MATHS

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Any rectangular arrangement of numbers (real or complex) (or of real valued or complex valued
expressions) is called a matrix. If a matrix has m rows and n columns then the order of matrix is
written as m n and we call it as order m by n
The general m n matrix is
A =
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

mn mj 3 m 2 m 1 m
in ij 3 i 2 i 1 i
n 2 j 2 23 22 21
n 1 j 1 13 12 11
a ..... a ..... a a a
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
a ...... a ...... a a a
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
a ..... a ...... a a a
a ..... a ...... a a a
where a
ij
denote the element of i
th
row & j
th
column. The above matrix is usually denoted as [a
ij
]
m n
.
Notes :
(i) The elements a
11
, a
22
, a
33
,........ are called as diagonal elements. Their sum is called as
trace of A denoted as tr(A)
(ii) Capital letters of English alphabets are used to denote matrices.
(iii) Order of a matrix : If a matrix has m rows and n columns, then we say that its order is "m by n",
written as "m n".
Row matrix :
A matrix having only one row is called as row matrix (or row vector).General form of row matrix
is A = [a
11
, a
12
, a
13
, ...., a
1n
]
This is a matrix of order "1 n" (or a row matrix of order n)
Column matrix :
A matrix having only one column is called as column matrix (or column vector).
Column matrix is in the form A =
(
(
(
(

1 m
21
11
a
...
a
a
This is a matrix of order "m 1" (or a column matrix of order m)
Square matrix :
A matrix in which number of rows & columns are equal is called a square matrix. The general
form of a square matrix is
A =
(
(
(
(

nn 2 n 1 n
n 2 22 21
n 1 12 11
a ....... a a
....... ....... ....... .......
a ........ a a
a ....... a a
which we denote as A = [a
ij
]
n
.
This is a matrix of order "n n" (or a square matrix of order n)
Matrices and Determinants
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Zero matrix :
A = [a
ij
]
m n
is called a zero matrix, if a
ij
= 0 i & j.
e.g. : (i) (

0 0 0
0 0 0
(ii)
(
(
(

0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
Upper triangular matrix :
A = [a
ij
]
m n
is said to be upper triangular, if a
ij
= 0 for i > j (i.e., all the elements below the
diagonal elements are zero).
e.g. : (i)
(
(
(

v u 0 0
z y x 0
d c b a
(ii)
(
(
(

z 0 0
y x 0
c b a
Lower triangular matrix :
A = [a
ij
]
m n
is said to be a lower triangular matrix, if a
ij
= 0 for i < j. (i.e., all the elements above
the diagonal elements are zero.)
e.g. : (i)
(
(
(

z y x
0 c b
0 0 a
(ii)
(
(
(

0 z y x
0 0 c b
0 0 0 a
Diagonal matrix :
A square matrix [a
ij
]
n
is said to be a diagonal matrix if a
ij
= 0 for i = j. (i.e., all the elements of
the square matrix other than diagonal elements are zero)
Note : Diagonal matrix of order n is denoted as Diag (a
11
, a
22
, ......a
nn
).
e.g. : (i)
(
(
(

c 0 0
0 b 0
0 0 a
(ii)
(
(
(
(

c 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 b 0
0 0 0 a
Scalar matrix :
Scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements are same. A = [a
ij
]
n
is a
scalar matrix, if (i) a
ij
= 0 for i = j and (ii) a
ij
= k for i = j.
e.g. : (i) (

a 0
0 a
(ii)
(
(
(

a 0 0
0 a 0
0 0 a
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Unit matrix (i dentity matrix) :
Unit matrix is a diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements are unity. Unit matrix of
order 'n' is denoted by I
n
(or I).
i.e. A = [a
ij
]
n
is a unit matrix when a
ij
= 0 for i = j & a
ii
= 1
eg. I
2
= (

1 0
0 1
, I
3
=
(
(
(

1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
.
Comparable matrices : Two matrices A & B are said to be comparable, if they have the same order
(i.e., number of rows of A & B are same and also the number of columns).
e.g. : (i) A = (

2 1 3
4 3 2
& B = (

3 1 0
2 4 3
are comparable
e.g. : (ii) C = (

2 1 3
4 3 2
& D =
(
(
(

3 2
1 4
0 3
are not comparable
Equality of matrices :
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if they are comparable and all the corresponding
elements are equal.
Let A = [a
ij
]
m n
& B = [b
ij
]
p q
A = B iff (i) m = p, n = q
(ii) a
ij
= b
ij
i & j.
Example # 1 : Let A =
(
(
(

u u
u
u
tan cos
cos 2 / 1
2 / 1 sin
& B =
(
(
(

u
u u
u
1 cos
cos cos
sin 2 / 1
. Find u so that A = B.
Solution : By definition A & B are equal if they have the same order and all the corresponding elements
are equal.
Thus we have sin u =
2
1
, cosu =
2
1
& tan u = 1
u = (2n + 1) t
4
t
.
Multiplication of matrix by scalar :
Let be a scalar (real or complex number) & A = [a
ij
]
m n
be a matrix. Thus the product A is
defined as A = [b
ij
]
m n
where b
ij
= a
ij
i & j.
e.g. : A =
(
(
(

2 1 0 0
3 1 2 0
5 3 1 2
& 3A (3) A =
(
(
(

6 3 0 0
9 3 6 0
15 9 3 6
Note : If A is a scalar matrix, then A = I, where is a diagonal entry of A
MATHS
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Addition of matrices :
Let Aand B be two matrices of same order (i.e. comparable matrices). Then A+ B is defined to
be.
A + B = [a
ij
]
m n
+ [b
ij
]
m n
.
= [c
ij
]
m n
where c
ij
= a
ij
+ b
ij
i & j.
e.g. : A =
(
(
(

0 1
3 2
1 1
, B =
(
(
(

7 5
3 2
2 1
, A + B =
(
(
(

7 6
0 0
1 0
Substraction of matrices :
Let A & B be two matrices of same order. Then A B is defined as A + ( B) where B is ( 1)
B.
Properties of addition & scalar multiplication :
Consider all matrices of order m n, whose elements are from a set F (F denote Q, R or C).
Let M
m n
(F) denote the set of all such matrices.
Then
(a) A e M
m n
(F) & B e M
m n
(F) A + B e M
m n
(F)
(b) A + B = B + A
(c) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
(d) O = [o]
m n
is the additive identity.
(e) For every A e M
m n
(F), A is the additive inverse.
(f) (A + B) = A + B
(g) A = A
(h) (
1
+
2
) A =
1
A +
2
A
Multipl ication of matrices :
Let Aand B be two matrices such that the number of columns of Ais same as number of rows
of B. i.e., A = [a
ij
]
m p
& B = [b
ij
]
p n
.
Then AB = [c
ij
]
m n
where c
ij
=

=
p
1 k
kj ik
b a
, which is the dot product of i
th
row vector of A and j
th
column vector of B.
e.g. : A = (

1 3 2
3 2 1
, B =
(
(
(

0 2 1 1
0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0
, AB = (

2 7 3 1
1 9 4 3
Notes : (1) The product AB is defined iff the number of columns of Ais equal to the number of rows
of B. A is called as premultiplier & B is called as post multiplier. AB is defined / BAis
defined.
(2) In general AB = BA, even when both the products are defined.
(3) A (BC) = (AB) C, whenever it is defined.
MATHS
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Properties of matrix multiplication :
Consider all square matrices of order 'n'. Let M
n
(F) denote the set of all square matrices of
order n. (where F is Q, R or C). Then
(a) A, B e M
n
(F) AB e M
n
(F)
(b) In general AB = BA
(c) (AB) C = A(BC)
(d) I
n
, the identity matrix of order n, is the multiplicative identity.
AI
n
= A = I
n
A A e M
n
(F)
(e) For every non singular matrix A (i.e., |A| = 0) of M
n
(F) there exist a unique (particular)
matrix B e M
n
(F) so that AB = I
n
= BA. In this case we say that A& B are multiplicative
inverse of one another. In notations, we write B = A
1
or A = B
1
.
(f) If is a scalar (A) B = (AB) = A(B).
(g) A(B + C) = AB + AC A, B, C e M
n
(F)
(h) (A + B) C = AC + BC A, B, C e M
n
(F).
Notes : (1) Let A = [a
ij
]
m n
. Then AI
n
= A & I
m
A = A, where I
n
& I
m
are identity matrices of order
n & m respectively.
(2) For a square matrix A, A
2
denotes AA, A
3
denotes AAA etc.
Example # 2 : f(x) is a quadratic expression such that
(
(
(

1 c c
1 b b
1 a a
2
2
2
(
(
(

) 1 ( f
) 1 ( f
) 0 ( f
=
(
(
(

+
+
+
1 c 2
1 b 2
1 a 2
for three unequal numbers a, b, c. Find f(x).
Solution : The given matrix equation implies
(
(
(

+ +
+ +
+ +
) 1 ( f ) 1 ( cf ) 0 ( f c
) 1 ( f ) 1 ( bf ) 0 ( f b
) 1 ( f ) 1 ( af ) 0 ( f a
2
2
2
=
(
(
(

+
+
+
1 c 2
1 b 2
1 a 2
x
2
f(0) + xf(1) + f(1) = 2x + 1 for three unequal numbers a, b, c .....(i)
(i) is an identity
f(0) = 0, f(1) = 2 & f( 1) = 1
f(x) = x (ax + b)
2 = a + b & 1 = a + b.
b =
2
1
& a =
2
3
f(x) =
2
3
x
2
+
2
1
x.
Self practice problems :
(1) If A(u) = (

u u
u u
cos sin
sin cos
, verify that A(o) A(|) = A(o + |).
Hence show that in this case A(o). A(|) = A(|) . A(o).
(2) Let A =
(
(
(

5 2 1
2 0 3
1 6 4
, B =
(
(
(

2 1
1 0
4 2
and C = [3 1 2].
Then which of the products ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, CBAare defined. Calculate the product
whichever is defined.
Answer (2) Only CAB is defined. CAB = [25 100]
MATHS
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Transpose of a matrix :
Let A =[a
ij
]
m n
. Then the transpose of A is denoted by A'( or A
T
) and is defined as
A' = [b
ij
]
n m
where b
ij
= a
ji
i & j.
i.e. A' is obtained by rewriting all the rows of A as columns (or by rewriting all the columns of A as
rows).
e.g. : A =
(
(
(

w z y x
d c b a
4 3 2 1
, AA' =
(
(
(
(

w d 4
z c 3
y b 2
x a 1
Results : (i) For any matrix A = [a
ij
]
m n
, (A')' = A
(ii) Let be a scalar & A be a matrix. Then (A)' = A'
(iii) (A + B)' = A' + B' & (A B)' = A' B' for two comparable matrices A and B.
(iv) (A
1
A
2
..... A
n
)' = A
1
' A
2
' ..... A
n
', where A
i
are comparable.
(v) Let A = [a
ij
]
m p
& B = [b
ij
]
p n
, then (AB)' = B'A'
(vi) (A
1
A
2
.......A
n
)' = A
n
'. A
n 1
' ...........A
2
' . A
1
', provided the product is defined.
Symmetric & skew-symmetric matrix : A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if A' = A
i.e. Let A = [a
ij
]
n
. A is symmetric iff a
ij
= a
ji
i & j.
A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if A' = A
i.e. Let A = [a
ij
]
n
. A is skew-symmetric iff a
ij
= a
ji
i & j.
e.g. A =
(
(
(

c f g
f b h
g h a
is a symmetric matrix.
B =
(
(
(

0 z y
z o x
y x o
is a skew-symmetric matrix.
Notes : (1) In a skew-symmetric matrix all the diagonal elements are zero.
( a
ii
= a
ii
a
ii
= 0)
(2) For any square matrix A, A + A' is symmetric & A A' is skew-symmetric.
(3) Every square matrix can be uniqualy expressed as a sum of two square matrices of
which one is symmetric and the other is skew-symmetric.
A = B + C, where B =
2
1
(A + AA') & C =
2
1
(A AA').
Example # 3 : Show that BAB' is symmetric or skew-symmetric according as A is symmetric or skew-
symmetric (where B is any square matrix whose order is same as that of A).
MATHS
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Solution : Case - IA is symmetric A' = A
(BAB')' = (B')'A'B' = BAB' BAB' is symmetric.
Case - II A is skew-symmetric A' = A
(BAB')' = (B')'A'B'
= B ( A) B'
= (BAB')
BAB' is skew-symmetric
Self practice problems :
(3) For any square matrix A, show that A'A & AA' are symmetric matrices.
(4) If A & B are symmetric matrices of same order, then show that AB + BA is symmetric and
AB BA is skew-symmetric.
Submatri x : Let A be a given matrix. The matrix obtained by deleting some rows or columns of A is called
as submatrix of A.
eg. A =
(
(
(

s r q p
w z y x
d c b a
Then
(
(
(

r p
z x
c a
,
(

s q p
d b a
,
(
(
(

r q p
z y x
c b a
are all submatrices of A.
Determinant of a square matrix :
Let A = [a]
11
be a 11 matrix. Determinant A is defined as |A| = a.
e.g. A = [ 3]
11
|A| = 3
Let A =
(

d c
b a
, then |A| is defined as ad bc.
e.g. A = (

4 1
3 5
, |A| = 23
Minors & Cofactors :
Let A be a determinant. Then minor of element a
ij
, denoted by M
ij
, is defined as the determinant
of the submatrix obtained by deleting i
th
row & j
th
column of A. Cofactor of element a
ij
, denoted
by C
ij
, is defined as C
ij
= ( 1)
i + j
M
ij
.
e.g. 1 A =
d c
b a
M
11
= d = C
11
M
12
= c, C
12
= c
M
21
= b, C
21
= b
M
22
= a = C
22
e.g. 2 A =
z y x
r q p
c b a
M
11
=
z y
r q
= qz yr = C
111
.
MATHS
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M
23
=
y x
b a
= ay bx, C
23
= (ay bx) = bx ay etc.
Determinant of any order : Let A = [a
ij
]
n
be a square matrix (n > 1). Determinant of A is defined as the
sum of products of elements of any one row (or any one column) with
corresponding cofactors.
e.g.1 A =
(
(
(

33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a a
a a a
a a a
|A| = a
11
C
11
+ a
12
C
12
+ a
13
C
13
(using first row).
= a
11
33 32
23 22
a a
a a
a
12
33 31
23 21
a a
a a
+ a
13
32 31
22 21
a a
a a
|A| = a
12
C
12
+ a
22
C
22
+ a
32
C
32
(using second column).
= a
12
33 31
23 21
a a
a a
+ a
22
33 31
13 11
a a
a a
a
32
23 21
13 11
a a
a a
.
Transpose of a determinant : The transpose of a determinant is the determinant of transpose of the
corresponding matrix.
D =
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
T
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c c c
b b b
a a a
D
c b a
c b a
c b a
=
Properties of determinant :
(1) |A| = |A'| for any square matrix A.
i.e. the value of a determinant remains unaltered, if the rows & columns are inter changed,
i.e. D =
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c c c
b b b
a a a
c b a
c b a
c b a
= = D'
(2) If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant be interchanged, the value of determinant
is changed in sign only.
e.g. Let D
1
=
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
& D
2
=
3 3 3
1 1 1
2 2 2
c b a
c b a
c b a
Then D
2
= D
1
(3) Let be a scalar. Than |A| is obtained by multiplying any one row (or any one column)
of |A| by
MATHS
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D =
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
and E =
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
Kc Kb Ka
Then E = KD
(4) |A| =
n
|A|, when A = [a
ij
]
n
.
(5) A skew-symmetric matrix of odd order has deteminant value zero.
(6) If a determinant has all the elements zero in any row or column, then its value is zero,
i.e. D =
3 3 3
2 2 2
c b a
c b a
0 0 0
= 0.
(7) If a determinant has any two rows (or columns) identical (or proportional), then its value
is zero,
i.e. D =
3 3 3
1 1 1
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
= 0.
(8) If each element of any row (or column) can be expressed as a sum of two terms then
the determinant can be expressed as the sum of two determinants, i.e.
3 3 3
2 2 2
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
z y x
c b a
c b a
c b a
c b a
c b a
z c y b x a
+ =
+ + +
(9) The value of a determinant is not altered by adding to the elements of any row (or
column) a constant multiple of the corresponding elements of any other row(or column),
i.e. D
1
=
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
and D
2
=
1 3 1 3 1 3
2 2 2
2 1 2 1 2 1
c n c b n b a n a
c b a
c m c b m b a m a
+ + +
+ + +
. Then D
2
= D
1
(10) Let A = [a
ij
]
n
. The sum of the products of elements of any row with corresponding
cofactors of any other row is zero. (Similarly the sum of the products of elements of
any column with corresponding cofactors of any other column is zero).
Example # 4 Simplify
b a c
a c b
c b a
Solution : Let R
1
R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3

b a c
a c b
c b a c b a c b a + + + + + +
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= (a + b + c)
b a c
a c b
1 1 1
Apply C
1
C
1
C
2
, C
2
C
2
C
3
= (a + b + c)
b b a a c
a a c c b
1 0 0


= (a + b + c) ((b c) (a b) (c a)
2
)
= (a + b + c) (ab + bc ca b
2
c
2
+ 2ca a
2
)
= (a + b + c) (ab + bc + ca a
2
b
2
c
2
) 3abc a
3
b
3
c
3
Example # 5 Simplify
ab ca bc
c b a
c b a
2 2 2
Solution : Given detereminant is equal to
=
abc
1
abc abc abc
c b a
c b a
3 3 3
2 2 2
=
abc
abc
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
3 3 3
2 2 2
Apply C
1
C
1
C
2
, C
2
C
2
C
3
=
1 0 0
c c b b a
c c b b a
3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2


= (a b) (b c)
1 0 0
c c bc b b ab a
c c b b a
3 2 2 2 2
2
+ + + +
+ +
= (a b) (b c) [ab
2
+ abc + ac
2
+ b
3
+ b
2
C + bc
2
a
2
b a
2
c ab
2
abc b
3
b
2
c]
= (a b) (b c) [c(ab + bc + ca) a(ab + bc + ca)]
= (a b) (b c) (c a) (ab + bc + ca)
Factor Theorem :
Use of factor theorem to find the value of determinant. If by putting x = a the value of a determinant
vanishes then (x a) is a factor of the determinant.
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Example # 6 Prove that
ab ca bc
c b a
c b a
2 2 2
= (a b) (b c) (c a) (ab + bc + ca) by using factor theorem.
Solution : Let a = b
D =
ab ac bc
c b a
c b a
2 2 2
= 0
Hence (a b) is a factor of determinant
Similarly, let b = c, D = 0
c = a, D = 0
Hence, (a b) (b c) (c a) is factor of determinant. But the given determinant is of fifth
order so
ab ca bc
c b a
c b a
2 2 2
= (a b) (b c) (c a) { (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
) + (ab + bc + ca)}
Since this is an identity so in order to find the values of and . Let
a = 0, b = 1, c = 1
2 = (2) (2 )
(2 ) = 1. ........(i)
Let a = 1, b = 2, c = 0
2 0 0
0 4 1
0 2 1
= (1) 2 ( 1) (5 + 2)
5 + 2 = 2 .......(ii)
from (i) and (ii) = 0 and = 1
Hence
ab ca bc
c b a
c b a
2 2 2
= (a b) (b c) (c a) (ab + bc + ca).
Self practice problems
(5) Find the value of A =
0 c b c a
b c 0 b a
a c a b 0



.
MATHS
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12
(6) Simplify
2
2 2
2
a ab a c ac bc
ab b b a a ab
ac bc c b ab b



.
(7) Prove that
b a c c 2 c 2
b 2 a c b b 2
a 2 a 2 c b a



= (a + b + c)
3
.
(8) Show that
ab c 1
ca b 1
bc a 1
= (a b) (b c) (c a) by using factor theorem .
Answers : (5) 0 (6) 0
Multiplication of two determinants :
If A and B are two square matrices of same order, then |AB| = |A| |B|.
2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2
2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2
1 1
m b m a b a
m b m a b a
m
m
b a
b a
+ +
+ +
=

3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a

3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
n m
n m
n m

=
3 3 2 3 1 3 3 3 2 3 1 3 3 3 2 3 1 3
3 2 2 2 1 2 3 2 2 2 1 2 3 2 2 2 1 2
3 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 1
n c n b n a m c m b m a c b a
n c n b n a m c m b m a c b a
n c n b n a m c m b m a c b a
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +



Note : As |A| = |A'|, we have |A| |B| = |AB'| (row - row method)
|A| |B| = |A'B| (column - column method)
|A| |B| = |A'B'| (column - row method)
Example # 7 Find the value of
3 1
2 1

4 1
0 3

and prove that it is equal to

12 6
8 1

.
Solution.
3 1
2 1

4 1
0 3

=
4 3 0 1 ) 1 ( 3 3 1
4 2 0 1 1 2 3 1
+ +
+
=
12 6
8 1

= 60
Example # 8 Prove that
3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 3
3 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2
3 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
y b x a y b x a y b x a
y b x a y b x a y b x a
y b x a y b x a y b x a
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
= 0
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Solution. Given determinant can be splitted into product of two determinants
i.e.
3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 3
3 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2
3 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
y b x a y b x a y b x a
y b x a y b x a y b x a
y b x a y b x a y b x a
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
=
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a

0 0 0
y y y
x x x
3 2 1
3 2 1
= 0
Example # 9 Prove that
2
3 3
2
2 3
2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 2
2
1 2
2
3 1
2
2 1
2
1 1
) b a ( ) b a ( ) b a (
) b a ( ) b a ( ) b a (
) b a ( ) b a ( ) b a (



= 2(a
1
a
2
) (a
2
a
3
) (a
3
a
1
) (b
1
b
2
) (b
2
b
3
) (b
3
b
1
).
Solution.
2
3 3
2
2 3
2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 2
2
1 2
2
3 1
2
2 1
2
1 1
) b a ( ) b a ( ) b a (
) b a ( ) b a ( ) b a (
) b a ( ) b a ( ) b a (



=
3 3
2
3
2
3 2 3
2
2
2
3 1 3
2
1
2
3
3 2
2
3
2
2 2 2
2
2
2
2 1 2
2
1
2
2
3 1
2
3
2
1 2 1
2
2
2
1 1 1
2
1
2
1
b a 2 b a b a 2 b a b a 2 b a
b a 2 b a b a 2 b a b a 2 b a
b a 2 b a b a 2 b a b a 2 b a
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
=
3
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
1
a 2 1 a
a 2 1 a
a 2 1 a

3 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1
b b b
b b b
1 1 1
= 2
3
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
1
a a 1
a a 1
a a 1

3
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
1
b b 1
b b 1
b b 1
= 2(a
1
a
2
) (a
2
a
3
) (a
3
a
1
) (b
1
b
2
) (b
2
b
3
) (b
3
b
1
)
Note : The above problem can also be solved using factor theorem method.
Self practice problems
(9) Find the value of A
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
c ab 2 a b
a b ca 2 c
b c a bc 2

(10) If A, B, C are real numbers then find the value of A =

1 ) C B cos( ) C A cos(
) B C cos( 1 ) B A cos(
) A C cos( ) A B cos( 1



.
Answers : (9) (3abc a
3
b
3
c
3
)
2
(10) 0
Summation of determinants : Let A(r) =
3 2 1
3 2 1
b b b
a a a
) r ( h ) r ( g f(r)
where a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, b
1
, b
2
, b
3
are constants
indepedent of r, then
MATHS
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14

=
A
n
1 r
) r ( =
3 2 1
3 2 1
n
1 r
n
1 r
n
1 r
b b b
a a a
) r ( h ) r ( g ) r ( f

= = =
Here the functions of r can be the elements of only one row or column. None of the elements other then
that row or column should be dependent on r. If more than one column or row have elements dependent
on r then first expand the determinant and then find the summation.
Example # 10 Evaluate
=
n
1 r
2 2 1 2 n
y cos x
2 C 1 r 2
1 n n 2
2
r
r
n
+
u

Solution :
=
n
1 r
r
D
=
2 2 1 2 n
y cos x
2 C ) 1 r 2 (
1 n n 2
2
n
1 r
r
n
1 r
r
n
n
1 r
+
= = =
u

2 2 1 2 n
y cos x
2 n ) 1 r 2 (
1 n n 2
2
n
1 r
r
n
1 r
C
n
1 r
r

u

+
= = =

=
2 2 1 2 n
y cos x
2 2 1 2 n
1 n n 2
2
1 n n 2

u

+
+
= 0
Example # 11 : D
r
=
0 1 2
1 1 3
C C C
r
2 n
1 r
2 n
2 r
2 n

evaluate
=
n
2 r
r
D
Solution :

=
n
2 r
r
D =

=
n
2 r
0 1 2
1 1 3
C C C
r
2 n
1 r
2 n
2 r
2 n

=
0 1 2
1 1 3
C .... C C C .... C C C .... C C
2 n
2 n
3
2 n
2
2 n
2 n
2 n
2
2 n
1
2 n
2 n
2 n
1
2 n
0
2 n

+ + + + + + + + +
MATHS
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15
=
0 1 2
1 1 3
n 1 2 1 2 2
2 n 2 n 2 n


C
1
C
1
2 C
2
=
0 1 0
1 1 1
n 1 2 1 2 2 2 2
2 n 2 n 1 n 2 n
+

= (1)
1 1
n 1 2 2 2 2
2 n 1 n 2 n
+

= 2
n 1
n 3
Example # 12 If A
r
=
2 1 1 r
r 3 r 2
0 1 1 r
+
+

, find

=
A
n
1 r
r
Solution. On expansion of determinent, we get
D
r
= (r 1) (3 r) + 7 + r
2
+ 4r = 8r + 4

=
A
n
1 r
r
= 4n (n + 2)
Self Practice Problem
(11) Evaluate

=
n
1 r
r
D
n 3 n 3 z ) 1 r (
2 n 4 y ) 1 r (
6 x 1 r
2 3
2

Answer : (11) 0
Differentiation of determinant : Let A(x) =
) x ( h ) x ( h ) x ( h
) x ( g ) x ( g ) x ( g
) x ( f ) x ( f ) x ( f
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
then A'(x) =
) x ( h ) x ( h ) x ( h
) x ( g ) x ( g ) x ( g
) x ( f ) x ( f ) x ( f
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
' ' '
+
) x ( h ) x ( h ) x ( h
) x ( g ) x ( g ) x ( g
) x ( f ) x ( f ) x ( f
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
' ' '
+
) x ( h ) x ( h ) x ( h
) x ( g ) x ( g ) x ( g
) x ( f ) x ( f ) x ( f
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
' ' '
Note : We can differentiate a determinant columnwise also.
MATHS
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Example # 13 If f(x) =
2
4 3 2
a a 1
x x 2 x 6
1 2 3
, then find the value of f''(a).
Solution. f'(x) =
2
3 2
a a 1
x 4 x 6 x 12
1 2 3
f''(x) =
2
2
a a 1
x 12 x 12 12
1 2 3
f''(a) = 12
2
2
a a 1
a a 1
1 2 3
= 0.
Example # 14 Let o be a repeated root of quadratic equation f(x) = 0 and A(x), B(x) and C(x) be polynomial of
degree 3, 4 and 5 respectively, then show that
) ( C ) ( B ) ( A
) ( C ) ( B ) ( A
) x ( C ) x ( B ) x ( A
o ' o ' o '
o o o
divisible by f(x).
Solution. Let g(x) =
) ( C ) ( B ) ( A
) ( C ) ( B ) ( A
) x ( C ) x ( B ) x ( A
o ' o ' o '
o o o
g'(x) =
) ( C ) ( B ) ( A
) ( C ) ( B ) ( A
) x ( C ) x ( B ) x ( A
o ' o ' o '
o o o
' ' '
Since g(o) = g'(o) = 0
g(x) = (x o)
2
h(x) i.e. o is the repeated root of g(x) and h(x) is any polynomial
expression of degree 3. Also f(x) = 0 have repeated root o. So g(x) is divisible by f(x).
Example # 15 Prove that F depends only on x
1
, x
2
and x
3
F =
2 3 1
2
3 2 2 1
2
2 2 1 1
2
1
1 3 1 2 1 1
b x b x b x b x b x b x
a x a x a x
1 1 1
+ + + + + +
+ + +
and simplify F.
Solution :
1
da
dF
=
2 3 1
2
3 2 2 1
2
2 2 1 1
2
1
1 3 1 2 1 1
b x b x b x b x b x b x
a x a x a x
0 0 0
+ + + + + +
+ + +
+
2 3 1
2
3 2 2 1
2
2 2 1 1
2
1
b x b x b x b x b x b x
1 1 1
1 1 1
+ + + + + +
+
0 0 0
a x a x a x
1 1 1
1 3 1 2 1 1
+ + +
= 0
Hence F is independent of a
1
.
MATHS
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Similarly
1
db
dF
=
2
db
dF
= 0.
Hence F is independent of b
1
and b
2
also.
So F is dependent only on x
1
, x
2
, x
3
Put a
1
= 0, b
1
= 0, b
2
= 0
F =
2
3
2
2
2
1
3 2 1
x x x
x x x
1 1 1
= (x
1
x
2
) (x
2
x
3
) (x
3
x
1
).
Example # 16 If
) x 1 ( n x cos
x sin e
x
+
= A + Bx + Cx
2
+ ....., then find the value of A and B.
Solution : Put x = 0 in
) x 1 ( n x cos
x sin e
x
+
= A + Bx + Cx
2
+ .......

0 1
0 1
= AA
A = 0.
Differentiating the given determinant w.r.t x, we get
) x 1 ( n x cos
x cos e
x
+
+
x 1
1
x sin
x sin e
x
+

= B + 2 C x + ......
Put x = 0, we get
0 1
1 1
+
1 0
0 1
= 0
B = 1 + 1 = 0
A = 0, B = 0
Self practice problem
(12) If
x 1 1 x
1 1 x x 2
x 1 x x
+
+

= ax
3
+ bx
2
+ cx + d. Find
(i) d (ii) a + b + c + d (iii) b
Answers : (12) (i) 1 (ii) 5 (iii) 4
Integration of a determinant : Let A(x) =
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
) x ( h ) x ( g ) x ( f
where a
1
, b
1
, c
1
, a
2
, b
2
, c
2
are constants independent of x. Hence
MATHS
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18
}
A
b
a
dx ) x ( =
2 2 2
1 1 1
b
a
b
a
b
a
c b a
c b a
dx ) x ( h dx ) x ( g dx ) x ( f
} } }
Note : If more than one row or one column are function of x then first expand the determinant and then
integrate it.
Example # 17 If f(x) =
x cos 2 1 0
1 x cos 2 1
0 1 x cos
, then find
}
t 2 /
0
dx ) x ( f
Solution. Here f(x) = cos x (4 cos
2
x 1) 2 cos x
= 4 cos
3
x 3 cos x = cos 3x
so
}
t 2 /
0
dx x 3 cos =
2 /
0
3
x 3 sin
t
(

(
=
3
1
Example # 18 If A =
3 2
2 2 2
x x x
3 4 6
3 2 1 | o
, then find
}
A
1
0
dx ) x (
Solution.
}
A
1
0
dx ) x ( =
} } }
| o
1
0
3
1
0
2
1
0
2 2 2
dx x dx x dx x
3 4 6
3 2 1
=
4
1
3
1
2
1
3 4 6
3 2 1
2 2 2
| o
=
12
1
3 4 6
3 4 6
3 2 1
2 2 2
| o
= 0
Cramer' s Rule: System of linear equations :
(i) Two vari ables
Let a
1
x + b
1
y + c
1
= 0 & a
2
x + b
2
y + c
2
= 0 then:
2
1
2
1
2
1
c
c
b
b
a
a
= =
Given equations are inconsistent &
2
1
2
1
2
1
c
c
b
b
a
a
= = Given equations are consistent
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(ii) Three vari ables
consider the system a
1
x + b
1
y + c
1
z = d
1
a
2
x + b
2
y + c
2
z = d
2
a
3
x + b
3
y + c
3
z = d
3
Then, D.x = D
1
, D.y = D
2
, D.z = D
3
Where D =
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
; D
1
=
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b d
c b d
c b d
; D
2
=
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c d a
c d a
c d a
& D
3
=
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
d b a
d b a
d b a
Consistency of a system of equations
(a) If D = 0 and alteast one of D
1,
D
2,
D
3
= 0, then the given system of equations are consistent and
have unique non trivial solution.
(b) If D = 0 & D
1
= D
2
= D
3
= 0
,
then the given system of equations are consistent and have trivial
solution only.
(c) If D = D
1
= D
2
= D
3
= 0, then the given system of equations have either infinite solutions or no
solution. (For 2 2 system, D = 0 = D
1
= D
2
system has infinitely many solutions).
(d) If D = 0 but atleast one of D
1,
D
2,
D
3
is not zero then the equations are inconsistent and have no
solution.
Homogeneous system : a
1
x + b
1
y + c
1
z = 0
a
2
x + b
2
y + c
2
z = 0
a
3
x + b
3
y + c
3
z = 0
(x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0) is always a solution of this system. This solution is called as the trivial solution
(or zero solution) of this system.
D = 0 this system has only the trivial solution.
D = 0 this system has nontrivial solutions (infinitely many solutions).
Three equation in two variables :
If x and y are not zero, then condition for a
1
x + b
1
y + c
1
= 0 ; a
2
x + b
2
y + c
2
= 0 &
a
3
x + b
3
y + c
3
= 0 to be consistent in x and y is
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
= 0.
Example # 19 : Find the nature of solution for the given system of equations.
x + 2y + 3z = 1
2x + 3y + 4z = 3
3x + 4y + 5z = 0
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Solution : Let D =
5 4 3
4 3 2
3 2 1
apply C
1
C
1
C
2
, C
2
C
2
C
3
D =
5 1 1
4 1 1
3 1 1



= 0 D = 0
Now, D
1
=
5 4 0
4 3 3
3 2 1
C
3
C
3
C
2
D
1
=
1 4 0
1 3 3
1 2 1
R
1
R
1
R
2
, R
2
R
2
R
3
D
1
=
1 4 0
0 1 3
0 1 2

= 5
D = 0 But D
1
= 0 Hence no solution
Example # 20 : Solve the following system of equations
x + y + z = 1
2x + 2y + 2z = 3
3x + 3y + 3z = 4
Solution : D =
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
= 0
D
1
= 0, D
2
= 0, D
3
= 0
Let z = t
x + y = 1 t
2x + 2y = 3 2t
Since both the lines are parallel hence no value of x and y Hence there is no solution of the
given equation.
Example # 21: Solve the following system of equations
x + y + z = 2
2x + 2y + 2z = 4
3x + 3y + 3z = 6
Solution : D =
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
= 0
D
1
= 0, D
2
= 0, D
3
= 0
All the cofactors of D, D
1
, D
2
and D
3
are all zeros, hence the system will have infinite solutions.
MATHS
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21
Let z = t
1
, y = t
2
x = 2 t
1
t
2
where t
1
, t
2
e R.
Example # 22 Consider the following system of equations
x + y + z = 6
x + 2y + 3z = 10
x + 2y + z =
Find values of and if such that sets of equation have
(i) unique solution (ii) infinite solution
(iii) no solution
Solution : x + y + z = 6
x + 2y + 3z = 10
x + 2y + z =
D =
2 1
3 2 1
1 1 1
Here for = 3 second and third rows are identical hence D = 0 for = 3.
D
1
=
2
3 2 10
1 1 6
D
2
=
1
3 10 1
1 6 1
D
3
=
2 1
10 2 1
6 1 1
If = 3 then D
1
= D
2
= D
3
= 0 for = 10
(i) For unique solution D = 0
i.e. = 3
(ii) For infinite solutions
D = 0 = 3
D
1
= D
2
= D
3
= 0 = 10.
(iii) For no solution
D = 0 = 3
Atleast one of D
1
, D
2
or D
3
is non zero = 10.
Self practice problems
(*13) Solve the following system of equations
x + 2y + 3z = 1
2x + 3y + 4z = 2
3x + 4y + 5z = 3
(14) Solve the following system of equations
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22
x + 2y + 3z = 0
2x + 3y + 4z = 0
x y z = 0
(15) Solve: (b + c) (y + z) ax = b c, (c + a) (z + x) by = c a, (a + b) (x + y) cz = a b
where a + b + c = 0.
(16) Let 2x + 3y + 4 = 0 ; 3x + 5y + 6 = 0, 2x
2
+ 6xy + 5y
2
+ 8x + 12y + 1 + t = 0, if the system of
equations in x and y are consistent then find the value of t.
Answers : (13) x = 1 + t y = 2t z = t where t e R
(14) x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
(15) x =
c b
a b c

+ +
, y =
a c
a b c

+ +
, z =
b a
a b c

+ +
(16) t = 7
Application of determinants : Following examples of short hand writing large expressions are:
(i) Area of a triangle whose vertices are (x
r
, y
r
); r = 1, 2, 3 is:
D =
1
2
1 y x
1 y x
1 y x
3 3
2 2
1 1
If D = 0 then the three points are collinear.
(ii) Equation of a straight line passing through (x
1
, y
1
) & (x
2,
y
2
) is
1 y x
1 y x
1 y x
2 2
1 1
= 0
(iii) The lines: a
1
x + b
1
y + c
1
= 0........ (1)
a
2
x + b
2
y + c
2
= 0........ (2)
a
3
x + b
3
y + c
3
= 0........ (3)
are concurrent if,
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
= 0.
Condition for the consistency of three simultaneous linear equations in 2 variables.
(iv) ax + 2 hxy + by + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 represents a pair of straight lines if:
abc + 2 fgh af bg ch = 0 =
c f g
f b h
g h a
Singular & non singular matrix : A square matrix A is said to be singular or non-singular according
as |A| is zero or non-zero respectively.
Cofactor matrix & adjoint matrix : Let A = [a
ij
]
n
be a square matrix. The matrix obtained by
replacing each element of A by corresponding cofactor is called as
cofactor matrix of A, denoted as cofactor A. The transpose of cofactor
matrix of A is called as adjoint of A, denoted as adj A.
MATHS
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23
i.e. if A = [a
ij
]
n
then cofactor A = [c
ij
]
n
when c
ij
is the cofactor of a
ij
i & j.
Adj A = [d
ij
]
n
where d
ij
= c
ji
i & j.
Properties of cofactor A and adj A:
(a) A . adj A = |A| I
n
= (adj A) A where A = [a
ij
]
n
.
(b) |adj A| = |A|
n 1
, where n is order of A.
In particular, for 3 3 matrix, |adj A| = |A|
2
(c) If A is a symmetric matrix, then adj A are also symmetric
matrices.
(d) If A is singular, then adj A is also singular.
Example # 23 : For a 33 skew-symmetric matrix A, show that adj A is a symmetric matrix.
Solution : A =
(
(
(

0 c b
c 0 a
b a 0
cof A =
(
(
(

2
2
2
a ab ca
ab b bc
ca bc c
adj A = (cof A)' =
(
(
(

2
2
2
a ab ca
ab b bc
ca bc c
which is symmetric.
Inverse of a matrix (reciprocal matrix) :
Let A be a non-singular matrix. Then the matrix
| A |
1
adj A is the
multiplicative inverse of A (we call it inverse of A) and is denoted by A
1
.
We have A (adj A) = |A| I
n
= (adj A) A
A
|
|
.
|

\
|
A adj
| A |
1
= I
n
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
A adj
| A |
1
A, for A is non-singular
A
1
=
| A |
1
adj A.
Remarks :
1. The necessary and sufficient condition for existence of inverse of A is that A is non-singular.
2. A
1
is always non-singular.
3. If A = dia (a
11
, a
22
, ....., a
nn
) where a
ii
= 0 i, then A
1
= diag (a
11
1
, a
22
1
, ...., a
nn
1
).
4. (A
1
)' = (A')
1
for any non-singular matrix A. Also adj (A') = (adj A)'.
5. (A
1
)
1
= A if A is non-singular.
6. Let k be a non-zero scalar & A be a non-singular matrix. Then (kA)
1
=
k
1
A
1
.
7. |A
1
| =
| A |
1
for |A| = 0.
MATHS
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24
8. Let A be a non-singular matrix. Then AB = AC B = C & BA = CA B= C.
9. A is non-singular and symmetric A
1
is symmetric.
10. (AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
if A and B are non- singular.
11. In general AB = 0 does not imply A = 0 or B = 0. But if A is non-singular and AB = 0, then B = 0.
Similarly B is non-singular and AB = 0 A = 0. Therefore, AB = 0 either both are singular or one of
them is 0.
Example # 24 : For two non-singular matrices A & B, show that adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A)
Solution : We have (AB) (adj (AB)) = |AB| I
n
= |A| |B| I
n
A
1
(AB)(adj (AB)) = |A| |B| A
1
B adj (AB) = |B| adj A ( A
1
=
| A |
1
adj A)
B
1
B adj (AB) = |B| B
1
adj A
adj (AB) = (adjB) (adj A)
Self practice problems :
(17) If A is non-singular, show that adj (adj A) = |A|
n 2
A.
(18) Prove that adj (A
1
) = (adj A)
1
.
(19) For any square matrix A, show that |adj (adj A) | =
2
) 1 n (
| A |

.
(20) If A and B are non-singular matrices, show that (AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
.
System of linear equations & matrices : Consider the system
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ .......... + a
1n
x
n
= b
1
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ ..........+ a
2n
x
n
= b
2
.................................................
a
m1
x
1
+ a
m2
x
2
+ ..........+ a
mn
x
n
= b
n
.
Let A =
(
(
(
(

mn 2 m 1 m
n 2 22 21
n 1 12 11
a .......... a a
..... .......... ..... .....
a .......... a a
a .......... a a
, X =
(
(
(
(

n
2
1
x
....
x
x
& B =
(
(
(
(
(
(

n
2
1
b
...
...
b
b
.
Then the above system can be expressed in the matrix form as AX = B.
The system is said to be consistent if it has atleast one solution.
System of linear equations and matrix inverse:
If the above system consist of n equations in n unknowns, then we have AX = B where A is a square
matrix.
Results : (1) If A is non-singular, solution is given by X = A
1
B.
(2) If A is singular, (adj A) B = 0 and all the columns of A are not proportional, then the
system has infinitely many solutions.
MATHS
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25
(3) If A is singular and (adj A) B = 0, then the system has no solution
(we say it is inconsistent).
Homogeneous system and matrix inverse :
If the above system is homogeneous, n equations in n unknowns, then in the matrix form it is AX = O.
( in this case b
1
= b
2
= ....... b
n
= 0), where A is a square matrix.
Resul ts : (1) If A is non-singular, the system has only the trivial solution (zero solution) X = 0
(2) If A is singular, then the system has infinitely many solutions (including the trivial
solution) and hence it has non-trivial solutions.
Rank of a matrix :
Let A = [a
ij
]
mn
. A natural number is said to be the rank of A if A has a non-singular
submatrix of order and it has no non-singular submatrix of order more than . Rank
of zero matrix is regarded to be zero.
eg. A =
(
(
(

0 5 0 0
0 2 0 0
5 2 1 3
we have
(

2 0
2 3
as a non-singular submatrix.
The square matrices of order 3 are
(
(
(

5 0 0
2 0 0
2 1 3
,
(
(
(

0 0 0
0 0 0
5 1 3
,
(
(
(

0 5 0
0 2 0
5 2 3
,
(
(
(

0 5 0
0 2 0
5 2 1
and all these are singular. Hence rank of A is 2.
Elementary row transformation of matrix :
The following operations on a matrix are called as elementary row transformations.
(a) Interchanging two rows.
(b) Multiplications of all the elements of row by a nonzero scalar.
(c) Addition of constant multiple of a row to another row.
Note : Similar to above we have elementary column transformations also.
Remarks :
1. Elementary transformation of a matrix does not affect its rank.
2. Two matrices A & B are said to be equivalent if one is obtained from other using elementary
transformations. We write A ~ B.
Echelon form of a matrix : A matric is said to be in Echelon form if it satisfy the followings:
(a) The first non-zero element in each row is 1 & all the other elements in
the corresponding column (i.e. the column where 1 appears) are zeroes.
(b) The number of zeroes before the first non zero element in any non zero
row is not more than the number of such zeroes in succeeding rows.
MATHS
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Result : Rank of a matrix in Echelon form is the number of non zero rows (i.e. number of rows with
atleast one non zero element.)
Remark : To find the rank of a given matrix we may reduce it to Echelon form using elementary row
transformations and then count the number of non zero rows.
System of linear equations & rank of matrix :
Let the system be AX = B where A is an m n matrix, X is the n-column vector & B is the m-column
vector. Let [AB] denote the augmented matrix (i.e. matrix obtained by accepting elements of B as n
+ 1
th
column & first n columns are that of A). (A) denote rank of A and ([AB]) denote rank of the
augmented matrix.
Clearly (A) s ([AB]).
Resul ts : (1) If (A) < ([AB]) then the system has no solution (i.e. system is inconsistent).
(2) If (A) = ([AB]) = number of unknowns, then the system has unique solution.
(and hence is consistent)
(3) If (A) = ([AB]) < number of unknowns, then the systems has infinitely many solutions
(and so is consistent).
Homogeneous system & rank of matrix :
Let the homogenous system be AX = 0, m equations in 'n' unknowns. In this case B = 0 and so (A)
= ([AB]). Hence if (A) = n, then the system has only the trivial solution. If (A) < n, then the system
has infinitely many solutions.
Example # 25 : Solve the system
1 z y x 2
2 z y x
6 z y x
= +
= +
= + +
using matrix inverse.
Solution : Let A =
(
(
(

1 1 2
1 1 1
1 1 1
, X =
(
(
(

z
y
x
& B =
(
(
(

1
2
6
.
Then the system is AX = B.
|A| = 6. Hence A is non singular.
Cofactor A =
(
(
(

2 0 2
1 3 2
3 3 0
adj A =
(
(
(

2 1 3
0 3 3
2 2 0
A
1
=
| A |
1
adj A =
6
1
(
(
(

2 1 3
0 3 3
2 2 0
=
(
(
(

3 / 1 6 / 1 2 / 1
0 2 / 1 2 / 1
3 / 1 3 / 1 0
MATHS
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27
X = A
1
B =
(
(
(

3 / 1 6 / 1 2 / 1
0 2 / 1 2 / 1
3 / 1 3 / 1 0
(
(
(

1
2
6
i.e.
(
(
(

z
y
x
=
(
(
(

3
2
1
x = 1, y = 2, z = 3.
Example # 26 : Test the consistency of the system
8. z 4y 2x
1 3z 3y x
3 z y x
1 2z x y
= + +
= +
= + +
= +
. Also find the solution, if any..
Solution : A =
(
(
(
(

1 4 2
3 3 1
1 1 1
2 1 1
X =
(
(
(

z
y
x
, B =
(
(
(
(

8
1
3
1
[AB] =
(
(
(
(

8 1 4 2
1 3 3 1
3 1 1 1
1 2 1 1
~
(
(
(
(

6 3 6 0
2 1 2 0
2 1 2 0
1 2 1 1
1 4 4
1 3 3
1 2 2
R 2 R R
R R R
R R R



~
(
(
(
(

1 2 / 1 1 0
1 2 / 1 1 0
1 2 / 1 1 0
1 2 1 1
4 4
3 3
2 2
R
6
1
R
R
2
1
R
R
2
1
R

~
(
(
(
(

0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 2 / 1 1 0
2 2 / 3 0 1
2 4 4
2 3 3
2 1 1
R R R
R R R
R R R


+
This is in Echelon form.
(AB) = 2 = (A) < number of unknowns
Hence there are infinitely many solutions n = 1.
Hence we can take one of the variables any value and the rest in terms of it.
Let z = r, where r is any number.
Then x y = 1 2r
x + y = 3 r
x =
2
r 3 4
& y =
2
r 2 +
Solutions are (x, y, z) = |
.
|

\
| +
r ,
2
r 2
,
2
r 3 4
.
MATHS
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28
Self practice problems:
(21) A =
(
(
(

1 1 3
3 2 1
2 1 0
. Find the inverse of A using |A| and adj A.
(22) Find real values of and so that the following systems has
(i) unique solution (ii) infinitely many solutions (iii) No solution.
x + y + z = 6
x + 2y + 3z = 1
x + 2y + z =
(23) Find so that the following homogeneous system have a non zero solution
x + 2y + 3z = x
3x + y + 2z = y
2x + 3y + z = z
Answers : (21)
2
1
1
2
1
2
3
3
2
1
2
5
4
2
1

(22) (i) = 3, e R (ii) = 3, = 1 (iii) = 3, = 1 (23) = 6

Characteristic polynomial & characteristic equation :
Let A be a square matrix. Then the polynomial | A xI | is called as characteristic polynomial of A &
the equation | A xI | = 0 is called as characteristic equation of A.
Cayley - Hamilton theorem : Every square matrix A satisfies its characteristic equation
i.e. a
0
x
n
+ a, x
n 1
+ ........ + a
n 1
x + a
n
= 0 is the characteristic equation of A, then
a
0
A
n
+ a
1
A
n 1
+ ......... + a
n 1
A + a
n
I = 0
Example # 27 : If A =
(
(
(

1 0 0
0 1 2
0 2 1
, show that 5A
1
= AA
2
+ A 5I.
Solution : We have the characteristic equation of A.
| A xI | = 0
i.e.
(
(
(

x 1 0 0
0 x 1 2
0 2 x 1
= 0
i.e. x
3
+ x
2
5x 5 = 0.
Using Cayley - Hamilton theorem.
A
3
+ A
2
5A 5I = 0 5I = A
3
+ A
2
5A
Multiplying by A
1
, we get
5A
1
= A
2
+ A 5I
Nilpotent matrix :
A square matrix A is said to be nilpotent ( of order 2) if, A
2
= O. A square matrix is said to be nilpotent
of order p, if p is the least positive integer such that A
p
= O.
MATHS
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29
Idempotent matrix :
A square matrix A is said to be idempotent if, A
2
= A.
e.g.
(

1 0
0 1
is an idempotent matrix.
Involutory matrix :
A square matrix A is said to be involutory if A
2
= I, I being the identity matrix.
e.g. A =
(

1 0
0 1
is an involutory matrix.
Orthogonal matrix :
A square matrix A is said to be an orthogonal matrix if,
A' A = I = AA'.
Example # 28 : Show that a square matrix A is involutory, iff (I A) (I + A) = 0
Solution : Let A be involutory
Then A
2
= I
(I A) (I +A) = II + IA AI A
2
= I + A A A
2
= I A
2
= 0
Conversly, let (I A) (I + A) = 0
II + IA AI A
2
= 0
I + A A A
2
= 0
I A
2
= 0
A is involutory
Self practice problems
(24) If A is idempotent, show that B = I A is idempotent and that AB = BA = 0.
(25) If A is a nilpotent matrix of index 2, show that A (I + A)
n
= A for all n e N.
(26) A is a skew symmetric matrix, such that A
2
+ I = 0. Show that A is orthogonal and is of even
order.
(27) Let A =
(
(
(

0 a b
a 0 c
b c 0
. If AA
3
+ A = 0, find .
Answer (4) a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
.