227

Two-Phase Friction

Experimental data indicates that the frictional pressure drop in a boiling channel is substantially higher than that for
a single-phase channel with the same length and mass flow rate. Explanations for this include an apparent increased
surface roughness due to bubble formation on the heated surface and increased flow velocities. The standard
approach to correlating two-phase frictional losses is to assume the total system mass flow rate is due to a saturated
liquid and then multiply by an empirical correction factor
lo
2
called the two-phase multiplier. The local frictional
loss would then be
=

P
z
f
D
G
g
friction
f
e f c
o
2
2
2

l
(1)

A simple functional form for
lo
2
can be derived by assuming homogeneous flow. For a constant mass flux,
velocity increases in a boiling channel as density decreases. If we assume the increase in the frictional loss is due
solely to the increase in velocity, then

=

P
z
f
D
G
g
friction
f
e c
2
2
2
(2)

or

=

P
z
f
D
G
g
friction
f
e f c
f
2
2
2
(3)

such that the two phase multiplier is


lo
f 2
2
=

(4)

The two-phase density is defined as


2
= +
l f g g
(5)

where we have assumed the phases are at equilibrium. The volume fraction under the assumption of homogeneous
flow can be obtained from the Fundamental Void-Quality-Slip Relation

g
g
f
x
x
=
+

1
1
1
(6)

and

l
= =

+

1
1
1
1
g
g
f
g
f
x
x
x
x
( )
( )
(7)

The two-phase density is then
228

2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
=
+

+

+

=
+

g
g
f
g
g
f
g
g
f
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
( )
( )
( )
/
( )
(8)

2
1
=
+
g
g
f
x x ( )
(9)


1 1
2

= +
x x
g f
( )
(10)

Note, that Equation 10 implies

= + x x
g f
( ) 1 (11)

which is a familiar result. Substituting Equation 10 into Equation 4, gives


lo
f
g
f
g
x x x
2
1 1 1 = + = +

(12)
giving for the Homogeneous Multiplier

lo
fg
f
x
2
1 = +

(13)

This simple model suggests that the two-phase multiplier varies with quality and therefore position along the
channel. As an example, at 1000 psia
fg f
=19.6, which would imply
lo
2
increases rapidly with flow quality.
Typical flow qualities in steam generators and BWR cores are on the order of 10 to 20 %. The corresponding two-
phase frictional loss would then be 2 - 4 times that in an equivalent single-phase system.

In practice, the two-phase multiplier is given empirically as a function of pressure, flow and quality with a number
of correlations available in the literature. An alternate approach by Martinelli and Nelson correlates an average
value of the two-phase multiplier over the boiling height,


l l o o
x
x
dx
2 2
0
1
=

(14)

in terms of pressure and exit quality. The Martinelli-Nelson two-phase multiplier is given in Figure 1 below. The
total frictional drop in a boiling channel would then be the sum of the single-phase and two-phase components.

Forms or Local Losses

The two-phase pressure loss due to local flow obstructions is treated in a manner similar to the frictional losses. We
define a two-phase, local loss multiplier such that

P K
G
g
local
f c
=
2
2
(15)

229
For design purposes it has been found that the Homogeneous Multiplier given as Equation 13 does an adequate job
of correlating local two-phase losses.





Figure 1: Martinelli-Nelson Average Two-Phase Friction Multiplier
(Taken from Figure 11-16, Todreas and Kazimi)
230
Pressure Drop in a Two-Phase Channel

Consider a boiling channel of constant cross sectional area. We assume the fluid enters the channel subcooled, with
two phase flow beginning at some point H
o
up the channel. The point H
o
is called the non boiling height and is
equivalent to the bubble departure point. The total steady-state pressure drop in the channel can be obtained by
integrating the single and two-phase conservation equations up the channel.

Mixture Mass Equation

( )

z
GA GA m
x x
= = = 0 & constant
(1)

which for a uniform area channel implies G is constant.


Mixture Energy Equation


& ( ) m
h
z
q z

=
(2)

which may be integrated to give for the enthalpy distribution up the channel

h z h
m
q z dz
z
( ) ( )
&
( ) = +

0
1
0
(3)

Mixture Momentum Equation

1 1
2 2 2 2
2
g z
G x G x P
z
P
A
g
g
c g g
w w
x c

( )
+

=
l l
(4)

Integrate over the channel height

=

+

+ +

P
z
dz
g z
G x G x
dz
P
A
dz
g
g
dz
H
c g g
H
w w
x
H
c
H
0
2 2 2 2
0 0 0
1 1
2
( )
l l
(5)

and examine the integrals one at a time

Channel Pressure Drop

= =

P
z
dz P H P P
H
channel
0
0 [ ( ) ( )] (6)

Acceleration Pressure Drop

1 1
2 2 2 2
0
g z
G x G x
dz P
c g g
H
acceleration

( )
+

l l
(7)

The integral of the acceleration term is broken up into integrals over the boiling and non boiling heights,
such that
231

P
g z
G x G x
dz
g z
G
dz
acceleration
c g g
H
H
c
H
o
=

+

1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2
0
0

( )
l l l
(8)

{ }

=
+

=
in
exit
g g c
in d
c
d
exit
g g c
on accelerati
x x
g
G
g
G x x
g
G
P

2 2 2
2 2 2 2
) 1 (
) 1 (
l l
l l
l l
(9)


Friction and Forms Losses

The integrals of the friction and forms loss terms are also broken up into integrals over the boiling and non
boiling heights giving



w w
x
H
friction
w w
x
H
H
w w
x
H
P
A
dz P
P
A
dz
P
A
dz
o
o
0
2 2
0
1

= + (10)

Single Phase Component

w w
x
H
e c
j
j
j
c
H
P
A
dz
f
D
v
g
K z z
v
g
dz
o
o
0
2 2
0
2 2

= +

( ) (11)

c
H z
j
c e
o
H
x
w w
g
G
K
g
G
D
H f
dz
A
P
o j
o

2 2
2 2
0

+ (12)

where the average fluid properties are over the non boiling height H
o
.


Two-Phase Component




w w
x H
H
e c
o j
j
j
c
H
H
P
A
dz
f
D
v
g
K z z
v
g
dz
o
o

= +

2
2
2
2 2

l
( ) (13)

Assuming the fluid properties are equal to the saturation properties and constant over the boiling
height and letting H H H
B o
=

j
c f
H z
j
H
H
o
c f e
f
H
H x
w w
g
G
K dz
g
G
D
f
dz
A
P
B j
o o
+

2 2
2
2
2
l
(14)

232
f
D
G
g
dz
f H
D
G
g H
dz
f H
D
G
g
f
e f c
o
H
H
f B
e f c B
o
H
H
f B
e f c
o
o o
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
1
2

l l l

= = (15)

Note, the average two-phase multiplier in this development is the average over the boiling height and
as such is not strictly equal to the Martinelli-Nelson Multiplier. However, the Martinelli-Nelson
multiplier can be assumed a reasonable approximation. It can be shown, that if the quality varies
linearly over the boiling height, the Martinelli-Nelson multiplier is equivalent to that obtained by
averaging over the height.


c
H z
j
c e
o
j
c f
H z
j o
c f e
B f
friction
g
G
K
g
G
D
H f
g
G
K
g
G
D
H f
P
o j B j
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2


+ + + =
l
(16)

If the inlet subcooling is small, the friction and forms losses may be approximated as

+ +

+


o B
H j
j j
H j
j
c f
o B o
c f e
f
friction
K K
g
G
H H
g
G
D
f
P
2 2
2
2
2
l
(17)


Elevation Losses

P
g
g
H
elev
c
core
= (18)

The elevation losses require knowledge of the void distribution and typically require numerical integration.


The total channel pressure drop is the sum of the acceleration, friction, local (forms) and the elevation terms, i.e.

P P P P P
channel acceleration fricition local elev
= + + + (19)

and requires knowledge of the boiling and non boiling heights. In a simple single channel analysis under the
equilibrium model assumptions, the non boiling height is obtained directly from the energy balance

h h
m
q z dz
f
H
o
= +

( )
&
( ) 0
1
0
. (20)

Otherwise, the non boiling height is taken to be the bubble departure point and determined as described in earlier
sections.
233
Example:

A Boiling Water Reactor has operating characteristics given below. For the given data, determine the total core
pressure drop. Assume the heat flux is uniform axially, and the void fraction varies linearly over the boiling height.
You may also assume an equilibrium model for the flow quality.

Core Averaged Heat Flux 144,032 Btu/hr-ft
2

Active Fuel Height 150 inches
Bundle Height 176 inches
Rod Diameter 0.493 inches
Rod Pitch 0.640 inches
Mass Flux 1.42 x 10
6
lbm/hr-ft
2

Core Inlet Temperature 532 F
System Pressure 1035 psia
Grid Loss Coefficient 1
Number of Grids 7
Core Entrance and Exit Loss Coefficient 3.5

SOLUTION

The total core pressure drop can be determined from the integrated two-phase momentum equation and is the sum of
the acceleration, friction, local (forms) and the elevation terms, i.e.

P P P P P
channel acceleration fricition local elev
= + + + .

where:

=
in
exit
g g c
on accelerati
x x
g
G
P

2 2 2
) 1 (
l l
(1)

+
2
2
2
o B o
c f e
f
friction
H H
g
G
D
f
P
l

(2)

+


o B
H j
j j
H j
j
c f
local
K K
g
G
P
2
2
(3)

P
g
g
H
elev
c
core
= (4)

Acceleration Pressure Drop

To determine the acceleration drop, requires the quality and void fraction at the core exit. The inlet specific volume
is given directly in terms of the core inlet temperature, i.e.
in
F = = ( ) . 532 002123 ft /lbm
3
. To determine the
fluid conditions at the core exit requires the core exit enthalpy. This is obtained from the energy balance
h h
q DH
GA
exit in
x
= +

(5)


The flow area for an arbitrary flow channel is given by

234

A S D
in
x
=
=
=
2 2
2 2
2
4
0640 0493 4
0219

. ( )( . )/
.
(6)

For the given data, the core exit enthalpy is


h
Btu lbm
exit
= +

=
5268
144032 0 49312 15012
142 10 0219 144
6344
6
.
( , )( )( . )( )
( . )( . / )
. /

(7)

giving for the core exit quality


x
h h
h
exit
exit f
fg
=

=

=
6344 54785
64375
01344
. .
.
.
(8)

The core exit void fraction can be obtained from the Zuber-Findlay correlation

=
+

+
1
1
1
C
x
x
V
Gx
o
g g gj
l
. (9)

For high pressure steam water flows

C
o
=1.13 (10a)

V
gg
gj
c g
=

141
2
1
4
.
( )

l
l
(10b)

At 1035 psia, the drift velocity is


V
gg
ft
gj
c g
=

=
141
141
00013 3217 4605 2329
4605
0575
2
2
2
1
4
1
4
.
( )
.
( . )( . ) ( . . )
( . )
. /sec

l
l
(11)

giving for the core exit void fraction
235

=
+

+
=
+

=
1
1
1
1
113 1
2329
4605
1 01344
01344
2329 0575 3600
142 10 01344
0656
6
C
x
x
V
Gx
o
g g gj
l
( . )
( . )
( . )
.
.
( . )( . )
( . )( . )
.
(12)

The acceleration pressure drop is then


P
G
g
x x
lbf ft lbf in
acceleration
c g g
exit
in
=

+

= =
2 2 2
6 2
8
2 2
2 2
1
142 10
417 10
1 01344
1 0656 4605
01344
0656 2329
002123
1832 127
( )
( . )
( . )
( . )
( . )( . )
( . )
( . )( . )
.
. / . /


l l
(13)

Frictional Pressure Drop

The frictional drop is in terms of the friction factor f which is a function of the Reynolds number, the non boiling
height and the two-phase friction multiplier. A reasonable approximation for the friction factor in rod bundles is the
friction factor in smooth tubes from the Moody Chart. The Reynolds number is

Re=
GD
e

. (14)

The equivalent diameter is
D
A
P
S D
D
e
x
w
= =
4 4 4
2 2
[ / ]

(15)

D in
e
= =
4 0219
0493
05656
( . )
( . )
.

(16)

giving for the Reynolds number
Re
( . )( . / )
.
, =

=
142 10 05656 12
023
290997
6
. (17)

From the Moody Chart, f 00145 . . The non boiling height is given by


( )
( )
H
m h h
q D
ft
o
f
=

=

=
& ( )
( . )( . / ) . .
( , )( )( . / )
.
0
142 10 0219 144 54785 5268
144032 0493 12
245
6

(18)

Assuming the Martinelli-Nelson form of the two-phase multiplier, gives
lo
2
35 . , such that the frictional pressure
drop is
236
( )
2 2
8
2 6
2
2
/ 07 . 5 / 4 . 730
5 . 3 22 . 12 45 . 2
) 10 17 . 4 )( 05 . 46 )( 2 (
) 10 42 . 1 (
) 12 / 5656 . 0 (
) 0145 . 0 (
2
in lbf ft lbf
H H
g
G
D
f
P
o B o
c f e
f
friction
= =
+

+
l

(19)

Local Losses

The local or forms losses are due to the grid spacers as well as the core inlet and exit losses. To be strictly correct,
we should evaluate the two-phase multiplier at the specific locations of the grids. For this example, assume we can
use an average two-phase multiplier, similar to the approach taken for the frictional losses.

( )
P
G
g
K K
lbf ft lbf in
local
f c
j
j H
j
j H
B o
+

+ + +
= =


2
6 2
8
2 2
2
142 10
2 4506 417 10
1 6 35 35 35 35 1
20355 141

( . )
( )( . )( . )
. . . .
, . / . /
(20)

Elevation Pressure Drop

The elevation pressure drop is the sum of the single-phase and two-phase terms. Assuming the void fraction varies
linearly over the boiling height, and the subcooling is sufficiently small, the elevation pressure drop can be written
as

( )
( )
P
g
g
H
g
g
H
lbf ft lbf in
elev f
c
o f g g
c
B
= + +
= + +
= =

l
( . )( )( . ) . . . . ( )( . )
. / . /
4506 1 245 0672 4506 0328 2329 1 1222
4897 34
2 2
(21)

The total pressure drop is then


P P P P P
lbf in
core acc friction local elev
= + + +
= + + +
=
127 507 141 341
2385
2
. . . .
. /
(22)

It should be noted, that even though the core mass flux is approximately half that in a Pressurized Water Reactor,
the total core pressure drop is similar. This is due primarily to the enhanced friction and local losses in two-phase
systems. In addition, the acceleration drop while not dominant, is still a significant contributor to the total loss.
This is in contrast to the acceleration drop in single phase systems.