MSE 2101 HW VIII SOLUTIONS

THE IRON-CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM AND PHASE

TRANSFORMATIONS

10.6 For some transformation having kinetics that obey the Avrami equation (Equation 10.17), the parameter n is
known to have a value of 1.7. If, after 100 s, the reaction is 50% complete, how long (total time) will it take the
transformation to go to 99% completion?

Solution
This problem calls for us to compute the length of time required for a reaction to go to 99% completion. It
first becomes necessary to solve for the parameter k in Equation 10.17. In order to do this it is best manipulate the
equation such that k is the dependent variable. We first rearrange Equation 10.17 as



exp(kt
n
) = 1 y

and then take natural logarithms of both sides:


kt
n
= ln(1 y)

Now solving for k gives


k =
ln (1 y)
t
n


And, from the problem statement, for y = 0.50 when t = 100 s and given that n = 1.7, the value of k is equal to



k =
ln (1 0.5)
(100 s)
1.7
= 2.76 10
-4


We now want to manipulate Equation 10.17 such that t is the dependent variable. The above equation may be
written in the form:


t
n
=
ln (1 y)
k


And solving this expression for t leads to


t =
ln (1 y)
k



(

(
1/n

Now, using this equation and the value of k determined above, the time to 99% transformation completion is equal t


t =
ln (1 0.99)
2.76 10
4



(

(
1/1.7
= 305 s
10.9 The kinetics of the austenite-to-pearlite transformation obey the Avrami relationship. Using the
fraction transformedtime data given here, determine the total time required for 95% of the austenite to transform
to pearlite:

Fraction Transformed Time (s)
0.2 12.6
0.8 28.2


Solution
The first thing necessary is to set up two expressions of the form of Equation 10.17, and then to solve
simultaneously for the values of n and k. In order to expedite this process, we will rearrange and do some algebraic
manipulation of Equation 10.17. First of all, we rearrange as follows:



1 y = exp kt
n
( )

Now taking natural logarithms



ln (1 y) = kt
n


Or



ln (1 y) = kt
n


which may also be expressed as



ln
1
1 y
|
\

|
.
|
= kt
n


Now taking natural logarithms again, leads to



ln ln
1
1 y
|
\

|
.
|



(

( = ln k + n ln t

which is the form of the equation that we will now use. Using values cited in the problem statement, the two
equations are thus



ln ln
1
1 0.2



(

(




`
)
= ln k + n ln(12.6 s)



ln ln
1
1 0.8



(

(




`
)
= ln k + n ln(28.2 s)

Solving these two expressions simultaneously for n and k yields n = 2.453 and k = 4.46 10
-4
.
Now it becomes necessary to solve for the value of t at which y = 0.95. One of the above equationsviz



ln (1 y) = kt
n


may be rewritten as



t
n
=
ln (1 y)
k


And solving for t leads to



t =
ln (1 y)
k



(

(
1/n


Now incorporating into this expression values for n and k determined above, the time required for 95% austenite
transformation is equal to


t =
ln (1 0.95)
4.64 10
4



(

(
1/2.453
= 35.7 s
10.10 The fraction recrystallizedtime data for the recrystallization at 600C of a previously deformed
steel are tabulated here. Assuming that the kinetics of this process obey the Avrami relationship, determine the
fraction recrystallized after a total time of 22.8 min.

Fraction
Recrystallized
Time (min)
0.20 13.1
0.70 29.1


Solution
The first thing necessary is to set up two expressions of the form of Equation 10.17, and then to solve
simultaneously for the values of n and k. In order to expedite this process, we will rearrange and do some algebraic
manipulation of Equation 10.17. First of all, we rearrange as follows:



1 y = exp kt
n
( )

Now taking natural logarithms



ln (1 y) = kt
n


Or



ln (1 y) = kt
n


which may also be expressed as



ln
1
1 y
|
\

|
.
|
= kt
n


Now taking natural logarithms again, leads to



ln ln
1
1 y
|
\

|
.
|



(

( = ln k + n ln t

which is the form of the equation that we will now use. The two equations are thus



ln ln
1
1 0.20



(

(




`
)
= ln k + n ln(13.1 min)



ln ln
1
1 0.70



(

(




`
)
= ln k + n ln(29.1 min)

Solving these two expressions simultaneously for n and k yields n = 2.112 and k = 9.75 10
-4
.
Now it becomes necessary to solve for y when t = 22.8 min. Application of Equation 10.17 leads to



y = 1 exp kt
n
( )


= 1 exp (9.75 10
-4
)(22.8 min)
2.112
| |
= 0.51
10.11 (a) From the curves shown in Figure 10.11 and using Equation 10.18, determine the rate of
recrystallization for pure copper at the several temperatures.
(b) Make a plot of ln(rate) versus the reciprocal of temperature (in K
1
), and determine the activation
energy for this recrystallization process. (See Section 5.5.)
(c) By extrapolation, estimate the length of time required for 50% recrystallization at room temperature,
20C (293 K).

Solution
This problem asks us to consider the percent recrystallized versus logarithm of time curves for copper
shown in Figure 10.11.
(a) The rates at the different temperatures are determined using Equation 10.18, which rates are tabulated
below:

Temperature (C) Rate (min)
-1

135 0.105
119 4.4 10
-2

113 2.9 10
-2

102 1.25 10
-2

88 4.2 10
-3

43 3.8 10
-5


(b) These data are plotted below.



The activation energy, Q, is related to the slope of the line drawn through the data points as



Q = Slope(R)

where R is the gas constant. The slope of this line is equal to



Slope =
A ln rate
A
1
T
|
\

|
.
|
=
ln rate
1
ln rate
2
1
T
1

1
T
2


Let us take 1/T
1
= 0.0025 K
-1
and 1/T
2
= 0.0031 K
-1
; the corresponding ln rate values are ln rate
1
= -2.6 and ln
rate
2
= -9.4. Thus, using these values, the slope is equal to


Slope =
2.6 (9.4)
0.0025 K
-1
0.0031 K
-1
= 1.133 10
4
K


And, finally the activation energy is



Q = (Slope)(R) = (1.133 10
4
K
-1
)(8.31 J/mol - K)

= 94,150 J/mol

(c) At room temperature (20C), 1/T = 1/(20 + 273 K) = 3.41 10
-3

K
-1
. Extrapolation of the data in the
plot to this 1/T value gives



ln (rate)~ 12.8

which leads to


rate ~ exp (12.8) = 2.76 10
-6
(min)
-1


But since


rate =
1
t
0.5




t
0.5
=
1
rate
=
1
2.76 10
6
(min)
1



= 3.62 10
5
min = 250 days
10.12 Determine values for the constants n and k (Equation 10.17) for the recrystallization of copper
(Figure 10.11) at 102C.

Solution
In this problem we are asked to determine, from Figure 10.11, the values of the constants n and k (Equation
10.17) for the recrystallization of copper at 102C. One way to solve this problem is to take two values of percent
recrystallization (which is just 100y, Equation 10.17) and their corresponding time values, then set up two
simultaneous equations, from which n and k may be determined. In order to expedite this process, we will rearrange
and do some algebraic manipulation of Equation 10.17. First of all, we rearrange as follows:



1 y = exp kt
n
( )

Now taking natural logarithms



ln (1 y) = kt
n


Or



ln (1 y) = kt
n


which may also be expressed as



ln
1
1 y
|
\

|
.
|
= kt
n


Now taking natural logarithms again, leads to



ln ln
1
1 y
|
\

|
.
|



(

( = ln k + n ln t

which is the form of the equation that we will now use. From the 102C curve of Figure 10.11, let us arbitrarily
choose two percent recrystallized values, 20% and 80% (i.e., y
1
= 0.20 and y
2
= 0.80). Their corresponding time
values are t
1
= 50 min and t
2
= 100 min (realizing that the time axis is scaled logarithmically). Thus, our two
simultaneous equations become



ln ln
1
1 0.2
|
\

|
.
|



(

( = ln k + n ln (50)



ln ln
1
1 0.8
|
\

|
.
|



(

( = ln k + n ln (100)

from which we obtain the values n = 2.85 and k = 3.21 10
-6
.
10.18 Using the isothermal transformation diagram for an ironcarbon alloy of eutectoid composition (Figure
10.22), specify the nature of the final microstructure (in terms of microconstituents present and approximate
percentages of each) of a small specimen that has been subjected to the following timetemperature treatments. In
each case assume that the specimen begins at 760C (1400F) and that it has been held at this temperature long
enough to have achieved a complete and homogeneous austenitic structure.
(a) Cool rapidly to 700C (1290F), hold for 10
4
s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.


After cooling and holding at 700C for 10
4
s, approximately 50% of the specimen has transformed to
coarse pearlite. Upon cooling to room temperature, the remaining 50% transforms to martensite. Hence, the final
microstructure consists of about 50% coarse pearlite and 50% martensite.

(b) Reheat the specimen in part (a) to 700C (1290F) for 20 h.

Solution
Heating to 700C for 20 h the specimen in part (a) will transform the coarse pearlite and martensite to
spheroidite.

(c) Rapidly cool to 600C (1110F), hold for 4 s, rapidly cool to 450C (840F), hold for 10 s, then quench
to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.



After cooling to and holding at 600C for 4 s, approximately 50% of the specimen has transformed to
pearlite (medium). During the rapid cooling to 450C no transformations occur. At 450C we start timing again at
zero time; while holding at 450C for 10 s, approximately 50 percent of the remaining unreacted 50% (or 25% of
the original specimen) will transform to bainite. And upon cooling to room temperature, the remaining 25% of the
original specimen transforms to martensite. Hence, the final microstructure consists of about 50% pearlite
(medium), 25% bainite, and 25% martensite.

(d) Cool rapidly to 400C (750F), hold for 2 s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.



After cooling to and holding at 400C for 2 s, no of the transformation begin lines have been crossed, and
therefore, the specimen is 100% austenite. Upon cooling rapidly to room temperature, all of the specimen
transforms to martensite, such that the final microstructure is 100% martensite.

(e) Cool rapidly to 400C (750F), hold for 20 s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.


After cooling and holding at 400C for 20 s, approximately 40% of the specimen has transformed to
bainite. Upon cooling to room temperature, the remaining 60% transforms to martensite. Hence, the final
microstructure consists of about 40% bainite and 60% martensite.

(f) Cool rapidly to 400C (750F), hold for 200 s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.



After cooling and holding at 400C for 200 s, the entire specimen has transformed to bainite. Therefore,
during the cooling to room temperature no additional transformations will occur. Hence, the final microstructure
consists of 100% bainite.

(g) Rapidly cool to 575C (1065F), hold for 20 s, rapidly cool to 350C (660F), hold for 100 s, then
quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.


After cooling and holding at 575C for 20 s, the entire specimen has transformed to fine pearlite. Therefore,
during the second heat treatment at 350C no additional transformations will occur. Hence, the final microstructure
consists of 100% fine pearlite.

(h) Rapidly cool to 250C (480F), hold for 100 s, then quench to room temperature in water. Reheat to
315C (600F) for 1 h and slowly cool to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.


After cooling and holding at 250C for 100 s, no transformations will have occurredat this point, the
entire specimen is still austenite. Upon rapidly cooling to room temperature in water, the specimen will completely
transform to martensite. The second heat treatment (at 315C for 1 h)not shown on the above plotwill
transform the material to tempered martensite. Hence, the final microstructure is 100% tempered martensite.
10.18 Using the isothermal transformation diagram for an ironcarbon alloy of eutectoid composition
(Figure 10.22), specify the nature of the final microstructure (in terms of microconstituents present and approximate
percentages of each) of a small specimen that has been subjected to the following timetemperature treatments. In
each case assume that the specimen begins at 760C (1400F) and that it has been held at this temperature long
enough to have achieved a complete and homogeneous austenitic structure.
(a) Cool rapidly to 700C (1290F), hold for 10
4
s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.


After cooling and holding at 700C for 10
4
s, approximately 50% of the specimen has transformed to
coarse pearlite. Upon cooling to room temperature, the remaining 50% transforms to martensite. Hence, the final
microstructure consists of about 50% coarse pearlite and 50% martensite.

(b) Reheat the specimen in part (a) to 700C (1290F) for 20 h.

Solution
Heating to 700C for 20 h the specimen in part (a) will transform the coarse pearlite and martensite to
spheroidite.

(c) Rapidly cool to 600C (1110F), hold for 4 s, rapidly cool to 450C (840F), hold for 10 s, then quench
to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.



After cooling to and holding at 600C for 4 s, approximately 50% of the specimen has transformed to
pearlite (medium). During the rapid cooling to 450C no transformations occur. At 450C we start timing again at
zero time; while holding at 450C for 10 s, approximately 50 percent of the remaining unreacted 50% (or 25% of
the original specimen) will transform to bainite. And upon cooling to room temperature, the remaining 25% of the
original specimen transforms to martensite. Hence, the final microstructure consists of about 50% pearlite
(medium), 25% bainite, and 25% martensite.

(d) Cool rapidly to 400C (750F), hold for 2 s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.



After cooling to and holding at 400C for 2 s, no of the transformation begin lines have been crossed, and
therefore, the specimen is 100% austenite. Upon cooling rapidly to room temperature, all of the specimen
transforms to martensite, such that the final microstructure is 100% martensite.

(e) Cool rapidly to 400C (750F), hold for 20 s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.


After cooling and holding at 400C for 20 s, approximately 40% of the specimen has transformed to
bainite. Upon cooling to room temperature, the remaining 60% transforms to martensite. Hence, the final
microstructure consists of about 40% bainite and 60% martensite.

(f) Cool rapidly to 400C (750F), hold for 200 s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.



After cooling and holding at 400C for 200 s, the entire specimen has transformed to bainite. Therefore,
during the cooling to room temperature no additional transformations will occur. Hence, the final microstructure
consists of 100% bainite.

(g) Rapidly cool to 575C (1065F), hold for 20 s, rapidly cool to 350C (660F), hold for 100 s, then
quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.


After cooling and holding at 575C for 20 s, the entire specimen has transformed to fine pearlite. Therefore,
during the second heat treatment at 350C no additional transformations will occur. Hence, the final microstructure
consists of 100% fine pearlite.

(h) Rapidly cool to 250C (480F), hold for 100 s, then quench to room temperature in water. Reheat to
315C (600F) for 1 h and slowly cool to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.


After cooling and holding at 250C for 100 s, no transformations will have occurredat this point, the
entire specimen is still austenite. Upon rapidly cooling to room temperature in water, the specimen will completely
transform to martensite. The second heat treatment (at 315C for 1 h)not shown on the above plotwill
transform the material to tempered martensite. Hence, the final microstructure is 100% tempered martensite.
10.18 Using the isothermal transformation diagram for an ironcarbon alloy of eutectoid composition
(Figure 10.22), specify the nature of the final microstructure (in terms of microconstituents present and approximate
percentages of each) of a small specimen that has been subjected to the following timetemperature treatments. In
each case assume that the specimen begins at 760C (1400F) and that it has been held at this temperature long
enough to have achieved a complete and homogeneous austenitic structure.
(a) Cool rapidly to 700C (1290F), hold for 10
4
s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.


After cooling and holding at 700C for 10
4
s, approximately 50% of the specimen has transformed to
coarse pearlite. Upon cooling to room temperature, the remaining 50% transforms to martensite. Hence, the final
microstructure consists of about 50% coarse pearlite and 50% martensite.

(b) Reheat the specimen in part (a) to 700C (1290F) for 20 h.

Solution
Heating to 700C for 20 h the specimen in part (a) will transform the coarse pearlite and martensite to
spheroidite.

(c) Rapidly cool to 600C (1110F), hold for 4 s, rapidly cool to 450C (840F), hold for 10 s, then quench
to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.



After cooling to and holding at 600C for 4 s, approximately 50% of the specimen has transformed to
pearlite (medium). During the rapid cooling to 450C no transformations occur. At 450C we start timing again at
zero time; while holding at 450C for 10 s, approximately 50 percent of the remaining unreacted 50% (or 25% of
the original specimen) will transform to bainite. And upon cooling to room temperature, the remaining 25% of the
original specimen transforms to martensite. Hence, the final microstructure consists of about 50% pearlite
(medium), 25% bainite, and 25% martensite.

(d) Cool rapidly to 400C (750F), hold for 2 s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.



After cooling to and holding at 400C for 2 s, no of the transformation begin lines have been crossed, and
therefore, the specimen is 100% austenite. Upon cooling rapidly to room temperature, all of the specimen
transforms to martensite, such that the final microstructure is 100% martensite.

(e) Cool rapidly to 400C (750F), hold for 20 s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.


After cooling and holding at 400C for 20 s, approximately 40% of the specimen has transformed to
bainite. Upon cooling to room temperature, the remaining 60% transforms to martensite. Hence, the final
microstructure consists of about 40% bainite and 60% martensite.

(f) Cool rapidly to 400C (750F), hold for 200 s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.



After cooling and holding at 400C for 200 s, the entire specimen has transformed to bainite. Therefore,
during the cooling to room temperature no additional transformations will occur. Hence, the final microstructure
consists of 100% bainite.

(g) Rapidly cool to 575C (1065F), hold for 20 s, rapidly cool to 350C (660F), hold for 100 s, then
quench to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.


After cooling and holding at 575C for 20 s, the entire specimen has transformed to fine pearlite. Therefore,
during the second heat treatment at 350C no additional transformations will occur. Hence, the final microstructure
consists of 100% fine pearlite.

(h) Rapidly cool to 250C (480F), hold for 100 s, then quench to room temperature in water. Reheat to
315C (600F) for 1 h and slowly cool to room temperature.

Solution
Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.


After cooling and holding at 250C for 100 s, no transformations will have occurredat this point, the
entire specimen is still austenite. Upon rapidly cooling to room temperature in water, the specimen will completely
transform to martensite. The second heat treatment (at 315C for 1 h)not shown on the above plotwill
transform the material to tempered martensite. Hence, the final microstructure is 100% tempered martensite.


10.23 Name the microstructural products of eutectoid ironcarbon alloy (0.76 wt% C) specimens
that are first completely transformed to austenite, then cooled to room temperature at the following rates:
(a) 200C/s,
(b) 100C/s, and
(c) 20C/s.

Solution
We are called upon to name the microstructural products that form for specimens of an iron-carbon alloy of
eutectoid composition that are continuously cooled to room temperature at a variety of rates. Figure 10.27 is used in
these determinations.
(a) At a rate of 200C/s, only martensite forms.
(b) At a rate of 100C/s, both martensite and pearlite form.
(c) At a rate of 20C/s, only fine pearlite forms.


10.25 Cite two important differences between continuous cooling transformation diagrams for plain carbon and
alloy steels.

Solution
Two important differences between continuous cooling transformation diagrams for plain carbon and alloy
steels are: (1) for an alloy steel, a bainite nose will be present, which nose will be absent for plain carbon alloys; and
(2) the pearlite-proeutectoid noses for plain carbon steel alloys are positioned at shorter times than for the alloy
steels.
10.29 On the basis of diffusion considerations, explain why fine pearlite forms for the moderate cooling of austenite
through the eutectoid temperature, whereas coarse pearlite is the product for relatively slow cooling rates.

Solution
For moderately rapid cooling, the time allowed for carbon diffusion is not as great as for slower cooling
rates. Therefore, the diffusion distance is shorter, and thinner layers of ferrite and cementite form (i.e., fine pearlite
forms).
10.33 Briefly explain why the hardness of tempered martensite diminishes with tempering time (at constant
temperature) and with increasing temperature (at constant tempering time).

Solution
This question asks for an explanation as to why the hardness of tempered martensite diminishes with
tempering time (at constant temperature) and with increasing temperature (at constant tempering time). The
hardness of tempered martensite depends on the ferrite-cementite phase boundary area; since these phase
boundaries are barriers to dislocation motion, the greater the area the harder the alloy. The microstructure of
tempered martensite consists of small sphere-like particles of cementite embedded within a ferrite matrix. As the
size of the cementite particles increases, the phase boundary area diminishes, and the alloy becomes softer.
Therefore, with increasing tempering time, the cementite particles grow, the phase boundary area decreases, and the
hardness diminishes. As the tempering temperature is increased, the rate of cementite particle growth also increases,
and the alloy softens, again, because of the decrease in phase boundary area.