Reuse of Water in Cotton Pretreatment

Reuse of Water in Cotton Pretreatments 2011
NIFT, GANDHINAGAR Page 1

REUSE OF WATER IN
COTTON PRETREATMENT

A
Report
SUBMITTED IN THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR THE PROJECT OF
MASTERS
IN
FASHION TECHNOLOGY
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF FASHION TECHNOLOGY
BY
SOUVIK MANDAL

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF FASHION TECHNOLOGY
GANDHINAGAR, GUJARAT



ABSTRACT
Water savings, reclamation and reuse in industry are topics of increasing
economic interest due to increasing water scarcity and costs. For this reason, research
and development activities within this topic is increasing, methods and tools for
analyzing water savings and reuse possibilities are being developed, and solutions are
being implemented. Textile processing is one of the largest and oldest industries
worldwide and responsible for substantial resource consumption and pollution. The
wet processing part of the industry, i.e. pre-treatment, dyeing, printing and finishing,
is especially polluting and resource consuming in terms of water, energy and
chemicals. It entails a vast variety of water consuming processes, and like in most
industries, freshwater is used in all processes with almost no exceptions. It was known
for many years that fresh water is not needed by all processes taking place in textile
wet treatment. However conservatism and consideration for product quality in the
industry have until recently prevented substantial water reuse from breaking through
in practice.
One of the aspects for water conservation is reusing the same bath for several
times. This technique can be used only in pre-treatments i.e. scouring and bleaching.
It can save water as well as chemicals on large extent in scouring as whole bath is
reused. In bleaching except H
2
O
2
all auxiliaries in bath can be reused. Minimization
in the effluent load can be observed by tests carried out on effluent from each process
of scouring and bleaching. To observe the efficiency of the processes carried out
samples from each process are tested.



INTRODUCTION

Auxiliary chemicals used in textile mills are developed to be resistant to
environmental influences. Disposal of water can result in wastage and also results in
groundwater contamination, gas formation and problems with odors. As regulations
become more stringent, companies are forced towards more technologically
sophisticated treatment methods. This results in an increased cost for water
management. More and more companies realize that water consumption at the source
is necessary to reduce the cost of treatment.
In 1990, Congress passed the Pollution Prevention Act. This act reaffirms the
federal objective of the Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act
(Title III of SARA of 1986). (Ref 10)
Pollution prevention is defined as those measures that eliminate or reduce
pollution prior to off-site recycling or treatment. In the Pollution Prevention Act, the
Congress defines a multimedia waste management hierarchy. Source reduction stands
at the top of the waste management hierarchy and is followed by reuse.
Reducing the volume of water released through this act can be accomplished
by conservation and more efficient use of resources. Source reduction can be achieved
by the following techniques: optimization/conservation of chemicals, chemical
substitution process modification, equipment modification and improved maintenance
and housekeeping. The objective of this research is to reduce water and chemical
drainages in the textile wet processing industry. This was achieved through an
extensive literature review. In the literature review, the different textile wet
processing operations are briefly discussed, and a description of various source
reduction techniques is provided. [10]



LITERATURE REVIEW

The preparation, dyeing and finishing of textile products consume large
amounts of energy, chemicals and water. These wet-processing operations require the
use of several chemical baths that, often at elevated temperature, give the desired
characteristics to the yam or fabric. This section describes the different wet-
processing techniques used in the production of cotton fabric. The same techniques
are used when other types of fiber are processed, but differences will occur in the
amount of raw materials required. Cotton has been chosen for this literature review
because 70% by weight of the fibers processed are cotton fibers. Furthermore,
processing natural fibers requires more processing than manufactured fibers. (Ref 10)
The sequence for cotton wet processing is schematically represented in Figure.
These processes are usually done in batch, continuous or semi-continuous systems. In
batch systems, the machine is loaded with a fixed amount of fabric, chemical
solutions are added, and the process is conducted. After processing, the chemical bath
is discharged, and the fabric is washed. Subsequent processing is usually done in the
same machine. In continuous systems, the chemical mix is placed in pans, and the
fabric runs through the machine continuously. (Ref 6)
Cotton wet processing can be divided into three steps. Preparation removes all
the natural impurities from the cotton and chemical residuals from previous
processing. Natural impurities include waxes, oils, proteins, mineral matter and
residuals seeds. The cotton contains a significant amount of contaminants resulting
from the widespread use of fertilizers, insecticides and fungicides. Previous knitting
or weaving processes leave residuals of knitting oils and sizing chemicals on the
surface of the cotton fibers. All these impurities must be removed before dyeing,
because they can interfere with the dyeing process. Insufficient preparation can result
in an uneven dyeing, can cause spotting or can even damage the fabric permanently.



Desizing:
After the weaving process, the sizes have to be removed from the fabric
because they interfere with subsequent processing steps. Sizes have, in general, a high
biological oxygen demand (BOD) and will contribute significantly to the waste load
of the mills effluent. Three methods frequently used in textile processing are acid
desizing, enzyme desizing, and oxidative desizing. The goal of these different
methods is to hydrolyze the starch. Unlike starch, synthetic starches stay intact during
desizing, can be recovered and reused.

Scouring:
Scouring is typically performed in an alkaline solution and high temperature
environment. The removal of natural impurities is based upon saponification and
hydrolysis at high pH and temperature. Soaps and detergents added during scouring
may precipitate with calcium, magnesium and iron (3+) if present. These metals are
therefore removed by the addition of reducing and sequestering agents. The
sequesterants will form strong complexes with calcium, magnesium and iron (2+) at
high pH. The reducing agents are added to reduce Fe3+ to Fe2+. The removal of
natural impurities can be done in a single process or can be combined with desizing
and/or bleaching. The use of sequestering and reducing agents can be avoided when
softened water is used. Scouring is usually the first step in the processing of knitted
goods and will remove the knitting oils which were applied to the yarn prior to
knitting.

Bleaching:
Almost all fabric containing cellulosics are being bleached to remove the
natural colored matter. Three chemicals are commonly used are hydrogen peroxide,
sodium hypochlorite and sodium chlorite. In sodium hypochlorite bleaching, the
washed, and scoured fabric is passed through a dilute sodium hypochlorite bath for
impregnation (saturator) and stored in a J-box or a large pit. After bleaching, the
goods are washed and treated with antichlor (NaHSO3) to remove any traces of
bleach. Bleaching with sodium chlorite is most efficient at pH 4.02. However,
chlorine dioxide, a gas with a low threshold limit value for inhalation, is formed at


this pH. Sufficient care must be taken to protect operators from chlorine dioxide
fumes. Hydrogen peroxide bleaching is carried out under alkaline conditions. (Ref 25)
As a result, scouring and peroxide bleaching can often be conducted in one step.
During peroxide bleaching, stabilizers are added for two reasons. Stabilizers
inactivate metal impurities that may cause catalytic decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide. They also act as buffers. A stabilizer frequently used is colloidal sodium
silicate.

Water usage:
Experience has shown that the amount of water required in textile processing
varies widely, even between similar wet processing at different sites. The data shown
in Table give typical quantities water used for various types of processes. This
indicates the site-specific nature and details of water use in various processing
situations. Many mills have very high water costs, especially when the water is being
purchased from a municipal system. These operations usually are much more
conservative with water than others with less costly sources.

Water Uses in Textile Wet Processing:
Various textile wet processes are influenced in different ways by the presence
of impurities in the water supply. There are several major water use categories to be
considered, including water for processing, potable purposes, utility, and laboratory
use. Each requires different water-quality parameters. Process uses (preparation,
dyeing, and finishing) Include making concentrated bulk chemical stock solutions,
substrate treatment solutions (bleach, dye bath, or finish mix), and washing. Utility
use includes noncontact uses such as cooling water, boiler use, humidifier systems,
equipment cleaning, etc. If provided to employees in drinking fountains, etc. These
potable water supplies must be free of toxic and bacterial contaminants, many of
which are of little or no consequence in processing situations. On the other hand, the
presence of chlorine, iron, and treatment chemicals commonly found in potable water
can have a major impact on textile processes.
It is common practice in some mills 'to use potable water for the laboratory
supply while using non potable water for production processing. Since potable water
is usually chlorinated, it can alter the shade of dyeing or cause other effects on
processing. This sometimes contributes to poor lab-to dye house correlations for dye


recipes or other correlation problems. (Ref 1) Impurities such as hardness can cause
problems in boiler water or water used in humidification in production areas such as
spinning, weaving, knitting, and inspection areas. Hardness in water used in direct
atomization humidification systems, for example, has been shown to cause false
elevation of cotton dust levels in cotton processing areas.

Water Conservation
One area that can usually render cost savings and other benefits for a textile
wet processor is the practice of water conservation. It is not unusual to find situations
where 20% or more reduction in water use can be realized. Commonly observed
sources of water waste are hoses left running, broken or missing valves, cooling water
left running when machinery is shut down, defective toilets, and water coolers.
Several methods have been used to recover and reuse water as a conservation
measure. To accomplish this, it is necessary to segregate waste water streams. Once
through, noncontact cooling water can be reused by sending it back to a clear well or
influent water line to the mill. This can result in significant water savings. Waste
streams from roof drains and parking lot drains, cooling water sources, process waste
water, and domestic waste can sometimes be segregated, treated, and reused and or
discharged separately to mill's advantage. Details are usually site specific. Probably
the highest water use in textile wet processing is for the general purpose of washing,
particularly in preparation and dyeing. Since many washing processes are continuous,
well known techniques such as counter current washing can be used to great
advantage for water conservation. Different types of dyeing machinery use different
amounts of water. There are many low-liquor ratio dyeing machines which are
purported to save water. The liquor ratio is the ratio of amount of water (in pounds) in
an exhaust dye bath to amount of fabric (in pounds). This differs greatly between
machine types. However, most water in dyeing operations is used for washing, and
not in dye bath itself. Thus It is not necessarily true that a dyeing machine with 10:1
liquor ratio will use half as much water as a dyeing machine with 20:l liquor ratio.
The information In Table (ref 1) it indicates the values for liquor ratios and water
consumption for various types of dyeing machinery. Using low liquor ratio dyeing
equipment can cause major energy savings. But the washing efficiency of many types
of low liquor ratio dyeing machines, such as jigs, is poor. Washing efficiency depends


on mechanical factors, such as bath and fabric turnover rate or "contacts", liquor ratio,
turbulence and other mechanical considerations and physical flow characteristics.
Thus, lower liquor ratio and reduced total water use do not always correlate closely as
one might expect. One water conservation strategy which is widely practiced by dyers
of cotton fabrics is reverse dyeing using and fiber reactive dyes.

Other routine strategies involve combining, bleaching, scouring, and or
desizing, dyeing of two fibers in one bath for blends whenever possible; and
combining the scouring and dyeing of synthetics or cotton when strict shade
requirements do not have to be met. These are widely practiced and vary greatly with
end user requirements, shade, fastness, specific blend, and equipment.
(Ref 1)

Sources and characteristics of water
There are many sources of water, the most common being "Surface sources, such
as
Rivers
Deep wells
Municipal or public water
Reclaimed waste streams
These water sources vary widely in types and concentrations of contaminants.
Many impurities which commonly occur in textile water sources affect textile
processes in various ways, both positively and detrimentally. The most common
impurities, which are present in almost all water supplies to some extent, are:


Heavy metals: iron, copper, and manganese
Water hardness: Calcium and magnesium
Miscellaneous anions
Sediment, clay, suspended solids
Acidity, alkalinity, and oil and grease
Dissolved solids

Testing for commonly occurring contaminants in water
There are many quick qualitative spot tests for detection of trace quantities
of ions and elements in water. In some cases other ions may interfere with the test for
a specific ion, so care must be taken in conducting these tests. There are also
quantitative tests for determining the exact concentration of cations such as calcium,
magnesium, iron, copper, and manganese in water. These ions are usually analyzed by
EDTA (ethylene diamine tetracetic acid) titration and the techniques and procedures
are summarized the following is a description of quick spot tests for commonly
occurring contaminants. Because of long term (seasonal) and short term variations in
water quality, testing should be done on a fairly frequent basis to really get a good
idea of the actual overall water quality available to the mill. Before attempting these
or any other chemical tests, be familiar with all necessary safe handling precautions
for all chemicals involved. If in doubt, consult the manufacturer of the chemical.
(ref. 16)
Suspended matter: The presence of sediment, clay, and suspended matter can
be determined by filtration. A 50 to 100 ml sample of water is filtered with suction
through a glass fiber filter which has been pre - weighed to the nearest milligram. The
collected solids are washed several times with distilled water, and the filter containing
the solids then dried at 103% for 1 hour, cooled in a glass desiccators, and weighed.
The suspended matter is then calculated as follows:

Mg of residue *1000
ppm total suspended solids = -----------------------------------------
ml of water sample



Dissolved solids are obtained by determining total solids and subtracting total
suspended solids. Total solids are determined by evaporating a sample of the water or
dryness and determining the weight of residue. To do this, weigh a clean dry weighing
dish to the nearest milligram, then add 100 ml of the water to the dish and evaporate
at 103%. Cool In a desiccators and weigh the dish containing the residue. Dissolved
solids can be calculated as follows:
total solids weight * 1000
ppm total solids = -------------------------------------------------
ml of water sample

Dissolved solids = total solids minus total suspended solids

The alkalinity of water is a measure of the water's capacity to neutralize an
acid. It is, therefore, related to the water's buffering capacity, or its capacity to resist a
change in pH as acid is added. Alkalinity determination is usually made by titrating to
an end point with an indicator or pH meter, and is reported as ppm carbonate.
Alkalinity due to carbonates, bicarbonates, and hydroxides is determined by this
procedure. A 50 ml sample of water is pipetted into a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask. Two
drops of methyl orange indicator are added and the water is titrated with 0.02 N
sulphuric acid to the end point. Total alkalinity is calculated as follows:

ml sulphuric acid * 1000
Total alkalinity (ppm as CaCo3,) = -------------------------------------
ml of water sample

Dissolved or emulsified oil and grease in water can be determined
gravimetrically by extraction with trichlorotrifluoroethane followed by evaporation of
the solvent. The procedure is quite detailed, other organic materials interfere, and
there is usually some loss of short chain hydrocarbons in the evaporation of the
solvent. The procedure for the analysis is described in a joint publication by the
Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution


Control Federation: This reference Is also an excellent source for standard methods of
analysis of contaminants in water.(ref 16)

(Ref 1)



On-Site Water Purification
Perhaps the most common type of water purification practiced on site is the
use of filters. These fall in to three broad categories, including sand and gravel filters
for particulates and sediment, carbon filters for chlorine and organics, and ion-
exchange systems for metals and anions. These are effective if properly used.
However in many cases the expected degree of protection is not obtained. One
practice which defeats the effectiveness of filters is bypassing. This is done in some
cases when the water demand is high, such as during start up shifts. Also, poor
maintenance of filter' media can render a filter system ineffective. It is not unusual to
see a wet-processing operation with filters which have not had the media changed in
several years. These must be replaced or regenerated in accordance with the
manufacturer's recommendations in order to maintain good performance. Finally, the
water must be pre-treated if necessary to insure that the filter can do its job. Iron from
deep wells, for example, can pass through filters in soluble form, then become
oxidized in a clear well to produce a brown stain and sediment on substrate. In order
to accomplish complete removal, iron should be oxidized prior to filtration. (Ref 13)

SPECIFIC WATER CONSUMPTION
The specific water consumption is calculated using the following formulae.
Amount of water consumed
Specific water consumption = -------------------------------------------
Amount of product produced
Water is consumed both in process operation like washing and also in
boilers for getting steam. The specific water consumption of the various processing
units audited is given in Figure. There is a wide variation of specific water
consumption in these units in view of the variation of the product being produced, the
variation in the machinery used and also due to the variation in the process applied in
different stages of processing. However, after accounting for these variations based on
the benchmarks, it is observed that all these audited units still consume excessive
water. Hence, there is a considerable potential for water conservation. These excess
usages occur due to the following factors:-


Over-usage of water in the winches.
Due to high temperature, flash steam escapes from the dye liquor.
Leakage of water in pipelines and equipments, etc.
Dead storage in the sump and feed water tank and also leakage in these
systems.
Excessive usage of water for cleaning, gardening and labour usage.
Improper process sequencing.
Reprocessing operations.
Normally the excessive water usage considering the wastage alone in most of
the units works out to be 10% 20% on the average. Since the water is bought from
outside, it is necessary to reduce the wastage to the lowest minimum, which will
decrease the overall production cost.



(Ref 4)


(Ref.no.4)

WATER BALANCE IN UNITS
Figure 3 provides the average water use balance of the audited units. From the
total water balance, it is observed that about 12% to 15% of water is lost due to
washing and
other leakages.

WATER CONSERVATION MEASURES
A number of measures can be adopted for saving the water consumption,
which are listed below:
Reduction in wastewater volume.
Washing and rinsing improvements.
Improvement in the quality of water by proper water treatment.
Recovering the condensate from the indirect use of steam and using it
as process water.
Use of steam in indirect manner helps to recover the pure condensate and this
can be used as boiler feed water. This will reduce the make-up of water required for
the plant. The amount of effluent from the process also gets reduced.

(Ref 4)


(Ref.no.4)

Washing and Rinsing
These are the most common operations in textile processing. Many processes
involve washing and rinsing stages and therefore optimization of these processes can
conserve significant amounts of water. The washing and rinsing requires about 70% -
75% more water than the other stages like bleaching and dyeing. Several typical
washing and rinsing processes include
drop and fill batch washing
overflow batch washing
continuous washing
Based on the system and equipment it is possible to adopt an appropriate
process so that water use can be controlled. Moreover, in many type of operations,
wash water can be reused for cleaning purposes. In printing, clean up activities can be
performed with used wash water including screen and squeeze cleaning, collar strip,
clean up equipment and facilitates cleaning.



A typical preparation department may also reuse wash water as follows:
Reuse scour rinses for desizing
Reuse mercerise wash water for scouring
Reuse bleach wash water for desizing
Reuse water-jet loom wash water for desizing
Water Consumption in Textiles
Water is used extensively throughout textile processing operations. Almost all
dyes, specialty chemicals, and finishing chemicals are applied to textile substrates
from water baths. In addition, most fabric preparation steps, including desizing,
scouring, bleaching, and mercerizing, use aqueous systems. The amount of water used
varies widely in the industry, depending on specific processes operated at the mill,
equipment used, and prevailing management philosophy concerning water use.
Reducing water consumption in textile processing is important for furthering pollution
prevention efforts, due in part because excess water use dilutes pollutants and adds to
the effluent load. Mills that currently use excessive quantities of water can achieve
large gains from pollution prevention. A reduction in water use of 10 to 30 percent
can be accomplished by taking fairly simple measures. A walkthrough
Audit can uncover water waste in the form of:
Hoses left running.
Broken or missing valves.
Excessive water use in washing operations.
Leaks from pipes, joints, valves, and pumps.
Cooling water or wash boxes left running when machinery is shut down.
Defective toilets and water coolers.
In addition, many less obvious causes of water waste exist. These causes are
presented below by subcategory, unit process, and machine type.(ref 14)

Subcategory
Textile operations vary greatly in water consumption. Figure 1 summarizes the
water consumption of various types of operations. Wool and felted fabrics processes
are more water intensive than other processing subcategories such as wovens, knits,
stock, and carpet. Water use can vary widely between similar operations as well. For
example, knit mills average 10 gallons of water per pound of production, yet water


use ranges from a low of 2.5 gallons to a high of 45.2 gallons. These data serve as a
good benchmark for determining whether water use in a particular mill is excessive.

(Ref. No. 2)


Water consumption varies greatly among unit processes, as indicated in Figure
2. Certain dyeing processes and print after-washing are among the more intensive unit
processes. Within the dye category, certain unit processes are particularly low in
water consumption (e.g., pad-batch).

Machine Type
Different types of processing machinery use different amounts of water,
particularly in relation to the bath ratio in dyeing processes (the ratio of the mass of
water in an exhaust dye bath to the mass of fabric). Washing fabric consumes greater
quantities of water than dyeing. Water consumption of a batch processing machine
depends on its bath ratio and also on mechanical factors such as agitation, mixing,
bath and fabric turnover rate (called contact), turbulence and other mechanical
consideration as well as physical flow characteristics involved in washing operations.
These factors all affect washing efficiency. In general, heating, wash, and dye baths
constitute the major portion of energy consumed in dyeing. Therefore, low bath-ratio
dyeing equipment not only conserves water but also saves energy, in addition to
reducing steam use and air pollution from boilers. Low-bath-ratio dyeing machines
conserve chemicals as well as water and also achieve higher fixation efficiency. But
the washing efficiency of some types of low-bath-ratio dyeing machines, such as jigs,
is inherently poor; therefore, a correlation between bath ratio and total water use is not
always exact.

Process Water Conservation
Washing

Washing and rinsing operations are two of the most common operations in
textile manufacturing that have significant potential for pollution prevention. Many
processes involve washing and rinsing stages, and optimizing wash processes can
conserve significant amounts of water. In some cases, careful auditing and
implementation of controls can achieve
Waste water reductions of up to 70 percent. The washing and rinsing stages of
preparation typically require more water than the other stages (e.g., bleaching,
dyeing). (Ref 2)



Several typical washing and rinsing processes include:
Drop and fill batch washing.
Overflow batch washing.
Continuous washing (countercurrent, horizontal, or inclined washers)
A report on water consumption for a typical continuous bleach range found
that consumption was more than 11,000 gallons per hour, or 270,000 million gallons
per day. (See Figure 3.) Washing stages accounted for 9,900 gallons per hour, or 90
percent of the total. The application of the following simple, low-technology methods
of water conservation reduced water use:
Properly regulating flows: 300 gallons per hour savings.
Counter flowing bleach to scour: 3,000 gallons per hour savings.
Counter flowing scour to desize: 3,000 gallons per hour savings.
The total water savings without process modification was 150,000 million
gallons per day, or 55 percent of water use. A process modification such as a
combined one-stage bleach and scour also would save 6,200 gallons of water per
hour, or an additional 150,000 million gallons per day, along with energy savings.

(Ref no. 2)



Drop-Fill versus Overflow Washing
In the drop/fill method of batch washing, spent wash water is drained and the
machine is refilled with a fresh wash bath. The fabric or other substrate in the
machine retains much of the previous bath, perhaps as much as 350 percent owg. This
percentage can be reduced by mechanical means (e.g., extraction, blow down).
Comparison of several methods of washing after bleaching shows the benefits of
countercurrent wash methods, see Figure 4. Methods five and six, which implement
countercurrent washing, produce savings of 26 and 53 percent compared with the
standard drop/fill method. These results are based on comparisons of washing
processes that would produce the same degree of reduction of fabric impurities using
computer models. Countercurrent washing processes require the addition of holding
tanks and pumps. The capital cost of setting up such a reuse system typically is less
than Rs.2221000 and generates estimated savings of Rs.4219900 annually. In many
cases, reducing wastewater also reduces the need for expensive waste treatment
systems. (ref 16)

(Ref no. 2)



Reusing Wash Water
Many strategies can be applied for reusing wash water. Three of the most
common strategies are countercurrent washing, reducing carryover, and reusing wash
water for cleaning purposes.

Countercurrent Washing
The countercurrent washing method is relatively straightforward and
inexpensive to use in multi-stage washing processes. Basically, the least contaminated
water from the final wash is reused for the next-to-last wash and so on until the water
reaches the first wash stage, after which it is discharged. This technique is useful for
washing after continuous dyeing, printing, desizing, scouring, or bleaching. An
important variant of the countercurrent principle is horizontal or inclined
washers. Horizontal or inclined washing is more efficient because of the inherent
countercurrent nature of water flow within the process. The mechanical construction
of an inclined or horizontal countercurrent washer has to be much better than a
traditional vertical washer, however. Sloppy roll settings, weak or undersized rolls,
unevenness, bends, bows, biases, bearing play, or other misalignments within the
machine are much more important in a horizontal or inclined washer because the
weight of water pressing down on the fabric can cause it to sag, balloon, or stretch. If
properly constructed and maintained, horizontal or inclined washers can produce
high-quality fabrics while saving money and water.

Reducing Carryover
Because the purpose of washing is to reduce the amount of impurities in the
substrate, as much water as possible must be removed between sequential washing
steps in multistage washing operations. Water containing contaminants that is not
removed is .carried over into the next step, contributing to washing inefficiency.
Proper draining in batch drop/fill washing and proper extraction between steps in the
continuous washing process are important. Often, 350 percent owg is carried over in
typical drop/fill procedures. This amount can be reduced in some batch machines
(e.g., yarn package dyeing, stock dyeing) by using compressed air or vacuum blow
down between washing steps. In continuous washing operations, squeeze rolls or
vacuum extractors typically extract water between steps. (ref. 13)


Equipment employing vacuum technology to reduce drag out and carryover of
chemical solutions with cloth, stock, or yarn is used to increase washing efficiency in
multistage washing operations.
In one case history, a processor installed vacuum slots after each wash box in
an existing multistage continuous washing line and was able to reduce the number of
boxes from eight to three. Wash boxes with built-in vacuum extractors are available
for purchase, as well as washers for prints that combine successive spray and vacuum
slots without any bath for the fabric to pass through. Because the fabric is never
submerged, bleeding, marking off and staining of grounds is minimized, and water
use decreases. Another washer configuration with internal recycling capabilities is the
vertical counter flow washer, which sprays re circulated water onto the fabric and uses
rollers to squeeze waste through the fabric into a sump, here it is filtered and re
circulated. The filter is unique, consisting of continuous loops of polyester fabric that
rotate continuously and are cleaned of filtrate at one end with a spray of clean water.
This construction allows for maximum removal of suspended solids from water
before discharge or reuse in another process. High-efficiency washing with low water
use results. Energy use decreases greatly because less water must be heated.(ref 25)

A typical preparation department may also reuse wash water as follows:
Reuse scour rinses for desizing
Reuse mercerize wash water for scouring
Reuse bleach wash water for scouring
Reuse water-jet loom wash water for desizing
Recycle kier drains to saturator

Work Practices
Workers can greatly influence water use. Sloppy chemical handling and poor
housekeeping can result in excessive cleanup. Poor scheduling and mix planning also
can require excessive cleanup and lead to unnecessary cleaning of equipment like
machines and mix tanks. Leaks and spills should be reported and repaired promptly.
Equipment maintenance, especially maintenance of washing equipment, is essential.
Inappropriate work practices waste significant amounts of water, and good procedures
and training are important. When operations are controlled manually, an operations
audit checklist is helpful for operator reference, training, and retraining. In one case


history, a knitting mill experienced excessive water use on beck dyeing machines. A
study of operating practices revealed that each operator was filling the machines to a
different level. Some operators filled the becks to a depth of 16 inches, others as much
as 24 inches. Also, the amount of water used for washing varied. Some operators used
an overflow procedure, and others used drop/fill or half baths (repeatedly draining
half of the bath, then refilling it). Inspection of the written procedures showed that the
fill step simply said fill. The wash step simply said wash. Without training and
without a specific operating procedure, operators were left to determine water use on
their own. This case may seem extreme, but even the best mills, which have well-
documented production procedures, often do not have documented cleaning
procedures. Cleaning operations that contribute large amounts of pollution to the total
waste stream include machine cleaning, screen and squeegee cleaning, and drum
washing.

Engineering Controls
Every mill should have moveable water meters that can be installed on
individual machines to document water use and evaluate improvements. In practice,
mills rarely measure water use but rely on manufacturers claims concerning
equipment and water use. The manufacturers estimates are useful starting points for
evaluating water consumption, but the actual performance of equipment depends on
the chemical system used and the substrate. Therefore, water use is situation-specific
and should be measured on-site for accurate results. The water meters should be
regularly maintained and calibrated. Other important engineering controls, some of
which have been discussed in other sections of this chapter, include:
Flow control on washers
Flow control on cooling water (use minimum necessary)
Countercurrent washing
High extraction to reduce drag out
Recycle and reuse
Detection and repair of leaks
Detection and repair of defective toilets and water coolers (ref 2)
Machinery should be inspected and improved where possible to facilitate
cleaning and to reduce susceptibility to fouling. Bath ratios sometimes can be reduced


by using displacers that result in lower chemical requirements for pH control as well
as lower water use.

Process Changes

Processing Bath Reuse
Water from many processes can be renovated for reuse by a variety of
methods. Several research efforts are underway. In a few operations, up to 50 percent
of the treated wastewater is recycled directly back from the effluent to the raw-water
intake system with no adverse effects on production. In some cases, specific types of
wastewater can be recycled within a process or department. Examples are dye bath
reuse, bleach bath reuse, final rinse reuse as a loading bath for the next lot, wash
water reuse, countercurrent washing, and reuse for other purposes.

Bleach Bath Reuse
Cotton and cotton blend preparation (e.g., de-sizing, scouring, bleaching) are
performed using continuous or batch processes and usually are the largest water
consumers in a mill. Continuous processes are much easier to adapt to wastewater
recycling/reuse because the waste stream is continuous, shows fairly constant
characteristics, and usually is easy to segregate from other waste streams.

Waste-stream reuse in a typical bleach unit for polyester/cotton and 100-
percent cotton fabrics would include:
Recycling J-box and kier drain wastewater to saturators
Using countercurrent washing
Recycling continuous scour wash water to batch scouring
Recycling washer water to back gray blanket washing
Recycling washer water to screen and squeegee cleaning
Recycling washer water to color shop cleanup
Recycling washer water to equipment and facility cleaning
Reusing scour rinses for de-sizing
Reusing mercerize wash water for scouring (ref 16)



Preparation chemicals (including optical brighteners and tints), however, must
be selected in such a way that reuse does not create quality problems such as spotting.
Batch scouring and bleaching are less easy to adapt to recycling of waste streams
because streams occur intermittently, drains generally go into pits and are not easily
segregated, and batch preparation steps frequently are combined. With appropriate
holding tanks, however, bleach bath reuse can be practiced in A similar manner to dye
bath reuse, and several pieces of equipment are now available that have the necessary
holding tanks. The spent bleach bath contains all of the alkali and heat necessary for
the next bleaching operation. Peroxide and chelates must be added to reconstitute the
bath. Like dye bath reuse, the number of reuse cycles in bleach bath reuse is limited
by impurity buildup. The main impurities are metals, such as iron, that can interfere
with the bleaching reaction. New types of rope bleaching units for knits featuring six
to 12-stage jet transport systems have made continuous bleaching of most knit styles
possible. These units were introduced in the late 1970s and typically produce 40
pounds per minute of knit fabric or more than one million pounds per month based on
a three-shift, six-day operation. These machines have become very popular with large
knit processors because of their flexibility and ability to conserve energy, water, and
chemicals. They also have complete built-in countercurrent capabilities. These units
are being promoted for use in after washing fiber reactive and other types of dyes
(e.g., after pad batch dyeing) in addition to use as continuous knit preparation ranges.

Final Rinse Reuse as Loading Bath for Next Lot
One simple technique that saves water and, in some cases, BOD loading is to
reuse the final bath from one dyeing cycle to load the next lot. This technique works
well in situations where the same shade is being repeated or where the dyeing
machine is fairly clean. A good example of this technique is acid dyeing of nylon
hosiery. The final bath usually contains an emulsified softener that exhausts onto the
substrate, leaving the emulsifier in the bath. This technique can serve as the wetting
agent for loading the next batch, thus saving the water, heat, and wetting agent and
associated BOD.



Chemical Optimization and Conservation
In many mills, chemical are applied in excessive and unnecessary amounts.
The use of chemicals can often be reduced without any significant effects on the
quality of the product. . Sometimes chemicals arc added to counteract the negative
effects of other chemicals. Instead of adding more chemicals to the bath, the
offending chemicals should be substituted with a chemical(s) with fewer harmful
effects. Trying to avoid spillage and preparing precise quantities of chemical mixes
will not only conserve water but, more importantly, will reduce the strength of the
wastewater. It is very important to adjust the chemical mix to the weight, type and
style of the fabric being run. For example, it happens that the quantity of chemicals
used in continuous bleach ranges is set to treat the most difficult fabric. Consequently,
chemicals are wasted when an easier fabric is processed.
Control equipment will help to optimize the chemical dosage in continuous
processes. In these operations, the concentrations of the critical chemicals in the bath
are periodically checked. If the concentration of the chemical is either too low or too
high, the operator will adjust the feed. Poor results will occur when the concentration
of the chemical is too low. As a result, reworks arc often necessary. However, when
the concentration of the chemical is too high the fabric can be damaged permanently.
There is equipment on the market that maintains the chemical concentration of the
bath at predetermined levels. Installation of such automatic chemical feed can result
in significant savings due to lower chemical costs, fewer reworks and less damaged
fabric. During continuous bleaching, caustic and hydrogen peroxide are added to the
saturators of the bleach range by constant feed pumps. The operator takes a sample
from the saturator and titrates it to an endpoint thereby finding the correct
concentration of hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydroxide. The pumping rate of the
pumps is then adjusted to compensate for any deviation from the desired level. An
automated chemical feeder constantly determines the bath concentration and adjusts
the chemical concentration to the desired level. Most water used in preparation and
dyeing processes is softened. This is often achieved by adding chemicals to the water
that form strong complexes with hardness ions. A more environmentally friendly way
to soften water is ion exchange. There are also processes that are less efficient when
softened water is used.
(Ref 10)


EXPERIMENTAL PLAN

1
SELECTION OF MATERIAL
2
SELECTION OF CHEMICALS
3
SELECTION OF PROCEDURE
4
SCOURING
5
BLEACHING
6
TESTING
7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


Selection of material
The material for the project is to be selected which is available in the industry
100% cotton fabric:-
- Plain derivative (2/2)
- PPI : 74
- EPI : 76
- Count : warp
Weft:
- GSM :
Selection of auxiliaries
GRADES
Wetting agent LR
Caustic soda LR
Hydrogen peroxide(50%) LR
Stabilizer LR
Soda ash LR
Sequestering Agent LR
Scourex IR
Testing Equipment:-
Tensile strength tester
CCM (Minolta Treepont system)
pH meter
TDS meter



Tests carried out:
pH
Alkalinity
Tensile Strength
TDS
TSS
TS
BOD
COD
Carboxylic Acid group content
% NaOH content

METHOD
SCOURING:
1. Fabric Taken : 200gms
2. Recipe used :
i. NaOH : 2% owf
ii. Na
2
CO
3
: 1 %
iii. Scourex : 0.5%
iv. Wetting Agent : 0.5 gpl
v. Sequestering Agent : 0.1%
vi. Time : 90 minutes
vii. Temperature : 95
0
C
viii. MLR : 1:20

3. The same bath is used 6 times. Every time the water reduced is replenished
by the hot water of the same process done.
4. Tests carried out for liquor and fabric after each process.



BLEACHING:
1. Fabric taken : 100gms
2. Recipe used:
i. H
2
O
2
: 2% owf
ii. Soda ash : 2 gpl
iii.
Stabilizer : 1/3
rd
of H
2
O
2
iv. Time : 90 minutes
v. Temperature : 95
o
C
vi. MLR : 1:20
3. The same bath is used 6 times. Every time the water reduced is replenished
by the hot water of the same process done.
4. Tests carried out for liquor and fabric after each process

TESTING PROCEDURES
1. Determination of Alkalinity
1. Take 25 ml of sample in conical flask and add 3 to 4 drops of phenolphthalein
indicator. If the sample becomes pink, the titrate the solution against 0.02 N
HCl from burette until the pink colour disappear. Record the amount of acid
used and proceed further as given below (if pink colour does not appear note it
as P=0)
2. Add 3 drops of Methyl Orange indicator in the flask, titrate against 0.02N
HCl. Note the first change in colour from yellow to orange. Note amount of
titrant used. (One more flask with 100 ml sample and 3 drops of Methyl
Orange indicator should kept ready aside for comparison.
3. Let P be the quantity of standard 0.02 N HCl used for titration with
Phenolphthalein indicator and M be the total volume of 0.02N HCl used for
titration. For 100 ml of water we have following formulae to determine
alkalinity.
a. When P=M, hydroxyl in ppm = P*10
b. If P>M/2, then hydroxide alkalinity in ppm = (2P-M)*10 and Normal
carbonate alkalinity is equal to 2(M-P)*10


c. If P=M/2, then normal carbonate alkalinity is equal to M*10
d. If P<M/2, then normal carbonate alkalinity is equal to (M-2P)*10
e. If P=0, then bicarbonate alkalinity is equals to M*10

ml of HCl used * 1000
Alkalinity in ppm = -------------------------------------------
ml of sample taken

2. Determination of pH
i. Take 100 ml of sample in a glass tube.
ii. Determine the approximate pH by using universal indicator solution
iii. Repeat Using a solution of indicator about 1/20 of the volume of the liquid
being tested.
iv. Compare the colour produced with the standard colour and find out the
approximate pH.
OR
i. Use of pH meter.

3. COD
i. Take 20 ml of water sample in 250ml reflux flask. Add 5 mg HgSO
4
and
5 mg Ag
2
SO
4
Along with some glass beads.
ii. Immerse the flask in cold water and slowly add 30 ml H
2
SO
4
.
iii. Add 10 ml of 0.025 N K
2
Cr
2
O
7
Solution. Mix the content thoroughly.
iv. Attach the reflux condenser and Reflux the flask for 2 hours.
v. Cool and add 80 ml of distilled water. Add 2 to 3 drops of Ferroin
indicator and titrate it against 0.1 N FAS (Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate).
Record the reading as V
1
ml.
vi. The colour change at the end point is Blue-green to wine red.
vii. Carry out blank titration also.


viii. Record the volume of FAS as V
2
ml. COD of the sample corresponds to
(V
2
-V
1
).
Calculation:
Volume of sample taken= 20 ml
Volume of 0.1 N FAS used in sample titration = V
1

Volume of 0.1 N FAS used in blank titration = V
2

Volume of 0.1 N FAS equivalent to K
2
Cr
2
O
7
Used for COD = (V
2
-V
1
)
N
1
V
1
= N
2
V
2

N
1
* 20 = 0.1*(____-____)
Therefore COD = (____-____) * 0.1 *8 g/lit
(____-____)* 40 mg/lit

4. DETERMINATION OS TS, TSS AND TDS:-
A. DETERMINATION OF TS:-
i. Take a china clay dish and weigh it accurately.
ii. Pipette out 50 ml of well mixed sample into a china clay
dish.
iii. Evaporate the sample to dryness by heating on a steam
bath.
iv. Wipe outer side of a dish and lay the residue for 1 hour at
100 to 105
0
C.
v. Transfer the dish to the desiccators and wait till it attains
the room temperature.
vi. Repeat the drying and weighing till the weight is constant
within the limit of 0.5 mg.

B. DETERMINATION OF TSS:-
i. Filter the known of the sample through an asbestos filter in
a previously weighted good crucible.
ii. Keep the crucible at 100 to 105
0
C for 1 hour.


iii. Cool and reweigh the crucible.

C. DETERMINATION OF TDS:-
Carry out the same procedure as that of total solid of the filtrate
collected from procedure for suspended matters.

CALCULATION:-
10
6
* wt. of residue from filtrate after evaporation
Total dissolved solids = ----------------------------------------------------------------------
Volume of water sample taken



RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Characteristics of Scouring Liquor & Scoured fabric samples
Parameters
Processs
1
Processs
2
Processs
3
Processs
4
Processs
5
Processs
6
pH 10.7 10,7 10.5 10.5 10.4 9.8
Alkalinity 31.2 31.1 30 29.8 29.5 29
TDS (ppm) 5600 6100 6900 7820 8541 9432
TS (ppm) 6110 6712 7657 8625 9384 10308
TSS (ppm) 510 612 757 805 843 876
COD(ppm) 855 902 947 1002 1041 1096
BOD(ppm) 360 452 546 665 742 852
CAC 0.8 0.9 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.8
Absorbency <3sec <3sec <3sec <3sec <3sec <3sec
Tensile
Strength
(Warp) kgf
40 41 41 40 42 42
Tensile
Strength
(Weft) kgf
68 68 69 68 69 70



Graphical presentation of comparison of characteristic parameters of Scouring
baths:

0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
1 2 3 4 5 6
p
p
m

Processes
Solid Content present in liquor bath
TDS
TS
TSS
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1 2 3 4 5 6
p
p
m

Processes
BOD & COD present in liquor bath
BOD
COD


BLEACHING

Characteristics of bleaching Liquor & bleached fabric samples
Parameters Process1 Process2 Process3 Process4 Process5 Process6
pH 9.5 9.7 9.7 9.5 9.6 9.7
TDS 2720 2760 2825 2878 2907 2956
TS 2892 2962 3041 3102 3137 3193
TSS 190 202 215 224 230 237
COD 445 534 639 728 842 947
BOD 155 197 242 295 343 392
Whiteness
Index
66.51 65.12 64.05 60.04 57.55 52.31



Graphical presentation of comparison of characteristic parameters of Bleaching
baths:

0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
1 2 3 4 5 6
p
p
m

Proccesses
TDS
TS
TSS
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1 2 3 4 5 6
p
p
m

Processes
BOD & COD present in liquor bath
BOD
COD


In same bath 6 different samples are scoured by maintaining same treatment
conditions. Different tests are carried out after each process for liquor and fabric as
stated above. It is observed that all 6 samples showed good absorbency as well as very
less strength loss compare to original sample. Scouring bath tests showed increase in
TS, TSS, TDS as well as BOD and COD, these increase takes place because of
continuous increase of impurities. After 6
th
scouring total solid content increased
(10308ppm) so that implementation of 7
th
scouring process was impossible.
Similarly, bleaching of 6 samples is carried out. Bleaching bath tests showed
very less increase in TS, TSS, TDS, COD, and BOD than that of scouring bath.
Bleached samples showed good whiteness index values up to 4
th
bleached sample.
After 4
th
bleach Whiteness index value came less than 50.

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1 2 3 4 5 6
W
h
i
t
e
n
e
s
s

I
n
d
e
x

Processes
Whiteness Index
Series1


CONCLUSION:
Therefore it is possible to reduce the water consumption in cotton
pretreatments by reusing the same bath. Same scouring and bleaching bath
can be used up to 6 times and 4 times respectively. Scoured fabrics treated with
process1 showed strength loss of 9% and Process6 showed strength loss of 7%.
There is no significant difference between whiteness index values of
conventionally bleached and fabric bleached with process 1 to 4. It helps to
reduce the effluent load so that the effluent treatment cost is also reduced
substantially with saving of water and chemical costs.



References:
1. Dr. Brent Smith, James Rucker, Dept. of Textile Chemistry, Water and Textile
Wet Processing, American Dyestuff Reporter, July 1999, pp 15 to 23
2. Water Efficiency in Textile Processes, New Cloth Market.
3. Dr. A. I. Wasif, Dr. S. K. Chinta & H. T. Deo, Effluent Treatment in Textile Wet
Processing Bleaching of Polyester-cotton fabric, Indian Journal of Fibre and
Textile Research, Vol. 33, March 2008, pp 73-79
4. Prof. S. Balchandran, Dr. R. Rudramoorthy, Efficient Water Utilization in Textile
Wet Processing, IE (I) Journal-TX vol. 89, August 2008 pp 26-29.
5. H. Wenzel and H.H. Knudsen, Water savings and reuse in the Textile Industry
6. Jay Ritchlin and Paul Johnston, Zero Discharge, Published by Reach for Unbleached
Foundation
7. James L. Clark, Water Conservation through scouring bath reuse, Georgia Water
Resources Conference, held March 20-22, 1997.
8. S. Eswaramoorthi, K. Dhanapal and J. Karpagam, Zero Discharge - Treatment
Options for Textile Dye Effluent
9. A. H. Little, Measures taken aginst water pollution in the textile industries, Shirley
Institute, Didsbury, Manchester M20 8RX, UK
10. Ms. Ilse Hendrickx, Gregory D. Boardman, Pollution prevention studies in
the textile wet processing industry.
11. B. Ramesh Babu, A.K. Parande, S. Raghu, and T. Prem Kumar, Cotton Textile
Processing: Waste Generation and Effluent Treatment, Journal of cotton science,
Volume 11, Issue 3, 2007
12. Waste minimization guide for the textile industry, by Susan Barclay and Chris
Buckley
13. Reuse of wastewater of the textile industry after its treatment with a combination
of physico-chemical treatment and membrane technologies by, Department of
Chemical and Nuclear Engineering, Universidad Politcnica of Valencia, Camino
de Vera s/n, 46071 Valencia, Spain Received 1 February 2002; accepted 15
February 2002
14. ACHWAL, W. B., Environmental aspects of textile chemical processing
(part I). Colourage, vol 37, no 9. September 1990, p 40-42.


15. ACHWAL, W. B., Environmental aspects of textile chemical processing (Part-
II). Colourage, vol 37, no 10, October 1990, p 35-36.
16. BECKMANN, W., AND PFLUG, .J, Reuse of weakly loaded liquors from
textile processing operations. Textil-Praxis International, vol 38, March 1983, p
II-VI.
17. BERGENTHAL, .I F., EAPEN, .J, HENDRIKS, R V., TAWA, A. J. and
TINCHER, W.C, Full-scale demonstration of textile dye wastewater reuse.
Fortieth Purdue University Industrial Waste Conference, 1985, p 165-171.

18. BURCH, T. E, DYER, D. F., and MAPLES, G.,A practical system for
conserving energy and water in waste streams. Water Conservation technologies
in Textiles. State of the Art. WRRI Bulletin, May 1982, p 58-59.
19. COOK, F. I., Fabric processes beholden to energy, environment. Textile
World, November 1990, p 49,5l-52, 54.
20. CORREIA, V.M, STEPHENSON, T., and SIMON, J.J, Characteristics of
textile wastewater- a review. Environmental Technology, vol. 15, p 916-929.
21. DAVIS, J P., Wastewater options. Apparel Industry Magazine, vol. 5 1, no 2,
February 1990, p 50, 52.
22. DAVIS, J. P., Wastewater treatment - the new frontier. Bobbin, vol. 32, no 8,
April 1991, p 38, 40-42.
23. DAVIS, M.L, and CORNWELL, D.A., Introduction to Environmental
Engineering. McGraw-Hill, Inc., PWS Publishers, New York, New York, 822 p.
24. Environmental Pollution Control. Textile Wet Processing Industry
Environmental Research Information Center. technology Transfer,
25. EVANS, BRUCE A., Potential water and energy savings in textile
bleaching. Water Conservation Technology in Textiles. State of the A rt.
WRRI bulletin, May 1982, p 55-57.
26. GOODMAN, G. A. and PORTER, Water quality requirements of reuse in
textile dyeing Processes. American Dyestuff Reporter, vol. 69, no 10,
October 1980, p 33-37, 39, 46.



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