AE3145 Spring 2000

1
Resistance Strain Gage Circuits
How do you measure strain in an electrical resistance strain
gage using electronic instrumentation?
Topics
basic gage characteristics
Wheatstone Bridge circuitry
Bridge completion, balancing, calibration, switching
Course Notes provide complete coverage.
See reference text for further details.
AE3145 Spring 2000
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Resistance in Metallic Conductor
L L
Wire before and after strain is applied
A
L
R =
Resistance Equation:
A A
L L
A
L
R
+
+
+ = ) (
Change in R:

=
A
L
d dR R
Differential change in R:
or:
A
dA
L
dL d
R
dR
+ =

) 2 1 ( + + =
d
R
dR
After a bit of manipulation:
DEFINE Gage Factor (GF):

R dR
GF FACTOR GAGE
/
= =
Ferry alloy
1 2 3
0
1
2
3
4
% Strain
% R/R
Nickel
10%
rhodium/
platinum
Constantan alloy
40% gold/palladium
GF is the slope of
these curves
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Examples
Table 1. Gage Factors for Various Grid Materials
Gage Factor (GF) Material
Low Strain High Strain
Ultimate Elongation
(%)
Copper 2.6 2.2 0.5
Constantan* 2.1 1.9 1.0
Nickel -12 2.7 --
Platinum 6.1 2.4 0.4
Silver 2.9 2.4 0.8
40% gold/palladium 0.9 1.9 0.8
Semiconductor** ~100 ~600 --
* similar to Ferry and Advance and Copel alloys.
** semiconductor gage factors depend highly on the level and kind of doping used.
Example 1
Assume a gage with GF =2.0 and resistance 120 Ohms. It is subjected to a strain of 5
microstrain (equivalent to about 50 psi in aluminum). Then
! % 001 . 0
0012 . 0
) 120 )( 6 5 ( 2
change
Ohms
e
R GF R
=
=
=
=
Example 2
Now assume the same gage is subjected to 5000 microstrain or about 50,000 psi in
aluminum:
change
Ohms
e
R GF R
% 1
2 . 1
) 120 )( 6 5000 ( 2
=
=
=
=
AE3145 Spring 2000
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Resistance Measuring Circuits
Constant
Current
Source
e R
i
Current Injection
e R
g
R
b
ballast
E
Ballast Circuit
b g
g
R R
R
e
+
=
( )
( )
( )
GF
R R
E R R
R
dR
R R
E R R
E
R R
dR R
R R
dR
de
g b
g b
g
g
g b
g b
b g
g g
b g
g
2
2
2
)
+
=
+
=

+
=
Impractical resolution problems
Output:
Small changes:
E
GF
de
4
=
Optimal output (R
b
=R
g
):
e+de=E/2 + GF/4 E
Output includes E/2 plus
an incremental, de, which
is VERY small!
Output includes E/2 plus
an incremental, de, which
is VERY small!
AE3145 Spring 2000
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Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
DC
e
R
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
e
DC
R
2
R
1
R
4
R
3
Wheatstone Bridge
Back-to-back Ballast Circuits
E
R R R R
R R R R
E
R R
R
R R
R
e
) )( (
4 3 2 1
3 1 4 2
4 3
3
2 1
2
+ +

+
=
R
2
R
4
= R
1
R
3
Output:
Balance Condition:
AE3145 Spring 2000
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Linearized Bridge Equations
E
R
dR
R
dR
R R
R R
R
dR
R
dR
R R
R R
de
1

|
|

\
|

+
+
|
|

\
|

+
=
4
4
3
3
2
4 3
4 3
2
2
1
1
2
2 1
2 1
) ( ) (
[ ]E
GF
e
4 3 2 1
4
+ =
The equation identifies the first order (differential) effects only, and so this is the
linearized form. It is valid only for small (infinitesimal) resistance changes. Large
resistance changes produce nonlinear effects and these are shown in Figure 3 where
finite changes in R (R) in a single arm are considered for an initially balanced
bridge.
Output is directly proportional to the excitation voltage and to the Gage Factor.
Increasing either will improve measurement sensitivity.
Equal strain in gages in adjacent arms in the circuit produce no output. Equal strain in
all gages produces no output either.
Fixed resistors rather than strain gages may be used as bridge arms. In this case the
strain contribution is zero and the element is referred to as a dummy element or
gage.
Differential ouput:
Assuming initially balanced bridge:
Using definition of GF
and e+de=de:
E
R
dR
R
dR
R
dR
R
dR
de

+ =
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
4
1
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
R/ R
e
/
E
Nonlinear effects
Linearized result
AE3145 Spring 2000
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Temperature Effects
Gage material can respond as much to temperature as to strain:
For isoelastic material:
0
/ 260
74 /
3.5
dR R
microstrain F
GF
= = =
Table 2. Properties of Various Strain Gage Grid Materials
Material Composition Use GF Resistivity
(Ohm/mil-ft)
Temp.
Coef. of
Resistance
(ppm/F)
Temp.
Coef. of
Expansion
(ppm/F)
Max
Operating
Temp. (F)
Constantan 45% NI, 55%
Cu
Strain
Gage
2.0 290 6 8 900
Isoelastic 36% Ni, 8%
Cr, 0.5% Mo,
55.5% Fe
Strain
gage
(dynamic)
3.5 680 260 800
Manganin 84% Cu, 12%
Mn, 4% Ni
Strain
gage
(shock)
0.5 260 6
Nichrome 80% Ni, 20%
Cu
Ther-
mometer
2.0 640 220 5 2000
Iridium-
Platinum
95% Pt, 5% Ir Ther-
mometer
5.1 135 700 5 2000
Monel 67% Ni, 33%
Cu
1.9 240 1100
Nickel -12 45 2400 8
Karma 74% Ni, 20%
Cr, 3% Al, 3%
Fe
Strain
Gage
(hi temp)
2.4 800 10 1500
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Temperature Effects - contd
Strains can appear due to differential expansion also:
Consider a constantan gage on aluminum
Constantan=8 strain /F and aluminum=13 strain/F
Combining with direct temperature effects in constantan:
Gages are cold-worked to match thermal properties of selected
substrate materials:
0
13 8 5 / microstrain F = =
F n microstrai
0
/ 8 5 3 = + =
Table 3. Materials for which Strain Gages can be Compensated (typical)
PPM/F Material
3 Molybdenum
6 Steel; titanium
9 Stainless steel, Copper
13 Aluminum
15 Magnesium
40 Plastics
AE3145 Spring 2000
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Gage Heating: Excitation Voltage Limits
Gage output can be increased by increasing excitation
this also increases current flow through gage
creates direct resistance heating (P=E
2
/R)
Table 4. Strain Gage Power Densities for Specified Accuracies on Different
Substrates
Accuracy Substrate
Conductivity
Substrate Thickness Power Density (r)
(Watts/sq. in.)
High Good thick 2-5
High Good thin 1-2
High Poor thick O.5-1
High Poor thin 0.05-0.2
Average Good thick 5-10
Average Good thin 2-5
Average Poor thick 1-2
Average Poor thin 0.1-O.5
Table Notes:
Good =aluminum, copper
Poor =steels, plastics, fiberglass
Thick =thickness greater than gage element length
Thin =thickness less than gage element length
AE3145 Spring 2000
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We can compute excitation limits
Power dissipated in a gage:
Power density in the gage (power per unit area) from previous:
Maximum excitation depends on:
maximum power density allowed
gage area
gage resistance
2
4
g
g
E
P
R
=
g g
g g g
P P
A L W
= =
max
2
g g g
E L W R =
Computations
AE3145 Spring 2000
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Wheatstone Bridge Compensation
A desirable characteristic of the Wheatstone Bridge is its ability
to compensate for certain kinds of problems.
Consider temperature induced changes in strain:

:
If we are careful how these extra terms are combined in the
bridge equation, it is possible to cancel them out.
This is called bridge compensation.
[ ]
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
4 4
T T T T
GF GF
e E E

= + + +

AE3145 Spring 2000

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Application:
Half-bridge compensation:
If gages experience same temperature change, then the
effects are automatically cancelled in the bridge.
RULE #1: equal changes in adjacent arms will cancel out.
NOTE: Single gages cannot be compensated...
DC
e
1 2
3 4
( ) ( )E
GF
E
GF
e
T T
2 1 2 1
4 4
+ =
since gages #3 and #4 are dummy resistances
and therefor experience no strain or
temperature changes (if located together).
AE3145 Spring 2000
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Leadwire Effects
When gages are located long distances from the instrumentation,
the effect of the added leadwire resistance can unbalance the
bridge:
For 100 ft of 26 AWG wire in two leadwires:
R=40.8*100/1000*2 = 8.16 Ohms
compared to a 120 Ohm gage.
A 3-wire hookup can eliminate the unbalance problem:
since each leadwire resistance appears in adjacent arms (RULE #1)
DC
e
A
E
C
B
D
A'
This looks like a
duplicated wire but
it really puts a
leadwire in AAE
and another in ABC
This looks like a
duplicated wire but
it really puts a
leadwire in AAE
and another in ABC
AE3145 Spring 2000
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Leadwire Desensitization
Added leadwire resistance in an arm will also desensitize the gage.
Consider a single arm:
We can correct by defining a new gage factor:
Example:
*
(1 )
1
GF
GF GF

=
+
*
64.9
2 300 38.9
1000
38.9/120 0.324
2.0
1.51
1 1.324
s
R Ohms
GF
GF

= =
= =
= = =
+
DC
e
R
R R
R
g
R
S
*
1 1
4 4
1
GF
e E GF E

= =
+
Two 300 ft lengths of
28 AWG wire for a 120
Ohm gage with initial
GF=2.0
Two 300 ft lengths of
28 AWG wire for a 120
Ohm gage with initial
GF=2.0
New GF*
New GF*
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Other Issues
Bridge balancing: how do you get rid of any initial unbalance in
the bridge due to unequal initial gage resistances?
Bridge switching: how can you use a single Wheatstone Bridge
instrument in order to read outputs from several different strain
gages?
Interbridge switching
Intrabridge switching
AE3145 Spring 2000
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Wheatstone Bridge Applications
Gages can be arranged in a Wheatstone Bridge to cancel some
strain components and to amplify others:
Table 5. Bridge Configurations for Uniaxial Members
No. K Configuration Notes
A-1 1
1
Must use dummy gage in an adjacent arm (2
or 4) to achieve temperature compensation
A-2 2
1
3
Rejects bending strain but not temperature
compensated; must add dummy gages in
arms 2 & 4 to compensate for temperature.
A-3 (1+)
1
2
Temperature compensated but sensitive to
bending strains
A-4 2(1+)
1
4
2
3
Best: compensates for temperature and
rejects bending strain.
AE3145 Spring 2000
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Wheatstone Bridge Applications - contd
Bending applications:
Table 6. Bridge Configurations for Flexural Members
No. K Configuration Notes
F-1 1
1
Also responds equally to axial strains; must
use dummy gage in an adjacent arm (2 or 4)
to achieve temperature compensation
F-2 2
1
2
Half-bridge; rejects axial strain and is
temperature compensated; dummy resistors
in arms 3 & 4 can be in strain indicator.
F-3 4
1
3
2
4
Best: Max sensitivity to bending; rejects axial
strains; temperature compensated.
F-4 2(1+)
1
4
2
3
Adequate, but not as good as F-3;
compensates for temperature and rejects
axial strain.
AE3145 Spring 2000
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Wheatstone Bridge Applications - contd
Torsion applications:
Table 7. Bridge Configuration for Torsion Members
No. K Configuration Notes
T-1 2
1
2
Half Bridge: Gages at 45 to centerline
sense principal strains which are equal &
opposite for pure torsion; bending or axial
force induces equal strains and is rejected;
arms are temperature compensated.
T-2 4
1
2
4
3
Best: full-bridge version of T-1; rejects axial
and bending strain and is temperature
compensated.
AE3145 Spring 2000
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Wheatstone Bridge Applications - contd
Rings loaded diametrically are very popular as a means to
transduce load by converting it into a proportional strain:
How would one wire the gages to best advantage in a
Wheatstone Bridge?
1
2
4
3