that the majority of these moles of acid have lost their protons.

3. Conjugate acid-base pairs.
a) Explain why a strong acid has a weak conjugate base.
If the acid is strong then it readily donates its proton and the ionization equilibrium favours the product side:
HA(aq) + H
2
O(l) A

(aq) + H
3
O
+
(aq)
acid base conjugate base conjugate acid
Since this equilibrium lies on the product side, the back reaction (in which the conjugate base accepts a proton)
is disfavoured. The conjugate base must, therefore, be a weak base because it does not readily accept a proton
to return back to the original acid.

6

b) Explain why a weak acid has a strong conjugate base.
If an acid is weak it means that it does not readily donate its proton and the ionisation equilibrium favours the
reactant side.
HA(aq) + H
2
O(l) A

(aq) + H
3
O
+
(aq)
acid base conjugate base conjugate acid
The back reaction is therefore favoured; the one in which the conjugate base accepts a proton to form the
original reactant acid, HA. Therefore, the conjugate base of a weak acid is strong.

4. Write balanced chemical equations for the following species with water and state on which side the
equilibrium lies.
a) Ethanoic (acetic) acid is a weak acid.
CH
3
COOH(l) + H
2
O(l) CH
3
COO

(aq) + H
3
O
+
(aq)
Equilibrium lies to the left, i.e. on the reactant side
b) Ammonia is weakly alkaline.
NH
3
(l) + H
2
O(l) HO

(aq) + NH
4
+
(aq)
Equilibrium lies to the left, i.e. on the reactant side
c) Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid.
HCl(g) + H
2
O(l) Cl

(aq) + H
3
O
+
(aq)
Equilibrium lies to the right, i.e. on the product side
d) Perchloric acid is a strong acid.
HClO
4
(l) + H
2
O(l) ClO
4

(aq) + H
3
O
+
(aq)
Equilibrium lies to the right, i.e. on the product side
e) The hydroxide ion is a strong base.
2
-
OH

(aq) + H
2
O(l) 2H
2
O(l)
Equilibrium lies to the right, i.e. on the product side

5. You have two equimolar acidic solutions, one of which is more strongly acidic than the other. What
methods could you use to tell them apart? What method could you use to determine their exact pHs
values?
The more acidic solution will have better electrical conductance as it ionises to a greater extent in solution. A pH
meter can then be used to determine the exact pH.

6. Could you perform a titration on each of the above acid samples to distinguish between the two?
(Hint: think about how the equilibrium will be affected as the donated protons react with the base
from the burette.)
No, a titration would not distinguish between the two solutions. By titrating the equimolar samples of both acid
solutions, the end point will be the same. Though it is true that the stronger acid will produce more H
+
ions in
solution for a given number of moles of acid, the weaker acid will continue to convert acid moles to H
+
as the
base is added. The equilibrium of the general reaction below will be pushed to the right and more products will
form until the end point is again reached at the same volume addition of base as for the strong acid.
HA(aq) + H
2
O(l) A

(aq) + H
3
O
+
(aq)
Take acetic acid for example:
7

CH
3
COOH CH
3
COO

(aq) + H
+
(aq)
The base added from the burette reacts with the free H
+
in solution. Initially there is little free H
+
because
CH
3
COOH is a weak acid and does not readily dissociate. However as the base reacts with the H
+
the system
adjusts to oppose the change and produces more H
+
by shifting the equilibrium and favouring the forward
reaction. In this way the solutions of the stronger and weaker acids will produce the same end point regardless
of their strength, so a titration will not distinguish between them.

7. Ammonia solution can effectively and quickly neutralize a sulfuric acid spill but it is classified as a
weak alkali. Explain why, with an equation.
NH
3
(l) + H
2
O(l) HO

(aq) + NH
4
+
(aq)


As NH
3
is a weak alkali, the equilibrium lies to the left.

NH
3
is classified as a weak alkali as it weakly ionizes upon dissolution in water. However, for the same reasons
as in the previous question, it is still able to neutralize an acid spill. As the H
2
SO
4
(aq) reacts with the product
hydroxide ion, the above system adjusts to oppose the change by favouring the forward reaction, producing
more products. Therefore with enough ammonia solution the entire sulphuric acid spill can be neutralized.

8. Pure ethanoic acid
a) Pure ethanoic acid does not conduct electricity. Explain why it is a non-conductor.
A pure ethanoic acid sample will contain no charged species. Firstly it is a weak acid and therefore does not
readily dissociate in water, but significantly in this case it cannot donate a proton without a base to accept it. In a
pure ethanoic acid sample (i.e. with no other species present, including water) there will be no base present and
therefore no ionisation takes place. Electricity is the movement of charged particles and if there are none
present the solution will not be able to conduct electricity.
b) After water is added to the pure acetic acid making it an aqueous solution, it is found to be an
electrical conductor. Explain.
When water is added to the ethanoic acid the acid is able to dissociate into acetate and hydronium ions. Though
it is a weak acid the extent of dissociation is not large, but it still produces the charged species required for
electrical conductivity.
c) Write an equation which will help explain why the aqueous solution now conducts.
CH
3
COOH(l) + H
2
O(l) CH
3
COO

(aq) + H
3
O
+
(aq)
d) The solution is tested and found to turn blue litmus red. Name the species responsible for this
colour change.
The hydronium ion is the source of the proton and therefore the cause of the change of the litmus from blue to
red.

9. Acid rain is a form of atmospheric pollution. This pollution is produced when acidic oxides, e.g. SO
2

and NO
2
are formed in combustion reactions in engines and industrial processes and then dissolve
in rainwater to produce acids.
a) What acids are formed by the dissolution (i.e., the dissolving) of SO
2
and NO
2
?
Sulfuric, H
2
SO
4
, and nitric, HNO
3
, acids are eventually produced by the processes of dissolving these oxides in
water. Please note: Initially sulfurous acid, H
2
SO
3
, and nitrous acid, HNO
2
, are formed, but these are oxidized
by the oxygen in the air to H
2
SO
4
and HNO
3
.
8

b) Do these oxides produce weak or strong acids? Explain your answer.
Sulphuric acid (H
2
SO
4
) and nitric acid (HNO
3
) are strong acids as they readily undergo dissociation in the
presence of water.
c) Is acid rain dilute or concentrated? Explain why.
Acid rain is dilute because there are very few moles of the acidic species per volume of solution (the rainwater).
d) In light of your answer to (c) explain why acid rain still causes considerable damage.
Though the concentration of the acid in rain is dilute, this does not indicate that the solution is not reactive.
When the acid rain comes into contact with material it can corrode (exposed metal or limestone surfaces for
example) it will still react and cause damage. Sulfuric and nitric acid are strong acids that will readily react with
metals and carbonates, despite the fact that they may be in a dilute solution.

10. Where would you place, in Table 1 on page 238, the following compounds? Give a reason.
a) nitric acid, HNO
3

Nitric acid is a strong acid and should therefore be placed towards the top of the left-hand column. It falls
between sulfuric acid and the hydronium ion.
b) carbonic acid, H
2
CO
3

Carbonic acid is a relatively weak acid and should be placed in the middle of the left-hand column. It lies
between the hydronium ion and ethanoic acid.
c) the hydrogencarbonate ion, HCO
3

This species can react as either a base and gain a proton to become H
2
CO
3
or it can lose its remaining acidic
proton to become CO
3
2
. It could therefore be placed in either column. It is amphoteric, i.e. it can act as an acid
or a base depending on what it is reacting with.

11. Acid-base reactions.
a) Write and equation for the acid-base reaction between ammonium ions and sulfate ions. Why
does the reaction favour the reactants?
NH
4
+
(aq) + SO
4
2
NH
3
(aq) + HSO
4

According to Table 1, NH
4
+
is a weak acid and SO
4
2
is an even weaker base than HSO
4

. Because both of the

reactant species are weak, they do not readily react and the equilibrium will lie on the reactant side.

b) Which of the following solutions will have the larger concentration of ions: 1 M HCl(aq) or 1 M
CH3COOH(aq)? Explain your choice.
HCl is a much stronger acid than CH
3
COOH. It therefore readily ionizes and produces more ions in solution
than CH
3
COOH.

12. You discover that the labels have been rubbed off of your flasks containing ethanoic acid, sulfuric
acid, ammonia solution and water. They all look the same but will obviously produce different
results in your experiments and may even be hazardous if used incorrectly. As a chemist you have
access to indicators, a pH meter and a conductivity kit. What tests will you perform and what do you
expect the results to be?
Assuming all are aqueous solutions:
Water: the use of a pH meter should produce a reading close to neutral, pH = 7. Furthermore, the conductivity
of pure (deionized) water should be zero.
9

Ethanoic Acid solution: Bromomethyl Blue indicator will yield a yellow solution though this will not distinguish the
solution from sulfuric acid. However the acetic acid solution will conduct electricity but not to the same extent as
sulphuric acid because it is a weaker acid.
Sulphuric Acid solution: Bromomethyl Blue indicator will yield a yellow solution and it will conduct electricity to a
greater extent than the acetic acid solution.
Ammonia solution: Bromomethyl Blue indicator will yield a blue solution.
8.4 Exercises
1. The expression of hydrogen-ion concentration, [H
+
], is bulky. A more widely used system is the pH
scale. Add the missing words.
The pH of a solution is the negative logarithm of the proton concentration. In equation form:
pH = log
10
[H
+
(aq)
]

2. In expressing pH, decimal expressions (long hand) for [H
+
] are changed to the scientific notation
form, i.e. 10
-x
. Complete the following:
1 x 10
-6
1 x 10
-3
1 x 10
-4
1 x 10
-1
1 x 10
-13
6
3
4
1
13


a) Which is the most acidic solution?
Solution 4
b) Which is the most alkaline?
Solution 5
c) Of solutions 2 and 3, which is the more acidic and why?
Solution 2 is more acidic as the concentration of protons is ten times greater and the pH is therefore one unit
lower.
d) What is the hydrogen ion concentration change, [H
+
(aq)], on going from solutions 4 to 2?
On going from solution 4 to solution 2 the hydrogen ion concentration is decreasing by a factor of 100. Solution
2 is 100 times less concentrated than solution 4.
e) What is the hydrogen ion concentration change, [H
+
(aq)], on going from solutions 3 to 2?
On going from solution 3 to 2 the hydrogen ion concentration is decreasing by a factor of ten. Solution 3 is ten
times less concentrated than solution 2.
f) Which of the solutions would turn universal indicator red?
Solution 4
g) Which of the solutions would turn bromomethyl blue a blue colour?
Solution 5
10

3. Complete the following:
In a neutral solution the concentration of [H
+
] = 1.0 x 10
-7
mol dm
-3
and the pH = 7. In acid solutions the
pH is less than 7, and in alkaline solutions the pH is greater than 7. The more acidic a solution is, the
lower the pH.

4. Below is the pH scale for some laboratory solutions and for
some common substances found in the home.
a) What is the [H
+
] (mol dm
3
) in each of these?
i) soft drinks: 1 x 10
-3
mol dm
-3

ii) black coffee: 1 x 10
-5
mol dm
-3

iii) pure water: 1 x 10
-7
mol dm
-3

iv) toothpaste: 1 x 10
-3
mol dm
-3

v) gastric juices: approximately 1 x 10
-2.5
mol dm
-3

vi) laundry detergent: 1 x 10
-11
mol dm
-3

b) Which is the most acidic?
Gastric Juices
c) Which is the most alkaline?
Laundry detergent
d) Why would we not want the pH of things like toothpaste
and coffee to stray too far from neutral?
Anything we ingest or that comes into contact with us should not be
corrosive. Keeping common items such as toothpaste and coffee close
to neutral ensures they will not be harmful to us when we use or ingest
them.

5. Which of the following is not an acidic solution?
A [H
+
] = 1 x 10
5
mol dm
3
B Turns universal indicator orange and phenolphthalein colourless.
C Hydrogen ion concentration = 0.00000001 mol dm
3

D pH = 6.99
Answer: C. This solution has an H
+
concentration of 1 x 10
-8
mol dm
-3
which is a pH = 8; a basic solution. The
remainder have a pH < 7 (acidic solutions).

6. Which of the following changes will not cause a solution of pH 4 to become a solution of pH 5?
A Diluting the solution by a factor of 10.
B Increasing the [H
+
] by a factor of 10.
C Decreasing the [H
+
] by a factor of 10.
D Diluting the solution by a factor of 100.
Answer: C
If the solution above is of a strong acid then the answer could also be A. Being fully ionised, the number of
H
+
(aq) will not change and diluting will change their concentration by the required factor of ten. However, if the
solution is of a weak acid then diluting may not produce the corresponding dilution factor to the H
+
(aq) present
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the deprotonation equilibrium must be taken into account. It is the [H
+
(aq)] that is the determinant of the pH and
therefore answer C is preferred as it is correct for solutions of both strong and weak acids.

On mixing a number of indicators together the chemist has a means of comparing the
[H
+
(aq)] of acids or the [OH

(aq)] of bases. These indicator mixtures are called

universal indicators, and contain individual indicators which change colour over a wide
range of acidity and alkalinity. In universal indicators a certain colour indicates a
certain H
3
O
+
concentration. These colours are related to the pH scale.

It should be noted then that combinations of indicators can be used to determine the
actual pH of solution rather than whether it is simply acidic, neutral or basic. Universal
indicator differentiates between pHs of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 with different colours,
whereas an individual indicator phenolphthalein for example would simply be one
colour (colourless) over this entire pH range.

The colours seen in universal indicator and the corresponding pH:
1, 2, 3 REDS
4, 5, 6 YELLOWS
7 GREEN
8, 9, 10 BLUES
11, 12, 13 PURPLES

Universal indicators are supplied with the colour code which will indicate the pH. It
should be noted that universal indicator can only give an approximate value for the pH
of the solution. pH meters must be used to obtain a more accurate determination.

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