Child Sexual Abuse

Running head: CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE
Child Sexual Abuse: Parental Knowledge, Attitudes, and Communication Practices

Zeinab Allaw
James Cook University

CHILS SEXUAL ABUSE 2

Introduction
Child sexual abuse is an international problem and one of the most salient issues facing
communities today. In spite of efforts by researchers and the general public to establish a single
global definition of CSA, parties continue to differ in their definition of this societal problem.
Unlike other types of maltreatment such as physical abuse and neglect, the definition of CSA
continues to evolve and be debated.
Nevertheless, significant increases in incidence rates of CSA have been observed in some
countries e.g. Ireland and the United Kingdom over recent decades. According to recent national
figures from the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW, 2011), during 2007 and
2008, CSA made up 9.8% of all child abuse claims nationwide. Between 2009 and 2010, CSA
percentage increased to 12.7% of all child abuse claims nationwide. Based on the magnitude of
this social problem and its association with a range of health problems, CSA has been identified
as a significant public health problem by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(Hammond, 2003) and its prevention has been listed as a public health priority by the World
Health Organization (Krug Etal, 2002).
Unlike societys common stereotype, there is not one valid profile for all child molesters.
All ages, economic groups, levels of intelligence, races, and religions are represented in the
background of perpetrators of child sexual abuse (Hagans & Case, 1988). Statistics show that
most perpetrators are males (Fieldman & Crespi, 2002), although research has confirmed that
female perpetrators also exist and make up to 25% of all child sex abusers (Boroughs, 2004).
Females make up the majority of CSA victims (De Jong, Hervada, & Emmett 1983; Finkelhor,
1993; Magalhaes et al., 1998), however, males also make up an estimated 20% of all CSA

victims (Finkelhor, 1993). Research has also ascertained that the majority of perpetrators share a
relationship with their victims (Franslow & Robinson, 2007; Kendall-Tackett & Simon, 1987).
Fieldman and Crespi (2002) estimated that one of every four girls and one in ten boys
become victims of CSA. The Australian Institute of Criminology (2007) determined that the
majority of CSA for both males and females occurs between the ages of 10 and 14. Hence, it is
essential that these children are educated on the issue of CSA and given strategies with which to
protect themselves from potential predators. Whilst parents play the most prominent role in
education and protection of their children, safeguarding children against sexual abuse is
everybodys responsibility.
Such an approach acknowledges that CSA often leaks beyond the confines of the family
to impact on the wellbeing of the whole community (Stanley, 2010). It has been suggested that
ecological theory, which highlights the connections between the internal (family) and external
(community) worlds of a child, should be a central component to any intervention designed to
safeguard children (Jack & Gill, 2010). These authors also conclude that government policies
would be unachievable unless fundamental changes within the community, families, and
professions (Jack & Gill, 2010).
Community Awareness and Beliefs about Child Sexual Abuse
Researchers have attempted to investigate community knowledge and beliefs regarding
the issue of CSA. A study conducted by Leach, Fiscian, Kadzamira, Lemani, and Machakanja,
(2003) found that the majority of participants believed that girls are the sole victims of CSA.
Another study by Manni (2007) reported that almost half of the participants believed that male
victims are abused by homosexual offenders. In addition to stereotypes regarding gender and

sexual orientation, society also holds perceptions about the acts which constitute CSA. In
addition to obvious gaps in societys factual knowledge regarding CSA, the public tends to hold
beliefs about CSA. For example, some people think children are too young to understand abusive
acts which may occur to them and hence do not experience any lasting impairment from the
abuse (Manni, 2007). Another common belief is that children tend to lie and fantasize about
sexual abuse and that it is unlikely for CSA to go unnoticed by at least one family member.
Furthermore, some believe that only children from low socio-economic backgrounds are sexually
abused. The reality is that 94% of sexual abuse claims are substantiated (Goddard & Tucci,
2008) , and the psychological effects of CSA are often severe and lifelong. Child sexual abuse
does not discriminate by social class or race but occurs in every community.
Child sex offenders often go to considerable lengths to hide their abusive behavior
through strategies such as gaining the trust of the family, silencing the victim through physical
and emotional coercion, and lying to the victim that their parents are aware of and approve of the
abuse (Berliner & Conte, 1990, as cited in Fieldman & Crispi, 2002). Arguably, the most
common societal belief is that child sex offenders are typically strange old men with poor mental
health who lurk around school yards offering candy to children. However, the truth is that
perpetrators of sexual abuse are often individuals who cannot be clearly distinguished from other
people (Bass & Davis, 2008).

Parental Knowledge and Beliefs about Child Sexual Abuse
In addition to investigating societal knowledge and beliefs regarding the issue of CSA,
research has also explored parental CSA knowledge and beliefs. Several studies have shown that

parents tend to underestimate the prevalence of CSA (Elrod & Rubin, 1993; Tutty, 1993). Whilst
it is difficult to assess the accuracy of knowledge about the incidence, as statistics may be
unreliable due to under reporting, research has highlighted that parental estimates of prevalence
are broad. Other studies have demonstrated that some parents appear unaware that boys can
become victims of sexual abuse and females can be sexual perpetrators of abuse (Chen & Chen,
2005; Chen, Dunne, & Han, 2007; Tang & Yan, 2004). Parents have also been shown to believe
their children are at little or no risk of sexual abuse (Babatsikos, 2010; Finkelhor, 1984; Collins,
1996). Some parents have justified their beliefs by stating that they trusted the people with whom
their children associated and believed their children would tell them if something untoward
happened (Babatsikos, 2010).
Despite research showing that the majority of victims share a relationship with their
abuser, many parents continue to think that strangers pose the greatest threat to their children. In
a number of studies, less than 50% of parents said that abusers were likely to know their victims
(Berrick, 1998; Chen, et al. 2007; Chen & Chen, 2005). Other studies, however, report that
almost all parents surveyed said it was incorrect that most victims are abused by strangers
(Herbert, Lavoie, & Parent, 2002; Tutty, 1993).
Another group of studies has explored whether parents have sufficient knowledge to
identify the symptoms of CSA. Several studies conducted in the US, Canada, and China have
found that the majority of adults believe that CSA results in physical injuries in all cases (Chen
& Chen 2005, Tang & Yan, 2004; Tutty, 1993). On the other hand, Reppucci, Jones, and Cook
(1994) report that 95% of parents surveyed knew that physical evidence could be absent in some
cases of CSA. These findings are similar to those of Herbert, Lavoie, and Parent (2002) who
found that approximately 93% of parents are aware that physical evidence is not the sole

indicator of CSA. According to Berricks (1998) study, parents responded to questions regarding
warning signs of abuse by stating that they would know something was wrong with their children
by their behavior and would see it in their eyes. Such deficiency in knowledge among parents,
coupled with high levels of under reporting by victims, are possibly the main reasons why most
cases of CSA go undetected (Wurtele & Kenny, 2010; Babatsikos, 2010).
Researchers have also found that many parents are skeptical of claims of abuse by
children and feared that children might invent stories of abuse (Berrick, 1998). Surveys in China,
for example, show that many parents doubt that children should be believed when reporting
abuse with only 40% of parents surveyed agreeing that reports of abuse should be believed. In
contrast, other researchers have found that nearly all parents agree that children should be
believed when reporting cases of abuse (e.g., Tutty, 1993). In addition to questioning the
reliability of childrens account of abuse, parents have also been found to blame children for the
abuse. A Botswana and Swaziland study by Mathoma, Maripe-Perera, Khumalo, Mbayi, and
Seloilwe (2006) found that most parents believed that the victims and their parents deserved to
be blamed for the abuse due to the children dressing provocatively and the parents failing to
guide their children appropriately.
Parent Education of Children on Child Sexual Abuse
Previous research has attempted to explore whether parents discuss the topic of CSA with
their children. Whilst some studies have reported that 59-79% of parents discussed this issue
with their children (Deblinger et al., 2010; Wurtele, & Miller-Perrin, 1992), other studies have
shown that parents do not have adequate information on the topic of CSA and as a result, tend to
defer to several common societal myths (Roberts & Miltenberger, 1999).

Misconceptions such as these appear to affect the education that parents provide to their
children about CSA. Most parents describe child molesters as strangers (Chen & Chen, 2005;
Deblinger et al., 2010) or dirty old men (Morison & Greene, 1992) with only a few parents
warning that members of the family, trusted acquaintances or teenagers are potential CSA
perpetrators (Finkelhor, 2008). Parents also report warning their children against being lured by
strangers into cars , but very few parents report warning their children about perpetrators using
threats, tricks, or grooming tactics. Most concerning is the finding by Chen and Chen (2005) that
21% of parents did not believe that males can be victims of CSA, and as a result, most of the
parents surveyed only shared information regarding CSA with their daughters.
Deblinger et al., (2010) investigated what parents tell their children to do in case of
sexual abuse. Common responses included telling their child to say no, to try to get away, fight
back, and to tell a parent about the incident. Parents rarely told their children to tell more than
one adult and, as children are often not believed when disclosing abuse, it is essential that
children be encouraged to tell numerous adults. In a study from Hong Kong, (Tang & Yan, 2004)
35.6% of parents said that sexual abuse was shameful and that children should not tell anyone.
The failure of parents to educate their children on the topic of CSA can partly be
attributed to a lack of knowledge and education regarding CSA. In the study by Chen and Chen
(2005), seven percent of the parents surveyed reported that their guardians had educated them on
the issue of CSA , and six percent reported that their teachers had provided them with
information. Other studies identify that the media is the main source of information on CSA for
parents (Bass & Davis, 2008; Lowenstein, 2011). Some studies report that parents who discussed
CSA with their children had completed more education than those who did not discuss it
(Wurtele, & Miller-Perrin, 1992) whereas other studies failed to find this link (Chen et al., 2007;

Deblinger et al., 2010). Another reason why parents fail to educate their children about CSA may
be because they are reluctant to talk about the topic. Sixty-five percent of parents in Finkelhors
(1984) study and 47% of parents in Wurtele and Miller-Perrins (1992) study stated that it had
not occurred to them.
A large proportion of these parents also believed that their children were too young to
understand and 54% of parents stated they did not want to frighten their children. In studies from
China, over 45% of parents feared that talking to children about CSA would lead to them
knowing too much about sex (Chen et al., 2007; Chen & Chen, 2005). A lack of knowledge,
vocabulary, confidence, and learning aids were identified by one sample of parents as deterrents
(Wurtele & Miller-Perrin, 1992). A number of studies have shown that parents consider sexual
abuse as more difficult to discuss than sexual intercourse, homosexuality, suicide, death and even
abortion (Finkelhor, 1984).
As a result of these factors, educational programs have been developed to help parents
educate their children on this sensitive but important topic (Bass & Davis, 2008). The
involvement of parents in educational programs regarding CSA, is critical to the success of such
programs as parents need to implement prevention strategies in the home by educating their
children about CSA. Sadly though, it appears that most parents are unwilling to attend such
programs. Studies conducted in the US show that attendance rates at such programs by parents
ranged from 6.4% (Wurtele & Miller-Perrin, 1992) to 27% (Pullins & Jones, 2006). Factors that
affected parents decisions to attend programs included interest in the topic, usefulness of the
information, having the time available to attend, the source of the referral to the program,
availability of child care, and travelling distance to the program (Elrod & Rubins, 1993)

Study and Hypotheses
The current study aimed to build on previous research by exploring whether knowledge
of CSA, in combination with attitudes regarding communicating with children about CSA, would
influence parents educational practices with their children about CSA. First, it was hypothesized
that the majority of participants would have limited and largely inaccurate knowledge of CSA.
Second, it was hypothesized that the majority of participants would endorse negative attitudes
towards communicating with their children about CSA.
Third, it was hypothesized that parents who have inaccurate knowledge and negative
attitudes towards communication practices are less likely to communicate with their children
about CSA. Lastly, it was considered that parents who have accurate knowledge and positive
attitudes towards communication practices are more likely to communicate with their children
about CSA. By identifying the gaps in communication practices and knowledge that parents are
imparting to their children, this research aims to assist the development of future educational
programs and identify factors which may encourage parents to participate in such programs.
Method
Participants
The study sample consisted of sixty participants who identified as parents. Participants
ages ranged between 26 and 62, and their average age was 40.08 years (SD = 10.45). Twenty-
two participants were male and 38 were female. Thirty-four participants identified as Christians
(57.6%), 21 as Muslim (35.6%), and the remaining five indicated other religious affiliations but
did not specify. In terms of ethnicity, four (6.8%) were Western European, two (3.4%) were
Southern and Eastern European, 31 (52.5%) were North African and Middle Eastern, and one

was Southeast Asian. None of the participants admitted to a history of CSA. Data collection was
facilitated through the Survey Monkey website although participants were recruited through
social networking sites such as Facebook.
Materials
Questionnaire: The questionnaire used in this study was adapted from questionnaires
used in previous studies to determine parental knowledge and attitudes towards discussing CSA
with children (Chen & Chen, 2005, Finkelhor, 1994; Finkelhor & Strapko, 1992; Tutty, 1993).
The final questionnaire included 29 items in total. Eight questions assessed parents knowledge
about CSA (e.g., women are usually behind (blank) of child sexual abuse cases), eight
questions measured parents attitudes towards discussing CSA with children (e.g., discussing
child sexual abuse is beneficial for our children), and eight questions explored parental
educational practices with their children about CSA (e.g., discussing child sexual abuse with
our children can help to protect them). A four point likert type scale was used to measure
parents responses. Demographic characteristics of participants including gender, age, religion
ethnicity and history of sexual abuse as a child were also recorded (see Appendix B). As the
present study developed a new questionnaire based on a number of previous measures of parental
attitudes and communication regarding CSA, this questionnaire has not been standardized nor
has it established psychometric properties.
Procedure
The study was advertised through online social networking and participation was
facilitated via the Survey Monkey website. The questionnaire was uploaded onto Survey
Monkey along with a brief description of the aims of the research study. Parents were informed

that their participation was voluntary and thus could pull out any time. Due to the sensitive
nature of the topic, participants were provided with contact details for appropriate counseling and
support services such as Lifeline. Participants were then provided with the online questionnaire
and they were encouraged not to discuss the topic study with anyone else. Data were collected
over a three month period until the target number of 60 participants was reached.
Data were analyzed using multiple regressions. Because the present study adopted the
questionnaire from previous measures of parental attitudes and communication, inter-item
correlations as well as a reliability measure (Cronbachs Alpha) were conducted.
Results
To establish a clear relationship between all variables, this including parental awareness,
education and attitudes, a statistical Program for the Social Sciences (SPSS) needed to be used
for a good statistical analyses. Pearson correlations were obtained for all the questionnaire items
which contributed to the three variables in the study: knowledge, attitudes, and communication
practices. The assumptions of normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity were not violated. The
results of the Pearson product-moment correlations (see Table 1) show moderately strong
positive and negative correlations among the majority of the items measuring parental
knowledge. These significant relationships are found between items 1 and 2, 1 and 5, and 7, 2
and 6, 4 and 5, 5 and 6, 5 and 7, and 7 and 8. The correlation between items 7 and 8 was the
strongest (r = .773, n = 59, p < 0.001). A Cronbachs Alpha of 0.31 was computed for this
measure.
Table 1
Pearson Correlation Coefficients of Questionnaire Items for Parental Knowledge

Item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 r
N
2 r .484**
N 60
3 r .166 -.066
N 60 60
4 r -.019 .019 .094
N 60 60 60
5 r -.294* -.029 .025 -.401**
N 60 60 60 60
6 r .101 .363** .086 -.062 .349**
N 60 60 60 60 60
7 r -.328* .024 .005 -.130 .350** .163
N 60 60 60 60 60 60
8 r -.192 .006 .080 -.058 .275* .244 .773**
N 59 59 59 59 59 59 59

Note: **p < 0.001, *p < 0.05
There were also significant correlations among the questionnaire items measuring
communication practices of participants (see Table 2). The highest inter-item correlations were
observed between items 11 and 16 (r = .555, n = 59, p < 0.001), 10 and 12 (r = .510, n = 57, p <
0.001), 13 and 14 (r = .500, n = 60, p < 0.001), and 13 and 15 (r = .450, n = 60, p < 0.001). These
items resulted in a Cronbach Alpha of 0.65.
Table 2
Pearson Correlation Coefficients of Questionnaire Items for Parent Communication Practices
Item 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
9 R
N
10 R -.084
N 58
11 R .417** .275*
N 59 57
12 R .128 .510** .370**
N 59 57 59
13 R -.191 .424** .247 .301*

N 60 58 59 59
14 R -.120 .367** .268* .118 .500**
N 60 58 59 59 60
15 R -.427** .231 -.270* .056 .450** .299*
N 60 58 59 59 60 60
16 R 0.62 .406** .555** .386** .333** .350** -.050
N 60 58 59 59 60 60 60
Note: **p < 0.001, *p < 0.05
Several of the items measuring parental attitudes were also strongly correlated (see Table 3).
These include items 23 and 24 (r = .669, n = 58, p < 0.001), items 17 and 21 (r = .645, n = 59, p
< 0.001), and items 18 and 22 (r = .596, n = 59, p < 0.001). These items produced a Cronbachs
Alpha of 0.60.
Table 3
Pearson Correlation Coefficients of Questionnaire Items for Parental Attitudes
Item 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
17 R
N
18 R .407**

N 59
19 R -.055 -.025
N 59 58
20 R .038 .125 .334*
N 58 57 57
21 R .645** .524** -.193 .052
N 59 58 58 58
22 R .258* .596** -.089 .025 .502**
N 60 59 59 58 59
23 R -.008 -.069 -.003 .045 .234 .269*
N 59 58 58 57 58 59
24 R .138 .086 -.117 -.122 .320* .428** .669**
N 59 58 58 57 58 59 58
Note: **p < 0.001, *p < 0.05
Results Analysis
Here, the study aims to show the relationship of the results documented to those that were
attained on the ground (by the survey). This includes the various responses from the participant
on the items contained in the questionnaire. It is important to note that it is these items and their

responses that are being considered as the variables, to which the relationship is established
through relations such as the Pearson correlation. The documentation of such responses and their
relationship among different groups that were involved could not be achieved, unless through a
proper tabling method. Thus the tables used aim at showing the existing relationships between all
the research components. Moreover, the tables assist in documentations and establishment of the
mathematical relationships between the research components. Among these correlations
established by the study are the coefficients of Questionnaire Items for Parental Knowledge,
Questionnaire Items for Parent Communication Practices and the Questionnaire Items for
Parental Attitudes.
To establish all the above relations, multiple regression analysis was conducted in order
to determine whether knowledge and attitudes towards communication practices predict the
likelihood of communication practices among parents. The total scores of participants on the
items measuring parental attitudes and knowledge of CSA were used as predictors of the scores
on items measuring communication practices. The results of the analysis showed that only
parental attitudes significantly predicted communication practices among participants, = .390,
t (58) = 5.064, p < 0.05. The R2 statistic indicates that 30.7% of the variance in communication
practices is accounted for by the combined predictor variables (R2 = .307, F (1, 58) = 25.645, p <
0.05). Moreover, descriptive analysis was carried out on various aspects such as participants
responses, communication practices between parents and their children and the ability of the
parents to discuss the matters of CSA with their children.
Participants responses

Descriptive analysis was conducted to analyses the responses of the participants. The
results showed that 43.3% of participants believed that children were most likely to be sexually
abused by a family member than a stranger (33.3%). The majority of the parents (53.3%) also
believed that perpetrators of CSA were more likely to be a family member. Eighty-eight percent
of participants believed that men make up the majority of CSA perpetrators and 56% admitted
that they were not sure how many cases involved female perpetrators. In terms of age, 60% of
participants believed that children are usually victimized between the ages of six and 10, which
is also consistent with the finding that 81.7% believed that perpetrators are more likely to target
victims between the ages of six and 10. The majority (53.3%) of participants agreed that girls are
more likely to be victimized than boys.
Communication practices between parents and children analysis
Twenty three percent of participants reported that they talk to their children about CSA
while 41.7% said they talk about it only when needed. Twenty-five percent of participants stated
that they talk to their children about CSA yearly, 25% every six months, 21.7% on only one
occasion, and 25% said they have never spoken to their children about CSA. Most parents (75%)
reported that they did not use any tools while talking to their children about CSA. However, of
the 23.7% of parents who did use tools, educational resources were the common tool used.
Thirty-three percent of participants stated that they discussed CSA on a one on one basis with
their children while 33.3% stated that they discussed CSA with the assistance of their partners.
Seventy-five percent of participants acknowledged that it would be preferable to discuss CSA
with their children with the assistance of their partners.

Of the total number of parents who participated in the study, 83.3% agreed that
discussing CSA with their children would help protect them. Seventy-three percent of the sample
agreed that protection of children from sexual abuse starts with parent-child communication, and
that talking to their children about CSA would be beneficial to their children. Only 21.7% said
that child abuse is a harmful topic to talk about with their children, while 13.3% said that it
should not be discussed at an early age. Eight-one percent believed that talking to children about
sexual abuse would be good for their children while 91.7% said that early awareness would lead
to the reduction of CSA incidents. Eighty-six percent of participants believed that children would
be able to protect themselves if they are equipped with a ready awareness regarding CSA.

Discussion
The research was conducted with the aim of establishing real answers that would serve as
a replacement to the beliefs and communal myths that for long periods of time remained
unchanged and proofed through a study research. Issues such as parental knowledge on CSA, the
communication abilities and the general attitude by which they held the issue of CSA, for long
remained just theories that could not be proofed. Also, the amount of knowledge held by the
children guardians was assumed and not established. Results of the analysis of participants
knowledge regarding CSA shows that parents have substantial and largely accurate information
regarding CSA. This is contrary to earlier beliefs that the parents held much information about
CSA, but much of it being false and fallacious. Despite earlier studys showing that most parents
held strong believe that family members posed minimal danger as possible perpetrators than
strangers, this study establishes that most parents believe that their children are more likely to be

abused by their relatives than the strangers. Such a revelation demonstrates that more parents are
much aware of possible threats and where to expect them from.
On some instances, the research confirms on initial beliefs. Such beliefs include the
assumption that that most of the perpetrators are males and most of the victims are female. The
research establishes this as real concept taken by most of the parents and which for most is true.
These are arrived at by clear comparison with earlier s studies such as (Faller, 1989; Vender
Mey, 1993; Magalhaes, et al., 1998; Chen & Chen, 2005; Wellman, 1993), which established
same realizations. Despite that realization, another revelation arrived at was the fact that most of
the participants were not aware or ignored the possibility of there being male victims and for
those who saw such a possibility, they assumed that the perpetrators then would be homosexuals.
There were merely any parents who saw a possibility of female perpetrators. This, however,
could be attributed to lack of knowledge and ignorance by the parents.
The study at large gives a different view from most of the studys done, that took a
conclusive view that parents lacked CSA educative knowledge and thus made misinformed
decisions. This study emphasizes that, it is not lack of knowledge that at times leads to
miscommunication between parents and their children, but rather the lack of communication
avenues from the parents to their children. The results of the study in terms of parental
knowledge of CSA did not support the first hypothesis, which disagree with the findings of
Roberts & Miltenberger (1999) who concluded that parents do not have adequate information on
the topic of CSA.
The results of a multiple regression analysis showed that attitudes towards CSA are a
significant predictor of communication practices among parents with their children. Similarly,

Babatsikos (2010) study suggested that parents who endorsed negative attitudes towards CSA,
in that they were sceptical of the claims of abuse by children, generally found it difficult to talk
with their children about CSA. Results of the present study appear to support this finding. The
current study suggests that parents who endorse positive attitudes about CSA are more likely to
talk to their children about it.
As for the second and third hypotheses of the study, they are supported in terms of
parental attitudes predicting parental communication practices, but were not supported in terms
of parental knowledge influencing parental communication practices. This is in great
disagreement with Dillenburgers (2006) study that sought to show that parental knowledge of
CSA significantly influenced communication practices between parents and children, this study
establish that parental knowledge is not a significant predictor of communication practices
between parents and children.
Limitations of the study
Given that these was a study that was being in an area that had been focused on by earlier
studies and that the study was being conducted online, then it follows that many limitations were
to occur. Firstly, was the limitation to a small number of respondents? This raises the chances of
error given that on a statistical research, for a higher chance approximation, the sample needs to
be as large as possible. This limitation however, could be attributed to the fact that the study was
done online and on voluntary basis. Moreover, the CSA is a topic most parents would rather not
talk about publicly or to a third party and thus making it hard to attain a large sample.
Secondly, time limitation was another major issue. Given that this was being done on
voluntary and online method, more time was to be allocated to allow for the worst case scenario,

where there would be few people willing and thus take long to attain the required sample size.
Thirdly, limited scope on some issues such as CSA and ethnicity, this can be attributed to the
fact that the respondents were mainly drawn from North Africa and the Middle East, thus failing
to give a larger scope based on the various global ethnic groups and religions. This is because,
even culture and religion may greatly influence parental attitude towards CSA, and subsequent
communication to their parents. It is also worth noting that the questionnaire at hand was adopted
from previous studies, and thus lacked validity on the items in CSA, and their relationship. When
reliability tests were conducted on the questionnaire, the variables produced very low values of
Cronbachs Alpha, which brings into question the reliability of the questionnaire used in this
study.
Future studies should thus seek to substantiate the findings of the present study and
emphasize the effects of parental knowledge on communication practices between parents and
children. It is also recommended that future studies utilize a standardized questionnaire to avoid
issues of weak reliability and validity. In addition, it is also recommended that future studies
include broader inclusion criteria in order to increase the generalizability of the study.

Conclusion
Based on the results of the study and their implications to the existing literature, this
study concludes that parents have substantial and largely accurate knowledge of CSA. However,
it is important to consider factors such as socioeconomic status, and cultural background when
investigating the role of parental knowledge. It is also concluded that parental attitudes regarding
CSA is a strong predictor of communication practices between parents and their children. Parents

who have negative attitudes towards CSA are less likely to communicate with their children
about the issue of CSA. Alternatively, parents who have positive attitudes towards CSA are more
likely to provide information about CSA to their children.

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APPENDIX A

INFORMATION SHEET
Child sex abuse: Parental knowledge, attitudes, and information practices.
You are invited to take part in a research project about parental knowledge, attitudes, and
communication practices with their children about Child Sexual Abuse (CSA). The study is
being conducted by Ms. Zeinab Allaw as part of her Masters Thesis which is a component of
her Master in Forensic Psychology Degree at James Cook University. You are asked to complete
a questionnaire that aims to investigate your knowledge, attitudes and Communication with your
children about CSA. The estimated time of participation in this study is approximately 15
minutes.

Taking part in this study is completely voluntary and you can stop taking part in the study
at any time without explanation or prejudice. You may also withdraw any unprocessed data from
the study.

Due to the sensitive nature of the topic and methods used to measure perceptions, this project has
the potential for participants to become distressed. If you feel the process of participating in this

project may cause you distress, please feel free to stop immediately. To have access to free
counseling services you can contact lifeline on 13 11 14 or visit the website www.lifeline.org.au
for more details on available counseling services.
Your responses and contact details will be strictly confidential. The data from the study may be
used in Research and journal publications. You will not be identified in any way in these
publications. If you have any questions about the study, please contact Ms. Zeinab Allaw or Dr
Garry Kidd.
Principal Investigator:
Zeinab Allaw
School of Psychology
Mobile: 0414699695
Email: zeinab.allaw@my.jcu.edu.au
Supervisor:
Name: Dr Garry Kidd
School of Psychology
Phone: (07) 4042 1627
Email: garry.kidd@jcu.edu.au

APPENDIX B
Research Questionnaire
1. Children are most likely to be sexually abused by a _______.
a. Stranger b. acquaintance c. family member d. not sure
2. Perpetrators who are more likely to abuse children would be a _____.
a. Stranger b. acquaintance c. family member d. not sure
3. Men are usually behind _________of Child sexual abuse.
a. Most cases b. nil cases c. all cases d. not sure
4. Women are usually behind __________of child sexual abuse.
a. Most cases b. nil cases c. all cases d. not sure

5. Children are most likely to be sexually abused between the ages of _____.
a. 10-14 b. 6-10 c. 12-16 d. below 6
6. Perpetrators are more likely to target victims between the ages of _____.
a. 10-14 b. 6-10 c. 12-16 d. below 6
7. Girls are victims of sexual abuse ___________.
a. More than boys b. less than boys c. equally to boys d. not sure
8. Boys are victims of sexual abuse __________.
a. More than boys b. less than boys c. equally to boys d. not sure
9. How often do you talk to your child about CSA?
a. Regularly b. never c. rarely d. when needed
10. I have spoken to my child about CSA___________
a. Yearly b. every six months c. once d. never
11. What tools do you use to teach your child about CSA?
a. Videos b. books c. pictures d. nothing
12. Where do you source your tools from?
a. Health services b. internet c. educational resources d. I dont use them
13. I discuss CSA with my child when I am_______________

a. By myself b. with my partner c. with a health professional d. no one
14. Who do you think is the best person to discuss it with?
a. With my partner b. with a health professional c. by myself d. no one
15. How would you describe your conversation with your child about CSA?
a. General b. vague c. specific d. silent
16. When discussing child sexual abuse with my child I am________________
a. Specific b. vague c. general d. silent
17. Discussing child sexual abuse with our children can help to protect them.
a. True b. slightly true c. not true d. I dont know
18. Protecting children from child sexual abuse starts with discussing it with them.
19. Child sexual abuse is a harmful topic.
a. Agree b. disagree c. can be d. I dont know
20. Child sexual abuse should not be discussed at an early age.
21. Discussing Child sexual abuse is beneficial for our children.

22. Children will benefit a lot if their parents will discuss child sexual abuse with them.
23. An early awareness will reduce the number of sexual abuse cases.
24. Children can protect themselves if they have early awareness about sexual abuse.

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Child Sexual Abuse: Parental Knowledge, Attitudes, and Communication Practices

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