BIOLOGY

Contents
Introduction
HistoricalAccount
Prokaryotic &Eukaryotic cell
Animal cell &Plant cell
Cell structure &Organelles
Cell Division
1. INTRODUCTION ::
Study of cell is called Cytology.
Cells are the structural and functional units of life.
2. HISTORICALACCOUNT ::
Robert Hooke (1665) observing a slice of cork in
which he saw honey comb like structure which he
called cell.
Rudolf Virchow (1855) stated that all cell arise from
the division of pre-existing cells.
Cell theory was proposed by Schleiden and
Schwann (1839).
(A) Postulates of Cell Theory :
Living things made of minute units, the cells, which
are the small entities, Thus cells the structural unit
of life.
Cells are normally alike in metabolic activities &
structures.
A cell bounded by a cell membrane & some times
cell wall also. It contains protoplasm & nucleus.
The function of an organism is the result of the
activities & interactions of the constituent cell.
(B) Modern Cell Theory :
It is also referred as cell principle.
Life exists only in cell.
Living beings are multinucleate mass of protoplast,
containing nuclear material & some cell organelles,
limited by a cell membrane.
Cell have basic similarity in chemical composition &
physical structure.
Cell arise from pre-existing living cells by division.
Cell working & structure is controlled by DNA.
Cells have genetic information, stored in their DNA.
A cell can act (grow, divide & die) Independently.
A cell is made of living substance called protoplasm.
Term Protoplasm was coined by Purkinje
(1839).
Protoplasm with cell organelles comprises cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm is a part of cell between plasma membrane
& nuclear envelope.
Single celled organisms (unicellular organisms) are
Bacteria, Amoeba and Chlamydomonas.
Many celled organisms (multicellular organisms) are
Fungi, Plants and Animals.
Protoplasm is a aggregate of molecules of organic.
(as protein, carbohydrates, fats or lipids), nucleic
acid (DNA & RNA) and Inorganic (water, ions, salt
etc.) compounds.
All kinds of true cells share the following three
basic characteristic.
They contain a set of genes.
They contain a limiting plasma membrane.
They contain a metabolic machinery.
THE FUNDAMENTAL UNI T
OF LI FE
1
CHAPTER
BIOLOGY
Organisms are again divided into following two main
types :
(a) Prokaryotes (b) Eukaryotes
Differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic
cells are
Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Cells Cells
a Size of cell is generally Large (5-100 m)
small (1-10m)
b Nucleus Absent Nucleus Present
c Contain single Contain many
chromosome chromosome
d Nucleolus is absent Present
e Membrane bound cell Present
organelles are absent
(Ribosomes are present)
f Cell division take place Cell division occurs
fission or budding by mitosis or meiosis
(No mitosis)
g Ex. BGA, PPLO etc. Ex. Amoeba,
Paramecium etc.
3. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANIMAL AND
PLANT CELL ::
Animal Cell Plant Cell
1 Animal cells are Plants cells
generally small in size are larger
2 Cell wall is absent. Cell wall is present
3 Except the protozoan Plastids are present
Euglena no animal
cell possesses plastids.
4 Animals cell have a Plants cell have
single highly complex many simpler units
and prominent Golgi of Golgi apparatus
apparatus. called dictyosomes
5 Animal cells have Plant cells lack
centrosome and centrosome and
centrioles centrioles.
4. STRUCTURE & FUNCTION OFCELLAND
CELL ORGANELLES
(A) Structure of Cell :
The size, shape number and volume of cell vary greatly
among unicellular and multicellular organisms.
Cell shape :
The shape of cell may be variable or fixed.
Variable shape occur in Amoeba, WBC etc.
Fixed shape occur in most plant and animals.
Cells may be diverse shapes such as polyhedral (8,
12 or 14 sides) spherical (e.g. eggs of mainly animals),
spindle shaped (Smooth muscle fibres), elongated
(e.g. Nerves cells) so on.
Cell Size :
The size of different cells ranges between broad
limits.
Some plants and animals cells are visible to the
naked eye.
Most cells are visible only with microscope.
The prokaryotic cells usually range between 1 to 10
m.
The eukaryotic cells usually range between 10 to
100 m.
Amoeba proteus may reach a diameter of 0.5 mm.
The smallest cells are those of Mycoplasma
laidlawiil (0.1 in diameter) or PPLO (pleura
pneumonia like organism).
The largest cell is egg of an Ostrich.
Cell Number :
The number of cell in living organisms also varies
greatly.
In unicellular organisms, a single cell occur its body
eg. Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, Amoeba.
In human body, the estimated number of cell is 100
trillion (10
14
)
BIOLOGY
(B) Component of cell :
Major components are -
A living part of cell Non living part of cell
a. Plasma membrane a. Cell wall
b. Cytoplasm b. Vacuoles
(i) E.R. c. Cell inclusions
(ii) Mitochondria
(iii) Golgi apparatus
(iv) Ribosomes
(v) Lysosomes
(vi) Centrioles
(animals only)
(vii) Plastids
(plants only)
4.1 Plasma Membrane and Cell Wall :
(A) Plasma Membrane :
I ntroduction :
Cell surface in all the cells is enclosed by a living
membrane which is called cell membrane by
C. Nageli and C. Kramer (1855).
Historical Account :
J.Q. Plower (1931) coined the term
Plasmalemma for cell membrane.
Ultrastructure :
Plasma membrane forms outer covering of each cell.
It is present in both plant and animal cells.
Plasma membrane is a living, thin, delicate elastic,
selectively permeable membrane.
It separates contents of a cell from the surrounding
medium.
Fluid Mosaic Model :
In 1972, Singer Nicolson proposed this model.
According to this, cell membrane consists-two layers
of phospholipid molecules, phospholipid & protein
molecules are arranged as a mosaic.
Phospholipid molecules have their polar heads
directed outward non polar tail pointing inward.
The proteins are of two types
Peripheral or integral. Peripheral proteins are located
superficially while integral proteins are embeded in
the phospholipid matrix. The protein monolayers
have elasticity & mechanical support to the lipid
matrix.
Functions of Plasma Membrane :
The main function of plasma membrane is to regulate
the movement of molecules inside and outside the
cell.
Centrioles
Cell
membrance
Ribosomes
E. R.
Nucleus
Mitochondrion
Nucleolus
Small
vacuole
Golgi complex
Plant
vacuole
Starch grain
Cell wall
Chloroplast
Animal Cell
Plant Cell
STRUCTUREOFCELL
Tonoplast
BIOLOGY
Lipid
bilayer
Integral
(trans membrane)
proteins
Peripheral protein
Glycoprotein
Extracellular fluid
Peripheral protein
Phospholipids :
Polar head (hydrophilic)
Fatty acid tails
(hydrophobic)
Polar head (hypdrophilic)
Integral protein
FLUIDMOSAICMODELOFPLASMAMEMRANE
Definition of Diffusion :
The tendency of molecules or ions of liquids, gases
and solids to move from regions of higher
concentrations to lower concentration due to their
random-motion, until they are evenly distributed
throughout the available space is called diffusion.
Definition of Osmosis :
It may be defined as a special type of diffusion that
occurs in a liquid medium through a semipermeable
membrane. In this process the movement of
molecules of a solvent (or water), from the region of
higher concentration of water (i.e. dilute solution) to
the region of lower concentration of water (i.e.
stronger solution) takes place till the concentration
on both the sides are equalised, when both are
separated by a semipermeable membrane.
Semipermeable memberane allows only solvent
molecules to pass through it but not the solute
molecules.
In plants, the cell contains a solution called cell
sap which is more concentrated (containing some
solute particles) than that of water. When the cell is
immersed in water, the diffusion of water molecules
from the outside into the cell takes place resulting
in endosmosis (i.e. inward flow) and the reverse
process is known as exosmosis (i.e. outward flow).
Due to endosmosis, gradually the cell sap becomes
diluted and enlarged with more water. This process
will continue till an equilibrium is reached i.e. the
concentration of both the solutions is equalised.
Plasma membrane helps in maintaining distinct
composition of cell.
(B) Cell Wall :
In plants cell, there occurs a rigid cell wall which lies
outside the plasma membrane.
It is made up of a fibrous polysaccharide
(carbohydrates) called cellulose.
Cellulose is responsible for providing structural
strength to the plants.
4.2 Nucleus :
I ntroduction :
The nucleus is the most important component of the
cell and controls all functional activities of the cell.
Historical Account :
Robert Brown (1831) discovered a dense,
spherical body in the cells of an orchid and named
it as Nucleus.
BIOLOGY
Ultrastructure :
It is a prominent, spherical or oval structure, usually
located near the centre of cell.
It is the controlling centre of all cell activities.
It is enclosed by a double layered membrane called
nuclear membrane.
The chief components of the nucleus are
(a) Chromatin material
(b) Nucleolus
Chromatin material - Which is in the form of an
intertwined mass of thread like structure.
Chromatin material mainly consist of DNA.
DNA responsible for hereditary information from one
generation to another.
Double Helical structure of DNA was proposed by
Watson & Crick.
Chromosomes - DNA condenses into compact rod
like bodies called chromosomes. Their number in
humans is 46 (23 pairs,)
Functions of Nucleus :
The nucleus control all metabolic activities of the
cell.
It regulates the cell cycle.
It is concerned with the transmission of hereditary
traits from the parents to offspring.
4.3 Endoplasmic Reticulum (E. R.) :
I ntroduction :
In the cytoplasm some closed or open, branched
cavities are present which are bounded by
membranes to form a network of membranous system
called Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Historical Account :
K.R.Porter (1948) reported this net-like system
under electron microscope.
Ultrastructrure :
A system of membranes attached to the nucleus and
present in the cytoplasm is called E.R.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is divided into two
parts
(a) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
(b) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
RER possesses rough wall because ribosomes remain
attached on the surface. RER is present in cells
which are involved in protein synthesis.
SER mainly present in cells which are involved in
lipoproteins and glycogen synthesis. It perfoms
detoxification.
Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum :
It forms supporting skeleton framework of the cell.
Nuclear pore
Perinuclear space
Heterochromatin
Perinucleolar
chromatin
Intranucleolar
chromatin
Nuclear envelope
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Nucleolus
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Ribosomes
Euchromatin
ELECTRONMICROSCOPICSTRUCTUREOF
NUCLEUS
A
Lumen
Ribosomes
B
A. ROUGHENDOPLASMICRETICULUM
B. SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Lumen
BIOLOGY
Certain enzymes present in smooth E.R. synthesis
fats (lipids), steroids and cholesterol.
Rough E.R. is concerned with protein synthesis.
Smooth E.R. is involved in the process of
detoxification.
4.4 Ribosomes :
I ntroduction :
Ribosomes are found in both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells. In prokaryotes, they are found in
the cytoplasm in free form, called monosomes.
Ribosomes are the smallest organelles in the cell.
Historical Account :
In plant cells ribosomes were first of all observed by
Robinson and Brown (1953). In animal cells these
are called Palade particles, observed by Palade
(1955).
Ultrastructure :
Ribosomes are dense, spherical and granular
particles. These are also known as RNP particles
(Ribonucleoprotein particles.)
Ribosomes occur freely in the matrix or remain
attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. Also with in
chloroplast, mitochondria and nuclei. Thus called
organelle with a organelle.
Each ribosome is made up of two subunits, a
smaller subunit and larger subunit.
Two subunits of ribosomes are attached with the
help of Mg
2+
ions.
Many ribosomes may be associated with mRNA to
form polyribosomes.
Functions of Ribosomes :
Ribosomes play an important part in the protein
synthesis. Ribosomes are the protein factories
of the cell.
4.5 Mitochondria :
I ntroduction :
A single mitochondrion is present in unicellular green
alga, Micrasterias. Number of mitochondria varies
from 5050,000 per cell. Mitochondria of a cell are
collectively known as chondriome.
Historical Account :
C. Benda (1897) gave the name Mitochondria
(Mitos, thread + Chondrion, granules).
Term Bioplast for mitochondria was used by
Altman.
Ultrastructure :
Mitochondria are rod shaped organelles, bounded
by a double membrane envelope.
The outer membrane is smooth, the inner membrane
surrounds a central cavity of matrix. Central cavity
is filled with gel like substances
Inner membranes folds are called cristae, these
folding are tubular and called microvilli.
Cisternae Vesicles Tubules
ENDOPLASMICRETICULUM
Head
Base
30S Subunit
Cleft
Platform
Small
subunit Central
protuberance
Stalk
Valley
Ridge
Large
subunit
50S Subunit
PARTSOFRIBOSOME
BIOLOGY
Mitochondria contain electron transport systems
aggregated into compact structure. F
1
particles
or oxysome, tennis racket like bodies on inner
membrane involved in oxidation & phosphorylation.
Krebs cycle occurs in mitochondria.
Each particle is made up of base, stalk and head.
Functions of Mitochondria :
Mitochodria are called power plants or power
houses or cellular furnaces.
Synthesis of ATP (Adenosine Tri-phosphate) in
mitochondria is called oxidative
phosphorylation.
Mitochondria as place of cellular respiration was first
observed by Hogeboom.
4.6 Plastids :
I ntroduction :
Plastids are organelles enclosed by a double
membrane found in all plants.
Historical Account :
E.Heckel (1865) gave the term plastid. Plastids
are largest cell organelles.
Ultrastructure :
Plastids occur in most plant cells and are absent in
animal cells.
Plastids are self replicating organelles like
mitochondria i.e. they have the power to divide.
Schimper divided plastids into three types :
(a) Chromoplast - Coloured plastids
(except green colour)
(b) Chloroplast - Green coloured plastids
(c) Leucoplast - Colourless plastid.
Plastids also have double membrane but no cristae.
Functions of Plastids :
Chloroplasts trap solar energy and utilized it to
manufacture food for the plant.
Chromoplast impart various colour of flower to attract
insect for pollination.
4.7 Golgi Complex :
I ntroduction :
Golgi bodies are absent in prokaryotic cells. Golgi
complex is found in all eukaryotic cells except RBCs.
Historical Account :
Camillo Golgi (1898), a zoologist, observed Golgi
bodies in the form of a network in nerve cells of
barn owl.
Ultrastructure :
It is also called Golgi complex or Golgi
apparatus or Dictyosome (in plants cell).
It is made up of cisternae.
Golgi bodies are interconnected with the tubules.
Functions of Golgi Apparatus :
The main function of Golgi apparatus is secretory.
It produces vacuoles or secretory vesicles which
contain cellular secretions like enzymes, proteins,
cellulose etc.
Golgi apparatus is also involved in the synthesis of
cell wall, plasma membrane and lysosomes.
Inner membrane space
Ribosome
Matrix
DNA
Outer
membrane
Cristal inner
membrane
ATP synthase
particles
INTERNALSTRUCTUREOFAMITOCHONDRION
BIOLOGY
4.8 Vacuoles, Lysosomes, Peroxisomes and
Centrosome :
I ntroduction :
Vacuoles serve as temporary storehouse for many
of the cells solutes and macromolecules,
Ultrastructure :
Vacuoles - The Vacuoles are liquid filled spaces in
the cell.
Each vacuole remains surrounded by a membrane
called tonoplast.
Functions of Vacuoles :
Vacuoles help to maintain the osmotic pressure in a
cell (osmoregulation).
(a) Lysosomes :
I ntroduction :
Lysosomes are generally found in the cytoplasm of
animal cells. Lysosomes exhibit polymorphism.
Historical Account :
The term lysosome was introduced by de Duve
in 1955.
Ultrastructure :
It is also called demolition squads, scavengers,
cellular house keepers and suicide bags.
Lysosome are simple tiny spherical sac like structures
evenly distributed in the cytoplasm.
Lysosome is small vesicle surrounded by a single
membrane and contains powerful enzymes.
Functions of Lysosomes :
Lysosomes serve as interacellular digestive system,
hence called digestive bags.
Lysosomes also remove the worn out and poorly
working cellular organelles by digesting them to
make way for their new replacement.
(b) Peroxisomes :
I ntroduction :
Peroxisomes are round to oval bodies, limited by a
single membrane.
Historical Account :
Peroxisomes were observed by Tolbert and
Yamazaki.
Ultrastructure :
Peroxisomes are small and spherical organelles
containing powerful oxidative enzymes.
They are bounded by single membrane.
They are mostly found in kidney and liver cells.
These are specialized for carrying out of some
oxidative reactions.
Functions of Peroxisomes :
Peroxisomes are specialized for carrying out some
oxidative reactions.
(c) Centrosome :
I ntroduction :
Outside the nuclei of animal cells is an area called
the centrosome.
Historical Account :
T. Boweri (1888) coined the term centrosome. Each
centrosome consists of two sets of centrioles.
Ultrastructure :
Centrosome is found only in animal cells.
It is not bounded by any membranes.
Consists of cylindrical, rod, like structures called
centrioles.
Centrioles are made up of microtubules.
Transfer
vesicles
Cisterna
Transface
Secretory vesicles
DETAILEDSTRUCTUREOFGOLGICOMPLEX
BIOLOGY
Functions of Centrosome :
Centrosome helps in cell division in animals cells.
In plants cells, cell division involves polar caps for
the spindle formation.
4.9 Cytoskeleton (Cilia and flagella) :
In many eukaryotic as well as prokaryotic cells of
both plants and animals a cytoskeleton has been
reported in recent years.
The elements of this cytoskeleton are proteins.
The cytoskeleton consists of following two elements
within a cell.
(a) Microtubules
(b) Microfilaments
Cilia and flagella of eukaryotic cells are microscopic,
contractile & filamentous process of cytoplasm.
Cilia is shorter than flagella and are numerous.
4.10 Microtubules & Microfilaments :
(A) Microtubules :
I ntroduction :
These are cylindrical structures formed by the
polymerization of two-part subunits of globular protein
tubulin into helical stacks.
Historical Account :
The term microtubule was coined by Slautterback
in 1963.
Ultrastructure :
Microtubules radiate from each end of the cell.
Which helps in the movement of chromosomes.
These are found in many plant and animal cells.
Function :
Microtubules help in the structure and movement of
cillia and flagella.
It also play a role in cell division.
(B) Microfilaments :
Ultrastructure :
These are long and helically intertwined polymers.
Microfilaments are made up of protein actin.
Function :
These filaments help in cell movement and in
formation of cell furrow and cell plate.
5. CELL DIVISION ::
Cell multiplication is needed for the growth,
development and repair of the body. Cell multiplies
by dividing itself again and again this process called
cell division.
Cell divisions are two types
(a) Mitosis (b) Meiosis
5.1 Mitosis :
Stages of Mitosis :
Interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase are roughly the five stages or phases of
mitosis.
(a) Interphase :
The period between one cell division and the next
is called interphase in which the cell is said to be
in the resting stage.
Interphase, however, includes three phases, i.e. G1-
phase, S-phase and G2-phase. G1-phase is a
resting phase or pre-DNA synthesis phase.
During S-phase, DNA synthesis takes place.
G2-phase is again a resting phase and it may be
described as a post-DNA synthesis phase.
The main mitosis division takes place during M-
phase which involves prophase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase.
(b) Prophase :
Prophase is actually the first and the longest phase
in the mitosis cell division.
Chromosomes become visible in the nucleus as
short, thick and helically-coiled threads.
Each chromosome splits into two chromatids joined
at the centromere.
Nuclear membrane dissolves away.
Nucleolus also dissolves away and finally
disappears.
BIOLOGY
(c) Metaphase :
It is the second stage in the mitotic cell division.
Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrate and
they are lost completely.
Spindle tubules start appearing, and these tubules
get attached to chromosomes at the centromeres.
Chromosomes move actively, become shorter and
thicker and arrange themselves in the centre or on
the equator of the spindle.
Separation of the two chromatids from each
chromosomes also begins at the end of metaphase.
(d) Anaphase :
It is the third stage of mitosis.
Chromatids separate from each other at centromeres.
Separated sister chromatids, each with a centromere,
are called daughter chromosomes. They move to the
ends of opposite poles of the spindle.
Daughter chromosomes appear in V, U or J-shaped
during their movement towards the poles.
During the late anaphase stage, the cell starts
constricting in the middle region.
(e) Telophase :
Telophase is the last stage of mitotic cell division.
Chromatids or daughter chromosomes are now at
the end of the spindle.
Nuclear membranes and nucleoli reform around each
group of chromosomes and thus two new nuclei are
reorganized at each pole.
Chromosomes begin to lose their compact structure.
Spindle apparatus disappears gradually.
5.2 Karyokinesis :
Division of nucleus is called karyokinesis and, the
process of the division of cytoplasm is called cytokinesis.
In animal cells, a circular constriction appears at the
equator, the constriction deepens and eventually
divides the cell into two.
In plant, there is no constriction. A cell plate or new
cell wall forms across the cell resulting in the
separation of two daughter cells.
Significance of Mitosis :
Mitosis occurs during the growth and development
of multicellular plants and animals.
Mitosis ensures that the two daughter cells inherit
the same number of chromosomes.
It helps the cell in maintaining proper size.
In unicellular organisms mitosis helps in asexual
reproduction during which two or more individuals
arise from the mother cell.
If mitosis becomes uncontrolled it may cause tumour
or cancerous growth.
(A) INTERPHASE
(B) EARLYPROPHASE
(F) TELOPHASE
(E)ANAPHASE
(C) LATEPROPHASE
(D)METAPHASE
VARIOUSSTAGESOFMITOSIS
BIOLOGY
5.3 Meiosis
Meiosis is also called reduction division
because the chromosomes in this division are
reduced from the diploid to the haploid number.
Meiosis occurs in all organisms which reproduce
sexually.
Meiosis produces haploid sex cells from diploid cells.
Meiosis involves two cell division, viz., meiosis I
and meiosis II.
In meiosis I, the replicated homologous
chromosomes pair with each other on the spindle,
cross over and then separate to either end of the
spindle.
On the other hand, in meiosis II, the chromatids of
each chromosome move towards the centromere, and
these chromatids separate at each end of the second
spindle.
As a result of this process, a diploid cell divides to
form four haploid cells.
First Meiosis Division :
First meiosis division is actually the reduction division.
It consists of prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I and
telophase I.
(a) Prophase I :
Prophase I is the longest phase of meiosis and
includes five sub-phases.
(i) Leptotene :
This is the first stage in the first meiosis prophase.
In this stage, the chromosomes appear as separate
thin and fine thread-like structures.
(ii) Zygotene :
Homologous chromosomes come together, or
arrange themselves side by side in pairs to form
bivalents.
This pairing of homologous chromosomes
during zygotene in the first meiosis prophase is
called synapsis.
(iii)Pachytene :
The bivalents or chromosomes become shorter and
thicker.
They replicate or split into chromatids but remain
linked at the centromeres.
Each bivalent thus now consists of four chromatids.
Crossing over between non-sister chromatids of
homologous pair takes place.
(iv) Diplotene :
The centromeres of paired chromosomes or bivalents
move away from each other and crossing over can
also be seen.
The points in a bivalent where the two chromosomes
appear to be joined and crossed over are called
chiasmata.
Chiasmata formation and crossing over are the
distinguishing features of diplotene.
(v) Diakinesis :
This is the last stage of first meiosis prophase.
The chromosomes become shortest and thickest.
Terminalisation of chiasmata.
Nuclear membrane starts disintegrating. Nucleolus
also disintegrates. Diakinesis followed by metaphase
I.
(b) Metaphase I :
Nuclear membrane disappears completely at the
beginning of metaphase I.
Pairs of homologous chromosomes are lined up at
the centre.
Spindle apparatus starts appearing. Few spindle
fibres get attached with the centromeres of
chromosomes.
Metaphase I change into anaphase I.
(c) Anaphase I :
Partners of homologous chromosomes separate
completely and move to opposites poles of spindle
during anaphase I, which in turn changes into
telophase I.
BIOLOGY
(d) Telophase I :
The separated partners of homologous chromosomes
collect at the poles of the spindle and nuclear
membranes form around them. Two daughter haploid
nuclei are thus formed. The chromosomes lengthen
as they uncoil. Nucleoli start reappearing.
Second Meiosis Division :
Like mitosis, the second meiosis divisions also consists
of four phases, i.e. prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase
II and telophase II.
(A)LEPTOENE
(B)ZYGOTENE
(C)PACHYTENE
(D)DIPLOTENE
MEIOSISI
First Meiotic Prophase (Prophase I)
(E)DIAKINESIS
MEIOSISII
(F)METAPHASEI
(J) SPERMATIDS (I)ANAPHASEII
(H) PROPHASEII
(G)ANAPHASEI
DIFFERENTSTAGESOFMEIOSIS
BIOLOGY
Prophase II :
In both the haploid nuclei, each chromosome splits
up into two chromatids with a single functional
centromere. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus
disintegrate partially or completely.
Metaphase II :
The chromatids arrange themselves at metaphase
plate or spindle.
Anaphase II :
During anaphase II, the centromere splits. The two
chromatids belonging to each chromosomes may
now be called chromosomes and pass to the two
opposite poles of spindle.
Telophase II :
The haploid set of chromosomes at two different
poles of spindle uncoil and form chromatin material.
Nuclear membrane forms around each haploid set of
chromosomes. Nucleolus also reappears.
Significance of Meiosis :
Meiosis results in the formation of haploid gametes
(sperm and ovum)
The phenomenon of crossing over provides new
combinations of chromosomes and, hence new
combinations of genes and also of characters in
offspring.
The four chromatids of a homologous pair
of chromosomes are passed on to four
different daughter cells. This is called the
segregation of chromosomes. This causes
genetic variations in daughter cells.
Failure of meiosis leads to the formation of diploid
gametes which on fusion form polyploids.
6. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MITOSIS AND
MEIOSIS CELL DIVISION ::
Special Note :
Besides mitosis and meiosis, there is also a third type of
division. It is called amitosis. It is a direct division of
the nucleus by constriction.
S.No. Mitosis Meiosis
1 It occurs in all somatic cells.
It occurs in reproductive cells (germcells
or sexcells)
2
In the resultant daughter cells, the number
of chromosomes remains the same (i.e.
diploid) hence called equational division.
In resultant daughter cells the number of
chromosomes reduces to half (i.e. haploid)
hence, called reductional division.
3
By mitosis two daughter cells are
produced.
By meiosis, four daughter cells are
produced.
4
During mitosis no crossing over takes
place.
During meiosis crossing over take place.
5
Daughter cells have identical
chromosomes which are also identical to
that of parent cell (i.e., remains constant)
Chromosomes of the daughter cells are
with combined components (genes) of
both parents (i.e. genetic variability occurs)
BIOLOGY
A. VERYSHORTANSWER TYPES QUESTIONS
Q.1 What is full form of ATP ?
Q.2 What is the main functions of mitochondria ?
Q.3 Name the cell organelle present in animal cell &
absent in plant cell ?
Q.4 What are two types of cell division ?
Q.5 Give two main differences between equational
and reductional divisions ?
Q.6 Write three differences between plants cell and
animal cell ?
Q.7 What is the structural and functional unit of life ?
Q.8 Which type of cell division is responsible for the
formation of pollen grains or gametes?
Q.9 Name the largest cell ?
Q.10 Who formulated cell theory ?
B. SHORTANSWER TYPES QUESTIONS
(About 3040 word)
Q.11 Write down four main differences between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
Q.12 Distinguish between ribosome and centrosome.
Q.13 What is Interphase in cell cycle.
Q.14 Distinguish between mitosis and meiosis.
Q.15 What is its significance of mitosis and meiosis.
Q.16 Differentiate between nucleus, nucleolus and
nucleoplasm.
Q.17 Differentiate between cilia and flagella ?
Q.18 Which cell organelle is called digestive bag ?
Why is it called so.
Q.19 What is a gene ? What is its significance ?
Q.20 Which organelle is called power house of a
cell ? Describe its function in brief.
C. LONGANSWER TYPES QUESTIONS
(More than 6070 word)
Q.21 Represent the various stages of mitosis with the
help of labelled diagrams ?
Q.22 Discuss prophase - I of meiosis ?
D. FILLINTHE BLANKS
Q.23 Protoplasm term was coined by ..................
Q.24 Number of chromosomes in human body cell is
..................
Q.25 The division of nucleus is called ..................
Q.26 Cell is the basic .................. and ................. unit of
all living organisms.
Q.27 Ribosomes are concerned with the synthesis of
..................
E. TRUEORFALSE
Q.28 The oxysomes are called F
1
particles.
Q.29 Two daughter cells are produced in meiosis.
Q.30 Second meiosis division resembles very much
with the mitosis.
Q.31 Prophase-I of meiosis is of longer duration than
prophase of mitosis.
Q.32 Flagella are smaller than cilia.
EXERCISE - 1
BIOLOGY
Q.33 Colourless plastids are called leucoplasts.
Q.34 Ribosomes are called power house of cell.
Q.35 Number of chromosome in human sperm or ovum
is 23.
Q.36 All eukaryotic cells bear a definite nucleus.
Q.37 Plasma membrane is the outermost protective
layer in cells of all plants and animals.
F. DIAGRAMMATICQUESTIONS
Q.38 Draw a labelled diagram of animal cell showing
nucleus and major organelles ?
Q.39 Label the figure for (A E) .
G. SINGLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Q.40 Who proposed the Structure of DNA -
(A) Schleiden and Schwann
(B) Watson and Crick
(C) Darwin and Wallace
(D) Mendel and morgan
Q.41 Centrosome is found in -
(A) Cytoplasm (B) Nucleus
(C) Chromosomes (D) Nucleolus
Q.42 Site of oxidative phosphorylation is -
(A) Ribosomes (B) Golgi apparatus
(C) Mitochondria (D) Endoplasmic reticulum
Q.43 Which one is called the digestive bags -
(A) Centrosome (B) Lysosome
(C) Mesosome (D) Chromosome
Q.44 Ribosomes are the centre for -
(A) Respiration (B) Photosynthesis
(C) Protein synthesis (D) Fat synthesis
Q.45 Detoxification is performed by -
(A) Plasma membrane (B) Cell membrane
(C) SER (D) RER
Q.46 The network of endoplasmic reticulum is present
in the -
(A) Nucleus (B) Nucleolus
(C) Cytoplasm (D) Chromosomes
Q.47 The membrane surrounding the vacuole of a plant
cell is called -
(A) Tonoplast (B) Plasma membrane
(C) Nuclear membrane (D) Cell wall
Q.48 Centriole is associated with -
(A) DNA synthesis (B) Reproduction
(C) Spindle formation (D) Respiration
Q.49 Polymorphic cell organelle is -
(A) Lysosome (B) Ribosome
(C) Centrosome (D) Chromosome
H. MATCHTHECOLUMNS
Q.50 Column - I Column - II
1. Tonoplast a. Protoplasm
2. Schleiden and b. Sun light
Schwann
3. Suicide bags c. Inheritance
4. Purkinje d. Lipid synthesis
5. Cellulose e. Cell theory
6. ATP f. Vacuoles
7. Mitochondria g. Lysosomes
8. Chromosomes h. F1 particle
9. Chloroplast i. Glucose polymer
10. SER j. Energy currency
k. Protein synthesis
l. Excretory
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
BIOLOGY
I. ASSERTION-REASONTYPEQUESTIONS
The following questions consist of two statement
each : assertion (A) and reason (R). To answer these
questions, mark the correct alternative as described
below :
(a) If both A and R are true and R is the correct
explanation of A.
(b) If both A and R are true but R is not correct
explanation of A.
(c) If A is false but R is true.
(d) If both A and R are false.
Q.51 A : Lysosomes are called Suicidal bags.
R : A large number of hydrolytic enzymes are
present in lysosomes.
Q.52 A : Meiosis associated with somatic cells.
R : Chromosome number is reduced to half by
meiotic division.
Q.52 A : Meiosis-I called heterotypic (reduction)
divisions.
R : It halves the chromosome number in the
daughter cells.
Q.54 A : Meiosis produces gametes in all organisms.
R : Mitosis and meiosis have nothing in common.
Q.55 A : Crossing over occurs the pachytene stage of
meiosis-I
R : Crossing over introduces genetic variation in
the cells.
J. VISUALTYPEQUESTIONS
Q.56 Identify following stages of cell division.
(a) Stage name [ ? ] (b) Stage name [ ? ]
(c) Stage name [ ? ] (d) Stage name [ ? ]
(e) Stage name [ ? ] (f) Stage name [ ? ]
Q.57 Identify and label the following figure
(1-3).
Q.58 Identify and label (1-5) the following given figure.
Figure name [ ? ]
3
2
1
Figure name [ ? ]
1
2
3
4
5
BIOLOGY
A. SINGLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Q.1 Fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane was
given by
(A) Robertson
(B) Gorter and Grendel
(C) Singer and Nicolson
(D) Danielli and Davson
Q.2 Cell membrane is
(A) Semipermeable
(B) Permeable
(C) Selectively permeable
(D) Impermeable
Q.3 Mitochondria are the seat of :
(A) Electron transport
(B) Cellular respiration
(C) ATP formation
(D) All of these
Q.4 Grana and stroma lamella occur in
(A) Ribosome (B) Chloroplast
(C) Mitochondria (D) Golgi body
Q.5 Rough endoplasmic reticulum differs from smooth
walled endoplasmic reticulum due to the presence
of
(A) DNA (B) Nucleus
(C) Riobosomes (D) Ergastic substance
Q.6 Golgi bodies take part in
(A) Lipid synthesis
(B) Protein synthesis
(C) Carbohydrate synthesis
(D) Oxidative phosphorylation
Q.7 Protein synthesis occurs on -
(A) Ribosome (B) Nucleus
(C) lysosome (D) Centrosome
Q.8 Microfilaments are composed mainly of a protein
called
(A) Actin (B) Myosin
(C) Tubulin (D) Keratin
Q.9 Basis component of cell membrane :
(A) protein
(B) Carbohydrates
(C) Proteins and lipids
(D) Carbohydrates and lipids
B. MULTIPLE CHOICEQUESTIONS
Q.10 Lysosomes are called suicidal bags because they
contain -
(A) Catabolic enzyme
(B) Hydrolytic enzymes
(C) Food vacuoles
(D) Acidic enzyme
Q.11 Organelle within a organelle is -
(A) Ribosome (B) Lysosome
(C) Chloroplast (D) DNA
Q.12 Which is a function of ER -
(A) Nucleus (B) Mechanical support
(C) Raphide (D) Exchange of molecules
Q.13 Krebs cycle occurs in -
(A) Matrix of mitochondria
(B) Nucleoplasm
(C) Cytoplasm
(D) Protoplasm
Q.14 Which one of the following has a single
membrane -
(A) Nucleus (B) Ribosomes
(C) Sphaerosome (D) Mitochondrion
EXERCISE - 2
BIOLOGY
C. PASSAGE BASED QUESTIONS
PASSAGE 1 (Q.15 TO Q. 17)
A cell with 46 chromosome divides twice to form 4
cells with 23 chromosomes each.
Q.15 Name the type of division & cell involved ?
Q.16 Name the two divisions in above case ?
Q.17 What is the significance of such division ?
PASSAGE 2 (Q.18 TO Q. 19)
During a observation in cell division pairing of
homologous chromosome, crossing over & chiasmata
formation was observed.
Q.18 Which stage of the division is observed ?
Q.19 List the stages in their sequence and assign the
observations to them ?
BIOLOGY
A. VERYSHORTANSWER TYPES QUESTIONS
1. Adenosine triphosphate
2. The energy stored in ATP is used by the cell.
3. Centriole
4. Mitosis and Meiosis cell division.
5. In equational division the chromosome number is
soma whereas in redutional division will be
chromosome number is half.
6. Plant cell Animal cell
(i) Cell wall is present Absent
(ii) Large in size Small in size
(iii) Plant cells lack Present
centrioles and
centrosome
7. Cell 8. Meiosis
9. Egg of Ostrich 10. Schleiden and schwann.
D. FILLINTHE BLANKS
23. Purkinje 24. 46
25. Karyokinesis 26. Structural and functional
27. Proteins
E. TRUEORFALSE
28. True 29. False 30. True
31. True 32. False 33. True
34. False 35. True 36. True
37. False
G. SINGLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
40. B 41. A 42. C
43. B 44. C 45. C
46. C 47. A 48. C
49. A
H. MATCHTHECOLUMNS
51. 1-f ;2-e ; 3-g ; 4-a ; 5-i
6-j ; 7-h ; 8-c ; 9-b ; 10-d
H. ASSERTION-REASONTYPEQUESTIONS
51. a 52. c 53. a 54. d
55. b
EXERCISE -2
A. SINGLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. C 2. C 3. D 4. B
5. C 6.C 7. A 8. A
9. C
B. MULTIPLECHOICEQUESTIONS
10. B, D 11. A 12. B 13. A 14. B, C
C. PASSAGE BASED QUESTIONS
PASSAGE 1 (Q.15 TO Q. 20)
15. Meiosis and sex cell.
16. Meiosis I or reductional division.
Meiosi II or equational division.
17. After fertilization original number of chromosome is
restored.
PASSAGE 2 (Q.18 TO Q. 19)
18. Prophase - I of Meiosis -I.
19. a) Leptotene
b) Zygotene - Pairing of chromosome
c) Pachytene - Crossing over
d) Diplotene - Chiasmata formation
e) Diakinesis
ANSWER
EXERCISE -1