Eucaryotic Cell Organelles

Nucleus: The nucleus is the most obvious

organelle in any eukaryotic cell. It is
enclosed in a double membrane and communicates with the surrounding
cytosol via numerous nuclear pores. Within the nucleus is the DNA
responsible for providing the cell with its unique characteristics. The DNA is
similar in every cell of the body, but depending on the specific cell type,
some genes may be turned on or off - that's why a liver cell is different from
a muscle cell, and a muscle cell is different from a fat cell. When a cell is
dividing, the nuclear chromatin (DNA and surrounding protein) condenses
into chromosomes that are easily seen by microscopy.
Nucleolus: The prominent structure in the nucleus is the nucleolus. The
nucleolus produces ribosomes, which move out of the nucleus and take
positions on the rough endoplasmic reticulum where they are critical in
protein synthesis.
Cytosol: The cytosol is the "soup" within which all the other cell organelles
reside and where most of the cellular metabolism occurs. Though mostly
water, the cytosol is full of proteins that control cell metabolism including
signal transduction pathways, glycolysis, intracellular receptors, and
transcription factors.
Cytoplasm: This is a collective term for the cytosol plus the organelles
suspended within the cytosol.
Centrosome: The centrosome, or MICROTUBULE ORGANIZING CENTER
(MTOC), is an area in the cell where microtubules are produced. Plant and
animal cell centrosomes play similar roles in cell division, and both include
collections of microtubules, but the plant cell centrosome is simpler and does
not have centrioles.
During animal cell division, the centrioles replicate (make new copies) and
the centrosome divides. The result is two centrosomes, each with its own
pair of centrioles. The two centrosomes move to opposite ends of the
nucleus, and from each centrosome, microtubules grow into a "spindle"

which is responsible for separating replicated chromosomes into the two
daughter cells.
Centriole (animal cells only): Each centriole is a ring of nine groups of fused
microtubules. There are three microtubules in each group. Microtubules (and
centrioles) are part of the cytoskeleton. In the complete animal cell
centrosome, the two centrioles are arranged such that one is perpendicular
to the other.
Golgi: The Golgi apparatus is a membrane-bound structure with a single
membrane. It is actually a stack of membrane-bound vesicles that are
important in packaging macromolecules for transport elsewhere in the cell.
The stack of larger vesicles is surrounded by numerous smaller vesicles
containing those packaged macromolecules. The enzymatic or hormonal
contents of lysosomes, peroxisomes and secretory vesicles are packaged in
membrane-bound vesicles at the periphery of the Golgi apparatus.
Lysosome: Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes necessary for intracellular
digestion. They are common in animal cells, but rare in plant cells.
Hydrolytic enzymes of plant cells are more often found in the vacuole.
Peroxisome: Peroxisomes are membrane-bound packets of oxidative
enzymes. In plant cells, peroxisomes play a variety of roles including
converting fatty acids to sugar and assisting chloroplasts in photorespiration.
In animal cells, peroxisomes protect the cell from its own production of toxic
hydrogen peroxide. As an example, white blood cells produce hydrogen
peroxide to kill bacteria. The oxidative enzymes in peroxisomes break down
the hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.
Secretory Vesicle: Cell secretions - e.g. hormones, neurotransmitters - are
packaged in secretory vesicles at the Golgi apparatus. The secretory vesicles
are then transported to the cell surface for release.
Cell Membrane: Every cell is enclosed in a membrane, a double layer of
phospholipids (lipid bilayer). The exposed heads of the bilayer are
"hydrophilic" (water loving), meaning that they are compatible with water
both within the cytosol and outside of the cell. However, the hidden tails of
the phosopholipids are "hydrophobic" (water fearing), so the cell membrane
acts as a protective barrier to the uncontrolled flow of water. The membrane
is made more complex by the presence of numerous proteins that are crucial
to cell activity. These proteins include receptors for odors, tastes and
hormones, as well as pores responsible for the controlled entry and exit of
ions like sodium (Na+) potassium (K+), calcium (Ca++) and chloride (Cl-).
Mitochondria: Mitochondria provide the energy a cell needs to move, divide,
produce secretory products, contract - in short, they are the power centers
of the cell. They are about the size of bacteria but may have different shapes
depending on the cell type. Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles,
and like the nucleus have a double membrane. The outer membrane is fairly
smooth. But the inner membrane is highly convoluted, forming folds
(cristae) as seen in the cross-section, above. The cristae greatly increase the
inner membrane's surface area. It is on these cristae that food (sugar) is
combined with oxygen to produce ATP - the primary energy source for the
cell.
Vacuole: A vacuole is a membrane-bound sac that plays roles in intracellular
digestion and the release of cellular waste products. In animal cells,
vacuoles are generally small. Vacuoles tend to be large in plant cells and
play several roles: storing nutrients and waste products, helping increase
cell size during growth, and even acting much like lysosomes of animal cells.
The plant cell vacuole also regulates turgor pressure in the cell. Water
collects in cell vacuoles, pressing outward against the cell wall and producing
rigidity in the plant. Without sufficient water, turgor pressure drops and the
plant wilts.
Cell Wall (plant cells only): Plant cells have a rigid, protective cell wall made
up of polysaccharides. In higher plant cells, that polysaccharide is usually
cellulose. The cell wall provides and maintains the shape of these cells and
serves as a protective barrier. Fluid collects in the plant cell vacuole and
pushes out against the cell wall. This turgor pressure is responsible for the
crispness of fresh vegetables.
Chloroplast (plant cells only): Chloroplasts are specialized organelles found
in all higher plant cells. These organelles contain the plant cell's chlorophyll
responsible for the plant's green color. Chloroplasts have a double outer
membrane. Within the stroma are other membrane structures - the
thylakoids. Thylakoids appear in stacks called "grana" (singular = granum).
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Throughout the eukaryotic cell, especially
those responsible for the production of hormones and other secretory
products, is a vast network of membrane-bound vesicles and tubules called
the endoplasmic reticulum, or ER for short. The ER is a continuation of the
outer nuclear membrane and its varied functions suggest the complexity of
the eukaryotic cell.
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is so named because it appears smooth
by electron microscopy. Smooth ER plays different functions depending on
the specific cell type including lipid and steroid hormone synthesis,
breakdown of lipid-soluble toxins in liver cells, and control of calcium release
in muscle cell contraction.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: Rough endoplasmic reticulum appears
"pebbled" by electron microscopy due to the presence of numerous
ribosomes on its surface. Proteins synthesized on these ribosomes collect in
the endoplasmic reticulum for transport throughout the cell.
Ribosomes: Ribosomes are packets of RNA and protein that play a crucial
role in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. They are the site of protein
synthesis. Each ribosome comprises two parts, a large subunit and a small
subunit. Messenger RNA from the cell nucleus is moved systematically along
the ribosome where transfer RNA adds individual amino acid molecules to
the lengthening protein chain.
Cytoskeleton: As its name implies, the cytoskeleton helps to maintain cell
shape. But the primary importance of the cytoskeleton is in cell motility. The
internal movement of cell organelles, as well as cell locomotion and muscle
fiber contraction could not take place without the cytoskeleton. The
cytoskeleton is an organized network of three primary protein filaments:
- microtubules
- actin filaments (microfilaments)
- intermediate fibers

Subcellular components


The cells of eukaryotes (left) and prokaryotes (right)
All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane that envelops the cell, separates
its interior from its environment, regulates what moves in and out (selectively permeable), and
maintains the electric potential of the cell. Inside the membrane, a salty cytoplasm takes up most
of the cell volume. All cells possess DNA, the hereditary material of genes, and RNA, containing
the information necessary to build various proteins such as enzymes, the cell's primary
machinery. There are also other kinds of biomolecules in cells. This article will list these primary
components of the cell, then briefly describe their function.
Membrane
Main article: Cell membrane
The cytoplasm of a cell is surrounded by a cell membrane or plasma membrane. The plasma
membrane in plants and prokaryotes is usually covered by a cell wall. This membrane serves to
separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a double
layer of lipids (hydrophobic fat-like molecules) and hydrophilic phosphorus molecules. Hence,
the layer is called a phospholipid bilayer. It may also be called a fluid mosaic membrane.
Embedded within this membrane is a variety of protein molecules that act as channels and pumps
that move different molecules into and out of the cell. The membrane is said to be 'semi-
permeable', in that it can either let a substance (molecule or ion) pass through freely, pass
through to a limited extent or not pass through at all. Cell surface membranes also contain
receptor proteins that allow cells to detect external signaling molecules such as hormones.
Cytoskeleton
Main article: Cytoskeleton


Bovine Pulmonary Artery Endothelial cell: nuclei stained blue, mitochondria stained red, and F-actin, an
important component in microfilaments, stained green. Cell imaged on a fluorescent microscope.
The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles in place;
helps during endocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a cell, and cytokinesis, the
separation of daughter cells after cell division; and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth
and mobility. The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments
and microtubules. There is a great number of proteins associated with them, each controlling a
cell's structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments. The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is
less well-studied but is involved in the maintenance of cell shape, polarity and cytokinesis.
[8]

Genetic material
Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(RNA). Most organisms use DNA for their long-term information storage, but some viruses (e.g.,
retroviruses) have RNA as their genetic material. The biological information contained in an
organism is encoded in its DNA or RNA sequence. RNA is also used for information transport
(e.g., mRNA) and enzymatic functions (e.g., ribosomal RNA) in organisms that use DNA for the
genetic code itself. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are used to add amino acids during protein
translation.
Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular DNA molecule (the bacterial
chromosome) in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into
different, linear molecules called chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus, usually with additional
genetic material in some organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts (see endosymbiotic
theory).
A human cell has genetic material contained in the cell nucleus (the nuclear genome) and in the
mitochondria (the mitochondrial genome). In humans the nuclear genome is divided into 23 pairs
of linear DNA molecules called chromosomes. The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA
molecule distinct from the nuclear DNA. Although the mitochondrial DNA is very small
compared to nuclear chromosomes, it codes for 13 proteins involved in mitochondrial energy
production and specific tRNAs.
Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into the cell
by a process called transfection. This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell's
genome, or stable, if it is. Certain viruses also insert their genetic material into the genome.
Organelles
Main article: Organelle
The human body contains many different organs, such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each
organ performing a different function. Cells also have a set of "little organs," called organelles,
that are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions. Both eukaryotic
and prokaryotic cells have organelles but organelles in eukaryotes are generally more complex
and may be membrane bound.
There are several types of organelles in a cell. Some (such as the nucleus and golgi apparatus)
are typically solitary, while others (such as mitochondria, peroxisomes and lysosomes) can be
numerous (hundreds to thousands). The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and
surrounds the organelles.
Cell nucleus eukaryotes only - a cell's information center
The cell nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle found
in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell's chromosomes, and
is the place where almost all DNA replication and RNA
synthesis (transcription) occur. The nucleus is spherical
and separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane
called the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope isolates
and protects a cell's DNA from various molecules that
could accidentally damage its structure or interfere with
its processing. During processing, DNA is transcribed, or
copied into a special RNA, called messenger RNA (mRNA).
This mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus, where it
is translated into a specific protein molecule. The
nucleolus is a specialized region within the nucleus where
ribosome subunits are assembled. In prokaryotes, DNA
processing takes place in the cytoplasm.


Diagram of a cell nucleus
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts eukaryotes only - the power

generators
Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles that occur in
various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of all
eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria play a critical role in
generating energy in the eukaryotic cell. Mitochondria
generate the cell's energy by oxidative phosphorylation,
using oxygen to release energy stored in cellular nutrients
(typically pertaining to glucose) to generate ATP.
Mitochondria multiply by splitting in two. Respiration
occurs in the cell mitochondria.
Organelles that are modified chloroplasts are broadly
called plastids, and are involved in energy storage through
photosynthesis, which uses solar energy to generate
carbohydrates and oxygen from carbon dioxide and
water.
[citation needed]

Mitochondria and chloroplasts each contain their own
genome, which is separate and distinct from the nuclear
genome of a cell. Both organelles contain this DNA in
circular plasmids, much like prokaryotic cells, strongly
supporting the evolutionary theory of endosymbiosis;
since these organelles contain their own genomes and
have other similarities to prokaryotes, they are thought to
have developed through a symbiotic relationship after
being engulfed by a primitive cell.
[citation needed]

Endoplasmic reticulum eukaryotes only
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the transport network
for molecules targeted for certain modifications and
specific destinations, as compared to molecules that will
float freely in the cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the
rough ER, which has ribosomes on its surface and secretes
proteins into the cytoplasm, and the smooth ER, which
lacks them. Smooth ER plays a role in calcium
sequestration and release.

Golgi apparatus eukaryotes only
The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to process
and package the macromolecules such as proteins and
lipids that are synthesized by the cell. It is particularly
important in the processing of proteins for secretion. The
Golgi apparatus forms a part of the endomembrane
system of eukaryotic cells. Vesicles that enter the Golgi
apparatus are processed in a cis to trans direction,
meaning they coalesce on the cis side of the apparatus
and after processing pinch off on the opposite (trans) side
to form a new vesicle in the animal cell.
[citation needed]



Diagram of an endomembrane
system
Ribosomes
The ribosome is a large complex of RNA and protein
molecules. They each consist of two subunits, and act as
an assembly line where RNA from the nucleus is used to
synthesise proteins from amino acids. Ribosomes can be
found either floating freely or bound to a membrane (the
rough endoplasmatic reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell
membrane in prokaryotes).
[9]


Lysosomes and Peroxisomes eukaryotes only
Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases). They digest excess or worn-out
organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria. Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid
the cell of toxic peroxides. The cell could not house these destructive enzymes if they were not
contained in a membrane-bound system. These organelles are often called a "suicide bag"
because of their ability to detonate and destroy the cell.
[citation needed]

Centrosome the cytoskeleton organiser
The centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell a key component of the cytoskeleton. It
directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi apparatus. Centrosomes are composed of
two centrioles, which separate during cell division and help in the formation of the mitotic
spindle. A single centrosome is present in the animal cells. They are also found in some fungi
and algae cells.
[citation needed]

Vacuoles
Vacuoles store food and waste. Some vacuoles store extra water. They are often described as
liquid filled space and are surrounded by a membrane. Some cells, most notably Amoeba, have
contractile vacuoles, which can pump water out of the cell if there is too much water. The
vacuoles of eukaryotic cells are usually larger in those of plants than animals.
Structures outside the cell wall
Capsule
A gelatinous capsule is present in some bacteria outside the cell wall. The capsule may be
polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as Bacillus anthracis or
hyaluronic acid as in streptococci.
[citation needed]
Capsules are not marked by ordinary stain and can
be detected by special stain. The capsule is antigenic. The capsule has antiphagocytic function so
it determines the virulence of many bacteria. It also plays a role in attachment of the organism to
mucous membranes.
[citation needed]

Flagella
Flagella are the organelles of cellular mobility. They arise from cytoplasm and extrude through
the cell wall. They are long and thick thread-like appendages, protein in nature. Are most
commonly found in bacteria cells but are found in animal cells as well.
Fimbriae (pili)
They are short and thin hair like filaments, formed of protein called pilin (antigenic). Fimbriae
are responsible for attachment of bacteria to specific receptors of human cell (adherence). There
are special types of pili called (sex pili) involved in conjunction.
[citation needed]

Functions
Growth and metabolism
Main articles: Cell growth and Metabolism
Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular metabolism.
Cell metabolism is the process by which individual cells process nutrient molecules. Metabolism
has two distinct divisions: catabolism, in which the cell breaks down complex molecules to
produce energy and reducing power, and anabolism, in which the cell uses energy and reducing
power to construct complex molecules and perform other biological functions. Complex sugars
consumed by the organism can be broken down into a less chemically complex sugar molecule
called glucose. Once inside the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), a form of energy, through two different pathways.
The first pathway, glycolysis, requires no oxygen and is referred to as anaerobic metabolism.
Each reaction is designed to produce some hydrogen ions that can then be used to make energy
packets (ATP). In prokaryotes, glycolysis is the only method used for converting energy.
The second pathway, called the Krebs cycle, or citric acid cycle, occurs inside the mitochondria
and can generate enough ATP to run all the cell functions.

An overview of protein synthesis.
Within the nucleus of the cell (light blue), genes (DNA, dark blue) are transcribed into RNA. This RNA is
then subject to post-transcriptional modification and control, resulting in a mature mRNA (red) that is
then transported out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm (peach), where it undergoes translation into
a protein. mRNA is translated by ribosomes (purple) that match the three-base codons of the mRNA to
the three-base anti-codons of the appropriate tRNA. Newly synthesized proteins (black) are often
further modified, such as by binding to an effector molecule (orange), to become fully active.
Creation
Main article: Cell division
Cell division involves a single cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter cells. This
leads to growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation (vegetative
reproduction) in unicellular organisms.
Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission. Eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of nuclear
division, called mitosis, followed by division of the cell, called cytokinesis. A diploid cell may
also undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells, usually four. Haploid cells serve as gametes in
multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells.
DNA replication, or the process of duplicating a cell's genome, is required every time a cell
divides. Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for carrying out the
job.
Protein synthesis
Main article: Protein biosynthesis
Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation and
maintenance of cellular activities. This process involves the formation of new protein molecules
from amino acid building blocks based on information encoded in DNA/RNA. Protein synthesis
generally consists of two major steps: transcription and translation.
Transcription is the process where genetic information in DNA is used to produce a
complementary RNA strand. This RNA strand is then processed to give messenger RNA
(mRNA), which is free to migrate through the cell. mRNA molecules bind to protein-RNA
complexes called ribosomes located in the cytosol, where they are translated into polypeptide
sequences. The ribosome mediates the formation of a polypeptide sequence based on the mRNA
sequence. The mRNA sequence directly relates to the polypeptide sequence by binding to
transfer RNA (tRNA) adapter molecules in binding pockets within the ribosome. The new
polypeptide then folds into a functional three-dimensional protein molecule.
Movement or motility
Cells can move during many processes: such as wound healing, the immune response and cancer
metastasis. For wound healing to occur, white blood cells and cells that ingest bacteria move to
the wound site to kill the microorganisms that cause infection.
At the same time fibroblasts (connective tissue cells) move there to remodel damaged structures.
In the case of tumor development, cells from a primary tumor move away and spread to other
parts of the body. Cell motility involves many receptors, crosslinking, bundling, binding,
adhesion, motor and other proteins.
[10]
The process is divided into three steps protrusion of the
leading edge of the cell, adhesion of the leading edge and de-adhesion at the cell body and rear,
and cytoskeletal contraction to pull the cell forward. Each step is driven by physical forces
generated by unique segments of the cytoskeleton.
[11][12]

Evolution
Main article: Evolutionary history of life
The origin of cells has to do with the origin of life, which began the history of life on Earth.
Origin of the first cell
Further information: Abiogenesis
There are several theories about the origin of small molecules that could lead to life in an early
Earth. One is that they came from meteorites (see Murchison meteorite). Another is that they
were created at deep-sea vents. A third is that they were synthesized by lightning in a reducing
atmosphere (see MillerUrey experiment); although it is not clear if Earth had such an
atmosphere. There are essentially no experimental data defining what the first self-replicating
forms were. RNA is generally assumed to be the earliest self-replicating molecule, as it is
capable of both storing genetic information and catalyzing chemical reactions (see RNA world
hypothesis). But some other entity with the potential to self-replicate could have preceded RNA,
like clay or peptide nucleic acid.
[13]

Cells emerged at least 4.04.3 billion years ago. The current belief is that these cells were
heterotrophs. An important characteristic of cells is the cell membrane, composed of a bilayer of
lipids. The early cell membranes were probably more simple and permeable than modern ones,
with only a single fatty acid chain per lipid. Lipids are known to spontaneously form bilayered
vesicles in water, and could have preceded RNA. But the first cell membranes could also have
been produced by catalytic RNA, or even have required structural proteins before they could
form.
[14]


The cardiovascular system of the human body has one distinct job; that is to
pump the blood to the different parts of the body. The central organ in this
system is the heart. It is made up of cardiac tissue and its job is to pump
the blood. It first pumps the blood to the lungs to get oxygen, and then to
the various parts of the body for distribution. The blood travels through a
series of arteries and veins. The difference between the two is that
arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the body, and the veins
return the oxygen-free blood back to the heart. The circulatory is not
complex, but it does an imperative job for the body.


The cardiovascular system is a
complex system with one central
organ: the heart. The heart is the
bodys pacemaker. It pumps
oxygen-rich blood to the different
parts of the body. The bloods
journey through the body is an
extensive trip through highways of
veins, arteries, and other branches.

The heart is somewhat centrally
located. Two thirds of the heart is on
the left side of the sternum. It is the
size of your fist, weighing in at a
whopping pound and a half.
Although it appears small, its
importance cannot be understated.


The heart is divided into four chambers: the left and right atria, and the left and right ventricle.
The atria are on the upper half of the heart, and the ventricles make up the lower portion. The
object of the blood is to circulate oxygen for the growth and development of cells. The blood is
composed of red and white blood cells, platelets, lymph, plasma, and water. The red blood cells
carry the oxygen. The white blood cells are part of the immune system. Platelets are used when
blood clots, to stop the bleeding. Lymph is the interstitial fluid in the blood, also part of the
immune system. Plasma is the remaining portion of the blood, the water in which the blood cells
are suspended.

Blood enters the heart in the left atrium, from the superior and inferior vena cava. The superior
vena cava is the vein that collects the blood returning from the upper body, and the inferior vena
cava returns blood from the lower body. The deoxygenated blood of these two veins enters the
heart in the right atrium and is pumped to the right ventricle. Then the blood travels out of the heart
and enters the pulmonary artery. This artery carries the blood to the lungs to get oxygen.



Once the blood reaches the lungs, carbon dioxide already in
the blood is diffused into the lungs. Carbon dioxide is a cells
waste product after using oxygen. This is where the
circulatory system and the respiratory system intertwine.


The oxygen in the lungs is diffused through the alveoli sacs
and then through the wall of the lungs into the bloodstream.
The blood carries the oxygen to the various cells in the body.
To get the oxygen to the actual cells, the arteries branch off
into smaller arterioles. These even branch off to capillaries,
the smallest of blood vessels. Their walls are extremely thin
and elastic. In these vessels, the red blood cells must travel
single file to pass through. The oxygen diffuses across the
capillary wall. It then travels to a nearby cell and enters
through the cell membrane.



The carbon dioxide that leaves the cell to allow room for
the oxygen makes its way to the bloodstream. Once it reaches
the capillaries, it has entered the bloodstream. The capillaries
then fork into venules, which then fork into veins. The veins
carry the carbon dioxide in the blood back to the heart. This
completes the cycle of the circulatory system.


The mouth and teeth are the first organs of the
digestive tract. The teeth are bones whose primary
purpose is to grind food in to easy bits that the body
can digest. In the mouth, saliva helps begin to break
down food. There are certain organs that are located
in the mouth, such as the uvula (the thing that
hangs down in the back of your mouth) and the
tongue. The walls of the inner cheeks are lined with
mucous which help protect the food from bacteria,
and also protect the cheeks form saliva.
The pharynx is the passage way through which
many tubes run from the mouth and the nose to the
upper body. Some of these tubes are the
nasopharynx, which runs oxygen to the lungs, and
the oropharynx, which also runs oxygen to the lungs.



The esophagus runs from the pharynx to the stomach. The Esophagus is about 25 cm ( 10
inches) long. The esophagus is really a large muscle which pushes food down to the stomach. The
walls of the esophagus are lined with four layers of thin tissue. These membranes are, the mucosa,
the submucosa, the muscularis externa, and the serosa.
The stomach is a J- shaped muscle. The stomach acts as a churn. There are two sphincters,
circular muscles that act as valves placed outside organs, surrounding the two openings of the
stomach. Chemical breakdown of food begins in the stomach.
The constant churning helps to improve digestion. There are several acids in the stomach. One
of these acids is known as gastric juice. Gastric juice is manufactured in gastric glands located in
the stomach. With gastric juice and other acids being mixed with the food, it breaks down and
become a creamy substance known as chyme. After being transformed into chyme, it goes into the
small intestine.

The small intestine is the primary organ of the of the digestive tract. In the small intestine,
chyme is finally broken down for its passage to cells. Bile is added to aid in digestion of fats. Bile
is manufactured in the liver. The small intestine may be subdivided into three segments. The first
segment of the small intestine is known as the deudodenum. The deudodenum is about 25 cm ( 10
inches ) long. The second segment of the small intestine is known as the jejunum. The jejunum is
about 2.5 meters ( 8 feet) long. The final segment of the small intestine is known as the ileum. The
ileum is about 3.6 meters (12 feet ) long. Since the small intestine can only process a small amount
of chyme at a time, the spchinter located at the beginning of the small intestine regulates the amount
of food that enters the small intestine.
In addition to digesting chyme, the small intestine is responsible for absorbing the processed
food into the bloodstream for delivery to the cells. This absorption takes place through structures
known as villi. Villi are finger like projections that increase surface area for absorption. The
unabsorbed chyme then passes to the large intestine.
The large intestine is about 1.5 meters ( 5 feet ) long. The large intestine stretches from a valve
that rests between the end of the small intestine and the beginning of the large intestine to the anus.
The main job of the large intestine is absorb water and to rid the body of any unwanted materials by
sending it to the anus. The large intestine has many subdivisions such as the cecum, the appendix,
the colon, the rectum, and the canal.

Next to the nervous system the endocrine system is the system that controls the body. However,
the endocrine system uses hormones to stimulate the metabolic activities of the cells. These
hormones are released into the blood stream. Tissue response to hormones usually occur after a lag
time of seconds or days. Once started the responses tend to be much more prolonged than those
that are induced by the nervous system.
The organs of the endocrine system are small and unimpressive. The endocrine glands of the
body include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, and thymus.

Hormones are chemical compounds that regulate metabolic function of cells in the body. There
are two types of hormones: amino acid-based hormones and steroids. Most hormones are amino
acid-based. Steroid hormones are synthesized from cholesterol. Only the gonadal hormones and
adrenocortical hormones are steroids.

A hormone is a chemical that is produced by a group of specialized cells that are called glands.
Two types of glands exist: exocrine or endocrine. Exocrine glands use ducts to transport their
products. Endocrine glands dont use ducts to transport their hormones. Instead they secrete their
hormones into the blood stream.
There are over 50 hormones in the human body, and they can be grouped together by their
chemical structure. Steroids are produced from cholesterol. Peptides are chains of amino acids.
Other hormones are derived from amino acids.
Several glands comprise the endocrine system. The hypothalamus integrates the endocrine
system and the nervous system. It receives signals from the brain and the peripheral nerves, and
then triggers the release of hormones into the bloodstream.
The pituitary is sometimes referred to as the master gland. However, most of the time the
pituitary receives orders from the hypothalamus. There are two lobes on the pituitary. One stores
hormones manufactured by the hypothalamus and secretes them on command. The other lobe is
able to produce its own hormones which act on other glands.
The thyroid gland is located on the front surface of the trachea. It has two lobes, and it
produces two hormones. Both hormones have the same effect on the target cell. The thyroid also
regulates metabolism. The thyroidal secretions are controlled by both the hypothalamus and the
pituitary.
The pancreas secretes insulin, a hormone that regulates glucose in take of the cells. A
deficiency in this hormone results in a type of diabetes. Insulin regulates the blood sugar levels by
stimulating cells to take in glucose. It also stimulates the synthesis of protein and fat storage.
The adrenal medulla is the gland behind the fight-or-flight reaction. It secretes adrenaline.
Adrenaline secretion is triggered by stress, and it increases the rate and the stroke volume of the
heart.
The testis and ovaries secrete hormones that are grouped into three major categories:
androgens, estrogens, and progestins. All three are found in both males and females, but each in
varying amounts.
Androgens are primarily produces by the testis. Testosterone is the primary hormone in this

group. Androgens stimulate the maintenance and development of the male reproductive system.
Estrogens are the female equivalent of Androgens. They maintain the female reproductive
system and trigger the development of female second sex characteristics. Progestins maintain and
prepare the uterus for growth and development of an embryo

The kidneys are responsible for purifying the blood. They are one
of the best examples of homeostatic organas, organs responsible for
maintaining a balance of elements. They work muck like sanitation
workers filtering and disposing of wastes from the blood.
The kidneys are protected by floating ribs located in the mid
back. They are small dark red, bean-shaped organs. Due to the
placement of the liver, the right kidney is a bit lower than the left.
The kidney is enclosed by a transparent, fiberous, renal capsule.
A mass of fat, known as the adipose capsule encases each kidney,
and provides some protection. The kidney can be divided into three
regoins, the renal cortex, the renal medulla, and the renal pelvis.
The renal cortex is the light colored, outer region of the kidney.
The renal medulla is the darker, reddish-brown region.


The primary function of the kidneys is to clean the blood, resulting in a large amount of blood
being continuously present in the kidneys. Some one quarter of the bodys blood enters the kidneys
per minute. The renal artery is the large arterial vessal which enters the kidneys then branches off
to segmented arteries. This vessel brings in oxygenated blood from the heart. The renal vein is the
large vessel by which cleansed blood exits the kidney.

The skin is the bodys first line of defense, it plays a major role in preventing disease by protecting
all the organs, blood vessels, and the lymph system. Without the skin, bacteria and viruses could
easily enter the blood system. The skin also houses many lymph nodes. Lymph nodes are a part of
the lymph system, a network of vessels which transport white blood cells, or phagocytes,
throughout the body to combat disease.
Mucous membranes are cells that line all openings of the body. When dust particles enter the
body, they get caught in the mucous membranes and are then digested.
Nose hair is the bodies natural air filtration system. Nose hairs capture dust particles keeping
them from accumulating in the lungs. A sneeze is the bodys way of ridding itself of accumulated
dust particles.
The lymph system is made up of T cells, B cells, antibodies, and platelets. When the skin is
scratched, platelets travel to the wound. They then try to mend the wound, and stop the bleeding.
The T cells are the cells that attack all diseases that enter the body. B cells are the cells that
manufacture antibodies. Antibodies are proteins that isolate pathogens, foreign substances, so that
T cells can attack and destroy it.

The skin has two layers: the epidermis and
the dermis. The epidermis is the upper layer
of the skin. It has up to five layers, called
strata. Under the epidermis is the dermis.
This layer connects the skin to the underlying
tissue. It is in the dermis that hair follicles
and sweat glands reside. Fingerprints are a
result of dermal ridges which produce looped
and whirled ridges on the epidermis. This
gives the fingers and toes extra gripping
ability.



Skin color is determined by three pigments: melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin. However, only
melanin is made in the skin. Melanin can be gradated into many different shades. It is this ability
of Melanin that gives different races different skin coloration. Exposure to sunlight can also cause
a temporary change in the color of melanin. Carotene has a yellow-orange color and is primarily
found in the palms and the soles. Hemoglobin gives fair-skinned people a pink hue to their skin
due to the lack of melanin in the epidermis, which makes it almost transparent.

Hair on other mammals serves them to keep them warm. However, the sparse covering of hair
on the human body serves other purposes. It is able to sense insects on the skin before they are able
to sting. The hair on the head serves to control and prevent heat loss as well as guard against
sunlight and physical trauma. Hair is produced by hair follicles in the skin. These follicles are
heavily vascularized and are surrounded by nerve fibers. Goose bumps occur when small muscles
pull the follicles upright producing a bump on the surface of the skin.
Sweat gland are distributed throughout the skin. Their basic function is to cool the body. This is
accomplished by evaporation. Evaporation of sweat off of the body dissipates body heat.
The nervous system is the master controlling and communicating system of the body. Every
thought, action, and emotion reflects its activity. The nervous system is by far the most rapid
acting and complex system of the body. The cells of the nervous system communicate by means of
electrical signals, which are rapid, specific, and usually cause almost immediate responses.
The nervous system is but one single system, but for convenience we divide it into two parts: the
central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the
brain and the spinal cord which are located in the dorsal body cavity. The CNS is the command
center of the nervous system. It interprets incoming signals and responds to them based on past
experiences, reflexes, and current conditions. The PNS is the part of the nervous system that is not
part of the CNS. It consists mainly of the nerves that extend from the brain and the spinal cord.
These nerves are called the cranial nerves and the spinal nerves, respectively. These peripheral
nerves serve as the communications link from the body to the CNS.
The PNS can then be farther divided into two functional subdivisions. The sensory division is the
division that contains the nerve fibers that carry impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors that
are located throughout the body. There are two types of sensory fibers. The somatic afferents
convey information from the skin , skeletal muscles, and joints. The visceral afferents convey
impulses from the visceral organs. The other division of the PNS is the motor division. This
division transports messages from the CNS to organs, muscles, and glands. The motor system can
also be divided farther in to two parts. The somatic nervous system is composed of motor nerve
fibers that connect the CNS to the skeletal muscles and is often referred to as the voluntary nervous
system. The autonomic nervous system consists of nerve fibers that regulate the activity of smooth
muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands. Since we usually cannot consciously control these activities,
it is generally referred to as the involuntary nervous system.


In the nervous system there are two main types of cells in the
nervous system: neurons and supporting cells. Neurons provide a
pathway for messages traveling to and from the brain and spinal
coed. Supporting cells provide structural reinforcement,
protection, insulation, and generally help neurons.
Neurons are specialized cells for transporting signals from
location to location. There are many different types of neurons,
but they all share common characteristics. First of all, they all
share large cell bodies, and they all have finger-like extensions
called processes. Processes increase the distance which the cells
can conduct messages. There are two types of processes:
dendrites and axons.

Dendrites convey signals towards the cell body. Axons conduct signals away from the cell
body. Dendrites are short and numerous and branch extensively. Most neurons have only a single
axon which is usually very long. Schwann cells are arranged along the length of the axon. All
together these Schwann cells form an insulating layer which is called the myelin sheath.
Axons can be branched and each branch can terminate in hundreds or thousands of small
branchlets called telodendria which end in a small bulbous end called the synaptic knob. Synaptic
knobs relay messages to other cells via neurotransmitters. Between the synaptic knobs are gaps
called synapses.
In the body cells usually carry a negative charge. Nervous cells are able to alter their charge in
order to conduct signals. Cells that are able to do this are called excitable cells. Neurons are able to
alter their charge largely due to ions.
Cells in which a signal begins are called pre-synaptic cells. Cells which receive the signal are
called post-synaptic cells. There are two types of synapses: electrical and chemical. An electrical
synapse allows the signal to spread directly from the pre-synaptic to the post-synaptic cells.
Chemical synapses allows for cells that so not have an electrical connection to spread their
messages. This happens by converting the electrical signal to a chemical signal that then travels
across the synapse and is then converted back to an electrical signal on the other side of the
synapse. These chemicals are called Neurotransmitters.

At the present time there are about ten molecules that are known to be neurotransmitters.
Dozens more are good candidates and the list of possibilities is growing. Acetylcholine is the
most common neurotransmitter. This chemical triggers the contraction of a muscle cell at the
junction of the motor neuron and a skeletal muscle cell.



The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed
of two systems: the afferent nervous system and the
efferent nervous system. The afferent nervous system
brings information into the brain from the sensory
receptors. The efferent nervous system is the part of
the PNS that deals with carrying the signals from the
central nervous system to the body.
There are 12 pair cranial nerves and 31 pairs of
spinal nerves in humans. These nerves connect the
PNS to the CNS. Most contain both afferent and
efferent neurons; however, the olfactory (smell) and
optic (sight) contain only afferent neurons.

Voluntary contractions of the skeletal muscles are
controlled by the somatic nervous system. These
motor neurons mainly respond to external stimuli and
a conscious decision is made to move the muscles.
Reflexes are automatic reactions to a stimulus. In

1. Olfactory Bulb
2. Optic Nerve
3. Oculomotor Nerve
4. Trochlear Nerve
5. Trigeminal Nerve
6. Abducens Nerve
7. Facial Nerve
8. Vestibulocochlear Nerve
9. Glossopharyngeal Nerve
10. Vagus Nerve
11. Accessory Nerve
12. Hypoglossal Nerve



most cases reflexes are controlled by the spinal cord
and the brain stem.
The nervous system that controls smooth and
cardiac muscle is the autonomic nervous system.
This system regulates the internal environment and it
is involuntary. The autonomic nervous system
contains two subdivisions: the sympathetic and the
parasympathetic nervous systems.
The sympathetic nervous system and the
parasympathetic nervous system have opposite effects
when they act upon the same organ. The
parasympathetic nervous system enhances activities
and is able to conserve energy. Conversely the
sympathetic nervous system increases energy
expenditures and prepares the individual for action.

The nervous system is comprised of two main parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The spinal
cord is a long bundle of white nerve matter that resides in the middle of the spinal column. This
serves as the link between the brain and the body. It also serves as the center from which reflexes
stem from.
The brain is much more complex than the spinal cord. It has many divisions within it. These are
the brain stem, the cerebellum, the cerebrum.

The brain stem is the core for most of the life
systems commands such as breathing and heartbeat. It
is the most primitive of the brain divisions and the

process that are contained within it cannot be
consciously controlled.
The cerebellum is the next most advanced of the
brain divisions. It controls balance and the
coordination of muscles to obtain movement.




The cerebral cortex is by far the most advanced part of the brain. This is where conscious
though takes place. The cerebellum itself can be divided into the left and right hemispheres. It can
also be divided into the parts that control specific functions such as hearing and sight. The right
hemisphere, generally, is the artistic side of the brain. People who are right brained (their right
hemisphere is dominate over the left) are into art, music, and abstract thinking. Left brained people
are very logical. They excel in math and physics and other logical thought processes. The two
hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum which is the means for the two hemisphere to
communicate with each other. However, it has been proved by scientific experiment that both
hemispheres with function normally if the corpus callosum is severed.


The reproductive system is the system that allows for the continuation of the human species. This
system is different in both males and females. The role of the males reproductive system is to
manufacture sperm and then to deliver them to the females reproductive tract where fertilization
may occur. The role of the females reproductive system is basically the same except that it goes
further if the sperm meets an egg. If fertilization occurs the female reproductive system is designed
to nurture and care for the cell that will soon grow into a baby.
The sperm is produced in the males testis and then travels through a series of ducts to reach the
body exterior. The eggs are produced in the ovary of a female. When a egg is to be expelled
or ovulated a blister forms on the exterior of the ovary. When the blister bursts the egg is
collected by the ends of the fallopian tubes and travels through the fallopian tubes where it can be
fertilized by a single sperm.
If an egg is fertilized it travels down into the uterus where it embeds in the wall of the uterus.
There it divides rapidly and the cells begin to specialize into the different organs of a pregnancy.
Some of the cells form the amniotic sac while some form the placenta and the umbilical cord. Only
a small number of these cells will eventually form the fetus.


The scrotum and the penis are the male
genitalia. The male gonads, called
testis, are tightly coiled tubes surrounded
by tissue. It is in these tubes where
sperm forms. The male gonads are
located outside of the body since sperm
productions can only occur at a lower
than normal body temperature. After the
sperm are produced they mature and are
stored in the epididymus.



The male reproductive system also
contains three sets of glands that add
secretions to the semen. Sixty percent
of semen is secreted by the seminal
vesicles. They lie behind and below the
bladder and empty directly into the
ejaculatory duct. The fluid secreted is
clear yet thick. It contains mucus,
amino acids, and fructose. The fructose
provides energy for the sperm.


The prostate gland surrounds the beginning of the urethra in which it secretes its products.
Prostatic fluid is milky, thin, and alkaline in order to balance the acidity of any urine remaining in
the urethra and the acidity of vaginal fluids.

Bulbourethral glands lie along the urethra below the prostate. Although their specific function is
still unknown, they do secrete a viscous fluid before ejaculation.

Three layers of spongy tissue comprise the human penis. When sexually aroused, this tissue fills
with blood from the arteries , while the veins are sealed. This produces an erection.

The shaft of the penis is covered in relatively thick skin. The head, or glans penis, is covered
with thinner skin. This results in extra sensitivity in the glans penis area.

Ovaries, the female gonads,
are located below the
digestive system in the
abdominal cavity. Inside
each ovary are many
follicles which consist of a
single egg cell and one or
more layers of follicle
cells. Follicle cells protect
and nourish the egg cells.
A woman is born with
about 400,000 follicles and
cannot produce more.

Ovulation is the process
in which an egg is expelled
from a follicle. The egg is
expelled directly into the
abdominal cavity and is
picked up by the fallopian
tubes. Inside the fallopian
tubes are cilia which sweep
the egg into the uterus. At
the neck of the uterus is the
cervix which leads into the
. The vagina has very thin
walls, much thinner than
those of the uterus.

At the end of the are two pairs of folded skin, the libia minora and the libia majora. At the top of
the libia is glans clitoris, a small bulb of erectile tissue. Like glans penis, glans clitoris is very
sensitive to stimuli.

The respiratory system supplies the body with oxygen, Air is inhaled through the nose or mouth. It
then travels into the pharynx, passes through the larynx, and down the trachea. The trachea branch
and air reaches the lungs where it will diffuse into the blood via the alveoli.

The nose is the only organ of the respiratory system
that resides outside of the body. As we breathe, air
enters the body through the nostrils or external
nares. The area inside the nose is known as the
nasal cavity. The nasal septum divides the nasal
cavity medially. The olfactory receptors are located
in the mucosa in a small area on the roof of the nasal
cavity ( see the special senses under the nervous
system). The respiratory mucosa lines the nasal
cavity. This mucosa helps warm air entering the
body. It also helps moisten the air and trap invading
pathogens.


The walls of the nasal cavity are uneven. There are three mucous covered projections that stick
out into the nasal cavity. These lobes are known as conchae. These projections help increase the
area that the mucosa can affect. The nasal cavity is separated from the oral cavity by a palate of
bone. Anteriorly, where the palate is supported lies the hard plate. The unsupported area of the
palate houses the soft plate.
The nasal cavity is surrounded by the paranasal sinuses. These sinuses are located in the
maxillary, ethmoid, sphenoid, and frontal bones. The sinus chambers help lighten the weight of the
skull. The sinus chambers also act as resonance chambers for vocalization. The sinus cavities also
secrete mucous for the nasal cavity.
The pharynx is the muscular passageway that provides a means of transportation for air and
food. The pharynx, also known as the throat, is about 13 cm. long.
Air enters the pharynx through its superior portion, the nasopharynx. Air then descends from the
nasopharynx to the oropharynx, to the laryngopharynx. From the laryngopharynx air enters the
larynx. Food travels the same way, through the nasopharynx to the laryngopharynx, but instead of
entering the larynx, it enters the esophagus. Since the auditory tubes from the ear open into the
nasopharynx, the mucosae of each regoin are continuos. Since the mucosae is continuos ear
infections may proceed after a sore throat. Tonsils, clusters of lymphatic tissue, are also found in
the pharynx. The pharyngeal tonsils, also called the adenoids, are found in the nasopharynx. The
palatine tonsils are located in the oropharynx. The lingual tonsils are located at the base of the
tongue.
The larynx, also known as the voice box, routes food and air to its proper destination. The
larynx is made up of eight hyaline cartilages and a flap of elastic cartilage, the epiglottis. The
epiglottis' job is to prevent food from entering the superior opening of the larynx, and traveling
down the trachea. Breathing opens the epiglottis and allows free passage of air to the lungs. The
larynx is pulled in an upward direction while swallowing, causing the epiglottis to " tip " and close
over the opening of the larynx. When the epiglottis is closed, it forces food to be pushed down the
esophagus. If something beside air enters the larynx, a cough occurs. A coughs' purpose is to repel
any foreign substance, beside air, from entering the trachea. The mucous membrane of the larynx
form the vocal folds. When expelled by air, the vocal folds vibrate. This vibration allows human's
the ability of speech. The glottis is the thin passageway between the vocal folds. The largest of the
hyaline cartilages is the thyroid cartilage. The thyroid cartilage, also called the Adams apple,
protrudes anteriorliy.
The trachea, also called the windpipe, is about 10-12 cm. The trachea's walls are covered with
ciliated mucousa. The cilia are always beating in the opposite direction of the incoming air. The
cilia also send dust pathogens up the trachea so that it may be swallowed and digested.
The trachea is quite rigid due to the fact that its walls are made up of c-shaped hyaline cartilage.
The open part of the rings allow the esophagus to expand when one swallows a large amount of
food. The opposite ends keep the trachea open.

The division of the trachea form the right and
left bronchi. Each of the bronchi run obliquely,
before entering the hilius of the lungs. The
right primary bronchi is wider, straighter, and
shorter that the left primary bronchi. When air
enters the bronchi, it is warm, humidified, and
cleansed of all pathogens.

The lungs are the primary organs of the
respiratory system. The lungs occupy the thoracic
cavity. The apex, the superior portion of the lung, is
located below the clavicle. The base of the lungs are
the section that rest upon the diaphragm. Each lung
is subdivided into lobes. The right lung is
characterized by three lobes; the left lung is
characterized by two lobes.


The surface of the lungs is covered by a visceral serosa known as the visceral, or pulmonary,
pleura. Each wall of the thoracic cavity is covered by the parietal pleura. Each pleural membrane
forms a secretion known as the pleural fluid. The pleural fluid allows the lungs to slide over the
thoracic wall during respiration. The pleural mucosae can slide from one another, and side to side,
but they resist being pulled apart. Due to the characteristics of the pleural mucosae, the lungs rest
quite tightly in the thorax wall.
When the primary bronchi enter the lungs, they divide into smaller branches. After the
continuous shortening of size, the primary bronchi become the bronchioles. The terminal
bronchioles divide to become the respiratory zone structures. The respiratory zone structures
eventually divide to become the alveoli. The respiratory zone houses the transfusion of air to
blood. The respiratory zone also contains the alveoli, the alveolar sacs, the alveolar ducts, and the
respiratory bronchioles. The remaining area of the lungs are known as the conducting zone
structures. The conducting zone structures contain all the passages to and from the respiratory
zone. Within the lung there are millions of alveoli. The alveoli are responsible for the transfusion
of oxygen to blood.