Heston Allred

Barfoot
REL 207
December 1, 2011
The Ritual Use of e!ote in and amon" #ati$e American %hurches
The ritual use of &e!ote amon" #ati$e American tribes has been in &ractice for
hundreds of !ears' (n recent times, it has been associated )ith the #ati$e American
%hurch, )hich currentl! uses it under the Reli"ious *reedom Restoration Act, des&ite
federal re"ulations limitin" it use and amid contro$ers! and o&&osition to its le"alit!'
+ith such a &rominent tradition and "i$en its recent contro$ers! )hat are the details
in$ol$in" the ori"ins of its ritual use, Ho) do the historical details of this ritual com&are
)ith its current &ractice )ithin the #ati$e American %hurch, +hat is the si"nificance of
its ritual use and of the &e!ote itself historicall! amon" ancient tribes nati$e to the
Americas and ho) does this com&are )ith its contem&orar! use )ithin the #ati$e
American %hurch,
e!ote as an inte"ral &art of the reli"ious ceremonies and rituals of the #ati$e
American %hurch has its roots in the &re$ious lon"-standin" tradition of earl! #orth and
%entral American nati$es' The details surroundin" its ori"in as )ell as the initial date of
its im&lementation are unclear and some)hat debated amon" scholars of the sub.ect' /a!
*i0es, in his article, 1A Brief Histor! of the #ati$e American %hurch,2 )rites, 1The e3act
route and time of diffusion of )hat is toda! the #ati$e American %hurch of #orth
America is unclear' All a$ailable e$idence su""ests that the %arri4o culture, )hich once
occu&ied the area that e3tends from Laredo to the 5ulf of 6e3ico in )hat is no) Te3as,
)as instrumental in de$elo&in" e!ote meetin"s amon" #ati$e Americans )ho resided
there'2 He further states these &e!ote rituals )ere first obser$ed as earl! as 1789 and
included dancin" around a fire' :&readin" of the ritual use of &e!ote from the %arri4o to
different tribes in other re"ions of #orth America follo)ed its initial de$elo&ment' This is
su&&orted b! Rachel ;un4e in her article, 1<n the #ati$e American %hurch and the
Ritual Use of e!ote2 )hen she )rites, 1The %arri4o (ndians of :outheastern Te3as and
#ortheast 6e3ico s&read &e!otism to the Li&an, A&ache and Ton0a)a, )ho in turn too0
it to the ;io)a, ;io)a-A&ache, %omanche and other tribes in &resent-da! <0lahoma'2
:ubse=uent alterin" of the ritual follo)ed its s&readin"' 1The )estern nei"hbors of the
%arri4o, the Li&an A&ache, seemed to ha$e transformed the %arri4o ceremon! before
teachin" it to the ;io)a, ;io)a-A&ache, and %omanche2>*i0e?' <ne e3am&le of this is
that no te&ee )as ori"inall! included in the ritual of the %arri4o, o$er time, ho)e$er, it
)as added and is used toda! in the #ati$e American %hurch in addition to man! other
elements not &re$iousl! or ori"inall! included' Additions, ho)e$er, ha$e not been the
onl! historic chan"es' Accordin" to *i0e, man! elements )ere also lost' 1:ome features
of 6e3ican e!ote rituals, ho)e$er - outdoor dancin" and elaborate ritual &il"rima"es to
collect &e!ote are e3am&les - ha$e disa&&eared or )ere diluted as e!ote meetin"s
mo$ed north into the lains2>*i0e?'
This chan"e to earl! &e!ote rituals )as &art of a lar"er trend in$ol$in" the .oinin"
of %hristianit! and #ati$e American reli"ious ideas, traditions, and ob.ects' *i0e )rites
on this )ith res&ect to t)o #ati$e American rituals called the Half-6oon and Bi"-6oon
or %ross-*ire rituals as )ell as the artifacts associated )ith them' 1%hristian doctrine has
"raduall! redefined the meanin" of man! ancient sacred artifacts' To cite a sin"le
instance, in Bi" 6oon >also called %ross *ire? meetin"s )here %hristian infusions are
most in e$idence, sacred tobacco is no lon"er used as a catal!st for &ra!er@ the Bible has
re&laced it' Des&ite such differences, the %ross *ire still shares a common ceremonial
core )ith the Half 6oon rituals'2 These t)o ceremonies )ere fundamental in the
s&readin" of ritual &e!ote use as )ell as sha&in" its current si"nificance )ithin the #ati$e
American %hurch' This is because both re"arded &e!ote as a di$ine substance, )ith both
reli"ious and &h!sical restorati$e &ro&erties, as )ell as a means of combatin" e$il' *i0e
)rites, 1Both em&hasi4ed the di$ine role of &e!ote and its &o)er to teach and heal@ both
o&&osed the use of li=uor and belie$ed that &e!ote destro!ed the taste for it2
As earlier noted, the chan"in" of &e!ote ritual )as &art of a lar"er ado&tin"
amon" nati$es of %hristianit!' Thus, in man! cases, the meanin" and &ur&ose of e!ote
)as directl! influenced b! %hristian doctrines and conce&ts tau"ht b! earl! missionaries
in$ol$ed )ith the coloni4ation of the Americas' Ho)e$er, some tribes outside of the
official #ati$e American %hurch continue to &ractice more &ure and ancient forms of
ritual &e!ote use' 1Descri&tions of still-e3istin" e!ote rituals that are essentiall! free of
%hristian admi3tures - those of the Te&ehuan, %ora, Huichol, and Tarahumara tribes in
6e3ico, for e3am&le - hint of &re-%olumbian ori"ins of contem&orar! %hurch
meetin"sA2 >*i0e?'
The im&lementation of %hristian elements into ancient lon"-standin" and )ell
established #ati$e American reli"ious traditions &rior to the formation of the #ati$e
American %hurch li0e)ise set the sta"e for and influenced the meanin" behind the use of
&e!ote reli"iousl! )ithin the church in contem&orar! times as )ell as s&ecific ob.ects
associated and commonl! included )ith its ritual use' 1Amid e3tensi$e missionar!
acti$it! and cultural colla&se, the #ati$e American %hurch e$ol$ed in the late 19th
centur! as a h!brid of ancient tribal traditions and %hristian beliefs' +ith the hel& of an
anthro&olo"ist from the :mithsonian (nstitution, the ;io)a tribe of <0lahoma officiall!
re"istered the #ati$e American %hurch as a non&rofit reli"ious or"ani4ation in 191B2,
)rites #omi 6orris in an article for the Los An"eles Times in <ctober of 2010' *i0e also
)rites on this conce&t as )ell as the attitude it created amon" #ati$e Americans of the
earl! 20th centur! b! includin" a =uote from 190B b! Albert Hensle!, a member of the
+inneba"o tribe, about his feelin"s re"ardin" &e!ote and its reli"ious si"nificance )ithin
his tribe' 1 1To us it is a &ortion of the bod! of %hrist,2 Hensle! said, 1e$en as the
communion bread is belie$ed to be a &ortion of %hristCs bod! b! other %hristian
denominations' %hrist s&o0e of a %omforter )ho )as to come' (t ne$er came to (ndians
until it )as sent b! 5od in the form of this Hol! 6edicine'2 2 Hensle!Ds )ords from 190B
echo the current &re$ailin" attitude )ithin the #ati$e American %hurch to)ard e!ote as
a "ift of Hol! 6edicine from 5od' Accordin" to 6orris, Re$erend /ohn #i"hthorse
Ta!lor, a leader )ithin the #ati$e American %hurch, 1fell ill at 17 and )as healed b!
&e!ote, )hich his church treats as a medicine, a sacrament and an ob.ect of $eneration'2
6orris also )rites of :el$en arson, a member of the church, )ho )as addicted to
cocaine for t)ent! !ears but re&ortedl! o$ercame the addiction throu"h the use of &e!ote'
The loss of land and the subse=uent assi"nin" of #ati$e Americans to
reser$ations, )hich included the loss of man! locations re"arded as sacred &laces in
#ati$e American reli"ious tradition, also seem to ha$e had an effect on &e!ote ritual
&ractice and thou"ht' :acred &laces, )hich )ere, 1commonl! s&ecific areas of ori"in in
tribal m!tholo"!,2 >;un4e? &la!ed a central role in #ati$e American culture' (t )as
belie$ed conductin" ceremonies in these sacred &laces conferred &o)er to the $isitors and
allo)ed the indi$idual as )ell as the tribe to be ali"ned )ith the uni$erse and find
meanin" )ithin it' +ith the loss of sacred lands #ati$e Americans )ere forced to ada&t
ne) methods and beliefs aimed at "ainin" the &o)er ori"inall! associated )ith their
sacred &laces' e!ote rituals seem to ha$e filled the reli"ious $acanc! left b! the stri&&in"
of sacred land ri"hts and thus be"an to "ain an ada&ted meanin" amon" &racticin" #ati$e
American tribes of the time' 1The ritual use of &e!ote is a ne) techni=ue to reestablish
these bonds Ereferrin" to the bonds and reli"ious si"nificance of sacred &lacesF, affirm
"rou& identit! in a chan"in" )orld, ease the conflictin" demands of traditional reli"ion
and %hristianit!, and "i$e a ne) technolo"! to battlin" alcoholism2>;un4e?'
*urthermore, *i0e states, 1Athe e!ote reli"ion, allo)ed members to establish a ne)
identit! )hich combined abori"inal and %hristian elements'2
%urrent &e!ote rituals &racticed b! the church ha$e both additions and
subtractions )ith re"ards to sacred ob.ects and ritual meanin" and "enerall! differ in a
number of res&ects to those used and belie$ed b! its ori"inal &ractitioners' *or one, as
&re$iousl! mentioned, the ceremon! ta0es &lace )ithin a te&ee' *urthermore, accordin"
to 6orris, the current &ractice consists of a, 1series of ordered rituals, includin" blessin"s
)ithA smo0e from cedar sha$in"s, se$en &rescribed G&i&e smo0esG of tobacco rolled in
corn hus0s and the administration to )orshi&ers of se$en s&oonfuls of a mush! &ul& from
the &e!ote cactus, follo)ed b! &e!ote tea'2 The use of Hol! )ater is also included in the
ceremon!' Another facet has also been added behind the &ur&ose of the ritual'
%ontem&oraril! the! ha$e been used as a means of commemoratin" members of the
church )ho ha$e &assed on'
+hen historical details re"ardin" ritual &e!ote are com&ared to the contem&orar!
details &racticed )ithin the #ati$e American %hurch, it can be seen man! chan"es ha$e
occurred )ith re"ards to its ori"inal meanin" and &ractice' (t has, ho)e$er, retained its
reli"ious si"nificance throu"h the !ears as an im&ortant reli"ious rite' (ndeed, althou"h it
has "ained ne) meanin"s and lost old ones )ithin the reli"ious frame)or0 of
contem&orar! #ati$e American culture it maintains its use and hi"h status )ithin their
reli"ious thou"ht and &ractice in man! instances'
Biblio"ra&h!
;un4e, Rachel' 1<n the #ati$e American %hurch and the Ritual Use of e!ote'22001'
Uni$ersit! of (o)a' Hhtt&IJJ)))'drur!'eduJmultinlJstor!'cfm,(DK2L27M#L(D
K177N
*i0es, /a!' 1A Brief Histor! of the #ati$e American %hurch'2 One Nation Under God.
1997' Hhtt&IJJcs&'or"JcommunitiesJdocsJfi0es-nacOhistor!'htmlN
6orris, #omi' 1%AL(*<R#(A@ BEL(E*:@ Ancient tribal rites still offer sustenance@ The
#ati$e American %hurch .oins (ndian and %hristian beliefs' e!ote is &i$otal'2
Proquest. Los Angeles Times. P0 <ct' 2010' Hhtt&IJJsearch'&ro=uest'com'
e4&ro3!1'lib'asu'eduJdoc$ie)J7711L1P22JabstractN