D.-S. Huang, L. Heutte, and M. Loog (Eds.): ICIC 2007, LNAI 4682, pp. 10541065, 2007.

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2007

Unbalanced Underground Distribution Systems Fault
Detection and Section Estimation
Karen Rezende Caino de Oliveira, Rodrigo Hartstein Salim, Andr Dars Filomena,
Mariana Resener, and Arturo Suman Bretas
Electric Engineering Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Osvaldo
Aranha, 103, Porto Alegre, Brazil, 90035-190
{karen,salim,afilomena,mariana,abretas}@ece.ufrgs.br
Abstract. This paper presents a novel fault detection and section estimation
method for unbalanced underground distribution systems (UDS). The method
proposed is based on artificial neural networks (ANNs) and wavelet transforms
(WTs). The majority of UDS are characterized by having several single/double
phase laterals and non-symmetrical lines. Also, Digital Fourier Transforms
(DFT), used in the majority of traditional protection relays, supplies a low level
of robustness to the fault diagnosis process due to its inversely proportional
time-frequency characteristic. These characteristics compromise the traditional
fault diagnosis methods performance. ANNs are capable of learning and
generalizing, whereas WTs are robust tools capable of evaluating a signals
frequency range that can characterize the fault phenomenon. This paper
describes the proposed diagnosis method and discusses the results obtained
from simulated implementation. The obtained results demonstrate the capability
and robustness of the technique indicating its potential for on-line applications.
Keywords: Fault Detection, Fault Section Estimation, Wavelet Transforms,
Artificial Neural Networks, Underground Distribution Feeders.
1 Introduction
Electromagnetic transients in Electric Power Systems (EPS) are common, and
constantly induced by short circuits, switching operations and lightning cases. These
events can be permanent or non permanent to the EPS. In both cases, however, the
occurrence of such events constantly implies the protection relays operation to isolate
the correct faulted equipment. After the protection scheme operation, the faulted
equipment can be restored. Permanent faults, however, need to be detected and
located first, in order to send maintenance crews to fix the equipment. Restoration of
faulted equipments can generate the reoccurrence of the fault and lead to power
system blackouts.
The great majority of todays electric power companys maintenance crews have
for several years located permanent faults through visual inspection. This procedure
can last days in large distribution systems and be inadequate for underground systems,
where inspection boxes are the only access to the conductors, which makes
impossible the complete visual inspection of the line.
Unbalanced Underground Distribution Systems Fault Detection and Section Estimation 1055
In recent years, several fault diagnosis methods for transmission [1], [2] and
distribution systems [3], [4], [12], [13] have been proposed in order to reduce these
problems. However, these methods dont consider the specific characteristics of
underground distribution lines, the unbalanced nature of their operation and the
systems with laterals.
In this paper it is presented a novel hybrid fault detection and section estimation
method capable of correctly detecting and locating faults on UDS. The proposed
method is composed of two subroutines, a fault detection subroutine and a fault
location subroutine. WTs are used in the fault detection subroutine and ANNs in the
fault location subroutine. In order to test the proposed methods performance, the
scheme is implemented in MATLAB platform [5] and applied on two real data
underground distribution systems of the Electric Energy State Company of Rio
Grande do Sul (CEEE), southern Brazil, simulated with the use of ATP-EMTP [6].
In the second section of this paper it is presented a review of underground
distribution systems modeling. In the third and fourth sections, a WTs review and an
ANNs review are presented, respectively. In the fifth section the proposed method is
demonstrated. The results and conclusions are presented in the sixth and seventh
sections.
2 Underground Distribution Systems
Distribution lines modeling constitute in the calculation of the series parameters that
represent the phase conductors. These parameters are a result of the electric and
magnetic fields interaction that surrounds each cable. Such series parameters depend
on the line type used, aerial or underground, which must be treated separately for a
correct modeling. In this section, Carsons equations [7] and the Krons reduction
method [7] are presented and used in such modeling.
2.1 Carsons Equations Applied for Underground Distribution Cables
Due to unbalanced operation and line asymmetry, the UDS line modeling should not
make the standard approximations of aerial lines. Thus, this paper uses Carsons
technique to obtain the self and mutual impedances of underground distribution line
cables. The technique is based in the use of conductors images. Additionally, Carson
considers that the earth is an infinite surface, with uniform and constant resistance, by
which the neutral conductors introduced effects on nominal frequency, can be
disregarded. The Carsons equation for a certain conductor i self-impedance in [/m]
and the mutual impedance between the conductors i and j is shown in equations 1 and
2, respectively.
Where:
GMR
i
Medium Geometric radius of conductor i [ft].
D
ij
Distance between the conductors i and j [ft].
z
ii
Self-Impedance of conductor i [/m].
z
ji
Mutual Impedance of conductors i and j [/m].

1056 K.R.C. de Oliveira et al.

+ + = 93402 . 7
1
ln 12134 . 0
i
ii ii
GMR
j r z

(1)

+ = 93402 . 7
1
ln 12134 . 0
ij
ij
D
j z

(2)
2.2 Krons Reduction Method
In the case that the system is composed of 3 phase conductors and 1 neutral, the
impedance matrix will have a 4x4 dimension which would reduce considerably a
great number of applications use. In order to reduce this matrix to a 3x3 dimension,
that will enable the use of these existing applications, it is used in this paper the
Krons Reduction Method. The method is well known as it uses Kirchoffs voltage
law to reduce the matrix order.
The CEEE underground distribution test systems use tape shielded cables. In such
case, specific values used in the Carsons equations can be obtained and are also
applied in this work.
3 Wavelet Transform
The Wavelet Transform (WT) is a digital signal processing (DSP) technique based on
translation and dilation of a window, named the mother wavelet [8]. The technique
allows high frequency events location with a greater time resolution.
3.1 Stationary Discrete Wavelet Transform
In the Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) calculation process, signal decimation
occurs. The analyzed signal passes through the filters (wavelets), decreasing the
maximum frequency of the sampled signal and also the wavelet coefficients total
number after the signals transformation. In the case that this decimation doesnt
occur, the DWT is called stationary, or Stationary Wavelet Transform (SWT). In the
SWT the signal is not decimated.
The SWTs great advantage is its time invariance characteristic, which doesnt
occur with the DWT. This means that even in a periodic signal, the DWT of a
translated signal x[n] is not necessarily equal to the translated DWT of the signal
x[n]. For singularity detection applications, the use of SWT is highly recommended,
and, therefore, used in this paper.
4 Artificial Neural Networks
Artificial Neural Networks are the mathematical models of biological neurons and
their interconnection, aiming the reproduction of the human brains processing
properties [10]. The characteristics of ANNs can be summarized by:
Unbalanced Underground Distribution Systems Fault Detection and Section Estimation 1057
- Learning: ANNs have the ability of learning about their ambient through an
iterative adjustments process;
- Generalization: ANNs are able to generalize and obtain an adequate output for
unforeseen inputs;
- Nonlinearity: An ANN is nonlinear if it is composed of nonlinear artificial
neurons;
- Adaptability: ANNs are capable of adapting their synaptic weights due to
changes in the ambient;
- Fault tolerance: ANNs have their knowledge distributed though the synaptic
connections, in this way in the presence of a fault, a part of the connections
can be inoperative without significant performance loss.
In this paper feedforward ANNs with sigmoid activation function were used, as well
as the Levenberg-Marquardt supervised learning algorithm.
5 Hybrid Fault Diagnosis Method
The proposed methodology is composed of two interconnected subroutines. The first
one, called here fault detection subroutine is responsible for the faults detection, the
fault inception point identification and the fault type classification. The second
subroutine of the method, called the fault location subroutine, as the name suggests, is
responsible for the fault section determination. The second subroutine only processes
its data when a fault in the distribution system is previously detected, identified and
classified. In the following it is presented the two subroutines.
5.1 Fault Detection Subroutine
The proposed fault detection subroutine is composed of 5 distinct processes:
- Base characteristics extraction: In this subroutines part, the analyzed signals
base characteristics are extracted;
- Online characteristics extraction: In this process, online characteristics are
extracted, using the SWT;
- Fault detection: Utilizing data from both processes previously mentioned, it is
determined the fault existence;
- Fault inception identification: This process determines the exact time in which
the fault occurred;
- Fault classification: After the fault detection and the fault instant
identification, this part of the subroutine classifies the fault type.
In the following, each process of the fault detection subroutine is explained.
5.1.1 Base Characteristics Extraction
The fault detection subroutine is based on the idea of certain current signals
frequency components energys change [9]. During a fault, signals with frequency
range up to 1 kHz will appear [11]. In the proposed method, the measurement of
signal components in the frequency range of 750 Hz 1 kHz is applied. In order to
detect minimum signal energys variation in this frequency range, it is necessary to
1058 K.R.C. de Oliveira et al.
determine an initial base energy from the pre-fault system. This is the output of the
Base Extraction Characteristics process.
The process calculates initially the SWT of the 3 phase signal currents measured at
the substation where the distribution feeder is located. The SWT is calculated on 3
cycles of the current signals in cycle steps with 1 cycle windows. The energy of
each phase is calculated only on the detail referent to the interest frequency range
(750 Hz 1 kHz).
After this, medium signal energy is calculated. With these previous values, an
energy base is chosen as the highest medium signal energy of the 3 phases.
5.1.2 Online Characteristics Extraction
After the step described previously, an online characteristic extraction process is
performed. In this process, the current signals SWT and the energy of the interest
detail for the 3 phases are calculated. These values are afterwards normalized with the
base values and sent to the fault detection process. The process is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Wavelet
Transform (3 cycles)
I
3
Detail N Energy
Calculation
Detail N
normalization
SWT(I )
A B
SWT(I )
C
SWT(I )
E
A,B,C
E
A
norm
C
E
norm
B
E
norm

Fig. 1. Online characteristic extraction
5.1.3 Fault Detection
The fault occurrence determination is based on the characteristics extracted from the
current signals. The fault detection process is illustrated in Fig. 2.
E
A
norm
C
E
norm
B
E
norm
E
A
norm
B
E
norm
or
C
E
norm
> k
1
or
Yes
No
E
A
norm
C
E
norm B
E
norm
Max([ ])
Online Characteristcs extration
Fault Instant
Determination
A, B ou C
SWT
A,B,C

Fig. 2. Fault Detection
In this process the normalized energies are directly compared with a limit value. In
the case that any of the phases normalized energies is higher than a minimum value
k
1
, called here minimum detection index, fault detection is achieved. The value of k
1
is
determined by the protection engineer and depends on the local distribution system
characteristics.
Unbalanced Underground Distribution Systems Fault Detection and Section Estimation 1059
5.1.4 Fault Inception Identification
This subroutines process utilizes the values of the SWT coefficients to determine the
instant of fault occurrence. Fig. 3. illustrates the process.
SWT (I )
> k
d,n Faulty Phase
2
Faulty Phase
SWT (I )
d,n A
B
SWT (I )
d,n
C
SWT (I )
d,n
Yes
No
Instant = n
Increment n k
2
= max(SWT(I ))/3
Faulty Phase n = N/8
Instant

Fig. 3. Fault Inception Identification
Initially, the fault information is used to determine k
2
, the minimum instantaneous
index, which is a dependent parameter of the interest details energy. After, k
2
is
compared directly with the interest details coefficients absolute values of the SWT. It
is compared only after a certain coefficient, due to high erroneous coefficient values
encountered. These coefficients are encountered after the filtering process, when
filters composed by a high number of coefficients in relation to the number of signal
coefficients are applied. In this process, the signal is divided in 8 parts, and the first
one is not considered in the analysis.
5.1.5 Fault Classification
In order to classify the fault type, it is used in this process the information of the
interest details energies of all system phases. The phase with the highest energy is
considered as main faulted phase. The process uses the information of the other
phases to determine the type of fault as illustrated in Fig. 4.
Firstly, it is verified if the fault is a three-phase type. Thus, the energy of the
current signals interest detail of the system phases (E
m
and E
n
), except the main
phase (E
FF
), passes through two different comparisons. The first compares E
m
and E
n

directly with k
3
, the minimum classification index. In reality, k
3
has the same meaning
than k
1
with the same design projects. The second comparison is made between E
m

and E
n
with E
FF
, weighed by k
4
, the minimum relative classification index in order to
avoid a wrong fault classification due to a small energy difference between the signals
of the system.
In case one of these conditions is met for the two systems phases not classified as
main phases, the fault is classified as three-phase. In a different case, the process tests
the same signals to check if it is a double-phase fault. In the case only one of the
phases fills in the necessary conditions, the fault is considered double-phase. If none
of the phases fills in the requirements, the fault is considered single phase and the
main phase is determined as the faulty phase (higher energy on the interest detail).
When the fault is classified as double-phase, the process determines if the fault
involves ground. This process is made through a weighed comparison of the zero
1060 K.R.C. de Oliveira et al.
sequence current before and after the fault. The comparison is weighed by k
5
, the
minimum relationship zero sequence current index, which represents the minimum
variation of zero sequence current admissible between the steady-state operation and
fault condition. This index should also be determined by the protection engineer.

Fig. 4. Fault Classification
5.2 Fault Location Subroutine
The fault location subroutine estimates the faulted distribution line section after the
fault is detected and classified by the previously described subroutine. The subroutine
uses a different ANN for each phase-to-ground fault, totalizing 3 ANNs (A-g, B-g, C-
g). The input vector of all ANNs is the same and is illustrated in Eq. 4.
[ ]
F
h h
h h
h h h
R I I V x
3 , 1
3 , 1
1 1 1
=

(4)
Where:

h
V
1
is the fundamental voltage phasor magnitude;

h
I
1
is the fundamental current phasor magnitude;

h 1
is the angle difference between the fundamental phasors of voltage
and current;

h h
I
3 , 1
is the relation between the complex numbers that represent the first
and third currents harmonics;

h h 3 , 1
is the angle difference between the complex numbers that represent
the phasors of the first and third harmonics;

F
R is the fault resistance;
Unbalanced Underground Distribution Systems Fault Detection and Section Estimation 1061
The fault resistance is the only unknown variable of the input vector. The process
uses [2] in order to estimate R
F
. Fig. 5 illustrates the subroutine:
ANN
Selection
y = [ ] , , , ..., R R R R
1 2 3 n
x = [ ] |V | |I | |I| R
1h 1h 1h 1h,3h 1h,3h
F
, , , , ,

Fig. 5. Fault Location subroutine
As shown in Fig. 5, x is the explained input vector and y is the output vector,
composed by binary values that represent the n sections of the distribution system.
6 Results
In order to test the proposed technique, the method was implemented in Matlab and
two underground distribution systems were simulated in ATP-EMTP. Figs. 6 and 7
show the one-line diagrams of the CEEE test systems. The feeder shown in the Fig. 6,
AL-1PL, is an underground system with 3363 m of extension, with 3 main laterals.
The system uses aluminum 750MCM and 4/0 AWG tape-shielded cables. The UDS
illustrated in Fig. 7, AL-1PW, has 2046 m of extension, with one main derivation. AL-
1PW uses only 750MCM tape-shielded cables. In order to correctly model the two
systems, Carson equations together with the Krons reduction method were used. The
impedance matrixes of these systems were also obtained from this process.

Fig. 6. Test Underground Distribution System(AL-1PL)

+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
=

4516 , 0 4260 , 0 1550 , 0 2998 , 0 1550 , 0 2998 , 0
1550 , 0 2998 , 0 4516 , 0 4260 , 0 1550 , 0 2998 , 0
1550 , 0 2998 , 0 1550 , 0 2998 , 0 4516 , 0 4260 , 0
10 1
3
750
j j j
j j j
j j j
Z
MCM

+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
=

5914 , 0 6595 , 0 2654 , 0 3293 , 0 2654 , 0 3293 , 0
2654 , 0 3293 , 0 5914 , 0 6595 , 0 2654 , 0 3293 , 0
2654 , 0 3293 , 0 2654 , 0 3293 , 0 5914 , 0 6595 , 0
10 1
3
0 / 4
j j j
j j j
j j j
Z
AWG

Both matrixes are expressed in [/m].
1062 K.R.C. de Oliveira et al.

Fig. 7. Test Underground Distribution System(AL-1PW)
6.1 Detection Results
In order to determine the performance of the fault detection subroutine in the tests
systems AL-1PL and AL-1PW, several fault simulations with different locations,
resistances and fault types were performed.
The proposed methodology showed to be extremely robust for single phase-to-
ground fault detection, inception identification and fault type classification as the
results for all test cases simulated were correct, including for different fault resistance,
location and type. The precision established for a correct fault instant identification
was cycle. In order to test the methodologys capacity for different fault inception
angles in phase A ( = 0, 30, 90, 150, 180, 210, 270 e 330), fault resistances
(R
F
= 0 , 10 , 20 , 50 e 100 ) and locations (31 different locations), other
3720 test cases were simulated and tested for the AL-1PL system. Once more, all
faults were correctly detected, classified and its fault instant identified, in different
fault types (AB-g, BC-g, AC-g, AB, BC, AC, ABC-g).
6.2 Fault Location Results
In order to determine the performance of the fault location subroutine, several
simulations on both test distribution systems were performed. The test cases had
different fault resistances (R
F
= 0 , 10 , 20 , 50 e 100 ) and fault types (3
different fault types). The test data was initially composed of 1440 simulated fault
cases (480 for each fault type). The test systems AL-1PL and AL-1PW were divided
into 5 and 2 different sections, respectively. This division made possible the
application of the subroutine. Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 illustrate the division.
In the following table, the fault resistance of simulated fault tests applied in AL-
1PL and AL-1PW was varied as the method was tested.
Table 1. Fault Resistance Effect on the Fault Section Identification (AL-1PL)
Phase-to-ground Faults
R
F

A-g B-g C-g
0 4,2 7,3 6,3
10 1,0 0,0 0,0
20 1,0 1,0 0,0
50 1,0 1,0 1,0
100 0,0 2,1 1,5
Total 1,5 2,1 1,5
Unbalanced Underground Distribution Systems Fault Detection and Section Estimation 1063
Table 2. Fault Resistance Effect on the Fault Section Identification (AL-1PW)
Phase-to-ground Faults
R
F

A-g B-g C-g
0 3,5 4,7 2,3
10 1,2 1,2 2,3
20 0,0 4,7 3,5
50 3,5 1,2 3,3
100 2,3 2,3 2,3
Total 2,1 2,8 2,3
As it can be seen, the maximum error was of 2.1% for the B-g faults in AL-1PL
system and 2.8% for AL-1PW system. Also, the table shows that there is a certain
uniformity on the results, as the total error was limited between 1% and 3% for all test
cases. In order to check the fault location effect on the fault section determination
methodology, new test cases were simulated and had their results applied to the
method. For these tests, several different fault locations were simulated in the two
systems. In AL-1PL, sections 1, 2 and 3 had, respectively, 4, 8, and 4 different fault
points, while sections 4 and 5 had 18 and 62 fault points, respectively. For AL-1PW,
section 1 had 27 test fault location points and section 2, 59 points. With the variation
of other fault conditions, it was generated for each section 20, 40 and 20 test cases for
each single phase fault type in AL-1PL respectively, and 135 test cases for each fault
type in AL-1PW. The results can be seen in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 3. Fault Location Effect [%] in the Fault Section Identification (AL-1PL)
Phase-to-ground Faults
Section
A-g B-g C-g
1 5,0 5,0 5,0
2 0,0 5,0 2,5
3 10,0 15,0 10,0
4 2,2 2,2 3,3
5 0,6 0,6 0,0
Table 4. Fault Location Effect [%] in the Fault Section Identification (AL-1PW)
Phase-to-ground Faults
Section
A-g B-g C-g
1 3,0 5,9 3,7
2 1,7 1,4 1,7
As it can be seen for all tests the subroutine had errors smaller than 6%. Only tests
in section 3 from AL-1PL resulted in errors greater than 6%. Analyzing the results, it
is possible to say (based on inference) that the highest errors encountered are a
consequence of the smaller number of training patterns used on the training stage of
this section, and also due to its distance to the substation.
1064 K.R.C. de Oliveira et al.
7 Conclusions
In this paper a novel fault detection and section estimation method for underground
distribution systems is presented. The proposed method is divided in two major
subroutines. The first subroutine, called the Fault Detection Subroutine, is responsible
for detecting the existence of a fault, identifying the fault inception point and
classifying the fault type. The second subroutine of the method, called the Fault
Location Subroutine, is responsible for the faulty section estimation. The first
subroutine is based on the use of SWT, while the second subroutine of the proposed
method is based on the use of ANNs. The first subroutine uses as input data the
current signals measured at the substation while the second subroutine uses, besides
the same current signals, the voltage signals measured at the substation as well.
In order to adapt the method to the use in underground distribution systems, a
system modelling development based on the Carlsons equations and the Krons
reduction method is presented and applied for two real underground distribution
systems used by the Electric Energy Company of the State of Rio Grande do Sul
(CEEE). The tests results applied on simulated data demonstrate the robustness of the
proposed scheme and its potential for on-line applications.

Acknowledgments. The authors would like to thank the Electric Energy Company of
the State of Rio Grande do Sul (CEEE) Brazil and the Conselho Nacional de
Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento (CNPq) for the financial support.
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